Jupiter issolar systemThe planet that is the fifth closest to the sun in the middle is also the largest planet in the solar system.
The ancients had known this planet for a long time, and the RomansMain GodJupiterName this planet.Ancient ChinaJupiter is called Nian Star, and its orbit around the celestial sphere[19]One week is about 12 years, which is the same reason as the local branch.In the Western Han Dynasty, "Records of the Historian"Heavenly Official Letter》AuthorSima QianIt is found from actual observation that the old star is cyan, which is associated with the theory of "five elements" and is officially named "Jupiter"。
Looking at Jupiter from the Earth,Apparent magnitudeIt can reach up to -2.94, and can already cast shadows on the ground.Jupiter is the successorMoonAfter Venus, it is the third object in the average brightness of the night sky (Mars can temporarily surpass Jupiter's brightness when it is at a specific point in its orbit).
Jupiter is aGiant planetThe mass is one thousandth of that of the sun, but it is 2.5 times of the total mass of other planets in the solar system.Jupiter's main component is hydrogen, but helium, which only accounts for one tenth of the molecular weight, accounts for one fourth of the total mass;It may have a rock core andHeavy elementHowever, there is no solid surface that can be clearly defined.Due to its rapid rotation, Jupiter's appearance appearsOblate sphere。atmosphereThey form different regional zones according to latitude, and turbulence and storms act at the junction of each other.The most obvious example isGreat erythemaThis is a huge storm that has never stopped since it was first seen by telescopes in the 17th century.Around Jupiter, there are faintPlanetary ringAnd powerfulMagnetosphere, including four discovered in 1610Galileo satelliteAs of February 2023, Jupiter has 92 known satellites[22-23]。GanymedeIs the largest one, whose diameter is larger than that ofMercury。
Jupiter, woodcut collection edited by Gude Bonati in 1550
Jupiter, because it is easy to see with the naked eye at night, whenSun positionIt can be seen occasionally in the daytime when it is very low, so it has been known since ancient times.stayBabylonThis celestial body represents their godMarduk（Marduk）。They used Jupiter's orbit around the ecliptic for about 12 years to define their zodiac house.The Romans named it Jupiter according to myth（Latin：Iuppiter, IūPiter, also known as Jove), isRoman mythThe main god in the Middle Kingdom, whose name comes from the primitiveIndo EuropeanOfvocativeComposite * Dyēu-pəter（nominative：*Dyēus-pətēr. It means "O God's Father" or "O God's Father").In contrast, Jupiter corresponds toMYTHOSyesZeus（Ζεύς），Also known as Dias（Δίας），The names of the planets still remain in the modernGreekMedium.In English, Thursday（Thursday）It comes from "Thor Day"（Thor's day)Germanicmyth.Compared with Roman mythologyJupiter。Jovis in Rome on Thursday was also renamed "Thursday".
In the Chinese, Japanese and Korean languages, based on the five elements of China, this planet is called Jupiter.Li ShangyinIn Mawei, the "Ji" in the sentence "How the Fourth Ji was the Son of Heaven, not as good as Mo Chou in the Lu Family" is Jupiter'sRevolution period。Chinese Taoism personifies it asFuxing。In Vedic astrology, Jupiter is calledSacrifice the Master Immortal(Brihaspati), a religious teacher who inspires spirituality, is usually called Guru, which literally means "valuing people".stayTurkicIn myth, Jupiter is called "Erendiz/Erent ü z".
Research
Life Possibility
In 1953,Miller-Yuri experiment proves that lightning andEarth's atmosphereThe combination of compounds in can form organic matter (includingamino acid）, which can be used as lifefootstone。This simulatedAtmospheric compositionAre water, methane, ammonia and hydrogen molecules;All of these substances are found in the atmosphere of Jupiter today.Jupiter's atmosphere has a strong vertical air flow, carrying these compounds into lower regions.But the higher temperature inside Jupiter will decompose these chemicals, which will hinder the formation of life similar to Earth.[16]
Astronomical data
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Motion&Track
Revolution and rotation
Animation taken when Voyager 1 approached Jupiter
The common center of mass of Jupiter and the sun is actually located 1.07 times the sun's radius away from the sun's center - or 7% of the sun's radius away from the sun's surface.The average distance from Jupiter to the sun is 778 million kilometers (about 5.2 times the distance from Earth to the sun, or 5.2Astronomical unit）It takes 11.8 Earth years to orbit the sun.This is two fifths of Saturn's revolution period, which means that 5:2 resonance is formed between the two largest planets in the solar systemOrbital period。JupiterElliptical orbitbe relative toEarth orbitTilt 1.31 ° becauseEccentricity0.048, so perihelion andApohelionThe distance difference is 75 million kilometers.Jupiteraxial tilt Compared with Earth and Mars, it is very small, only 3.13 °, so there is no obvious seasonal change.Jupiter's rotation is the fastest of all planets in the solar system, and it takes less than 10 hours to complete a rotation on its axis;This causedEquatorial upliftIt can be easily seen from the earth with a small amateur telescope.This planet isOblate sphere, which means its equatorDiameter ratioThe diameter between the two poles is long.Jupiter's equatorial diameter is 9275 kilometers longer than the diameter through the poles.[4]Because Jupiter has no solid surface, the upper atmosphere hasPoor autorotation。Rotation of Jupiter's polar atmosphereCycle ratioThe equator is about 5 minutes long, and there are three systems as reference frames, especially in the description ofAtmospheric motionCharacteristics of.System I is applicable to the latitude range from 10 ° N to 10 ° S, which is the shortest 9 hours, 50 minutes and 30.0 seconds.System II is applicable to all latitudes from south to north, and its cycle is 9 hours, 55 minutes and 40.6 seconds.System III was first defined by radio astronomy, corresponding toPlanetary magnetosphereAnd its period is the rotation of JupiterRotation period。
Satellites&Halos
satellite
Io、Europa、Ganymede、GanymedeIn 1610, it wasGalileoDiscovered by telescope, calledGalileo satellite。In 1892 Barnard discoveredEuropaOther satellites were discovered successively by photographic method after 1904.VoyagerThe spaceship was discovered in 1979Ganymede XIVIn 1980Ganymede 15andGanymede 16。Except for four Galileo satellites, most of the other satellites have a radius of several kilometers to 20 kilometers.Ganymede, with a radius of 2631 kilometers, is the largest satellite with a diameter greater thanMercury。Europa may have a liquid ocean.The orbits of Jupiter's four Galilean moons and Ganymede are almost on the equatorial plane of Jupiter.[5]
Galileo satellites, from left to right, are Io, Europa, Ganymede and Ganymede
Jupiter is moving graduallyGeostrophic changeSlow.SameTidal forceIt also changed the orbit of the satellites, making them gradually move away from Jupiter.Io, Europa, and Ganymede are affected by the tide generating forceTrack resonanceFixed at 1:2:4 and changed together.Ganymede is also a part of this. In the next few hundred million years, Ganymede will also be locked, running at twice the revolution cycle of Ganymede and eight times that of Io.
Jupiter has many moons, 79 of which have been found in 2018. The moons of Jupiter are named after the people Zeus has touched in his life (mostly his lovers).They are roughly divided into three groups: first, the anterogradeRegular satellite, the closest to Jupiter, Ganymede 16, Ganymede 14, Ganymede 5, Ganymede 15 and four Galilean satellites in orbitEccentricityBoth are less than 0.01.Second, the smoothIrregular satellite, a group slightly away from Jupiter, includingGanymede XIII、Ganymede、EuropaandEuropaThe eccentricity is 0.11~0.21.Third, retrograde irregular satellites, the farthest group from Jupiter, includeGanymede 12、Ganymede 11、EuropaandEuropaThe eccentricity is 0.17~0.38.
On February 3, 2023, the media reported that astronomers found 12 new satellites around Jupiter, bringing the total number to a record 92.[23]
Jupiter's satellite group
Regular satellite
Medial group
The four small satellites on the inner side have a diameter of less than 200 kilometers, an orbit radius of less than 200000 kilometers, and an orbit inclination of less than 0.5 degrees.
fromGalileoandSimon Marius The four satellites discovered at the same time have orbits ranging from 400000 km to 2000000 km, some of which are larger satellites in the solar system.
Irregular satellite
Samis group
This is a group of single satellites, whose orbit lies in the middle of the way between Galileo satellite and Himalia group.
Himalian group
A compact ethnic group with an orbital distance of 11 million to 12 million kilometers.
Kapp group
Another group of single satellites, on the inner edge of the Yanangke group, revolves around the wood in a forward direction.
Ananke group
The retrograde satellite group has a rather fuzzy boundary, with an average distance of 21276000 kilometers from Jupiter and an average orbital inclination of 149 degrees.
Garni Group
A rather obvious retrograde satellite group, with an average distance of 23404000 kilometers from Jupiter and an average orbital inclination of 165 degrees.
Parsifar Group
Decentralized retrograde satellite clusters with ambiguous characteristics cover all outermost satellites.
Planetary ring
Schematic diagram of Jupiter ring composition
Jupiter has a ring like Saturn, but it is small and weak.As early as 1974Pioneer 11When the probe visited Jupiter, it observed high energy at about 130000 kilometers away from Jupitercharged particleAbsorption characteristics.Two years later, it was suggested that this phenomenon could be explained by the existence of dust rings in Jupiter.Unfortunately, no one made further efforts at that timequantitative study To infer thephysical property。The discovery of Jupiter's rings was completely unexpected, only because two Voyager 1 scientists insisted that they should go to see if there were rings.Others think that the possibility of discovering the halo is zero, but in factJupiter RingIt exists.In March 1979,Voyager 1When the probe crossed the equatorial plane of Jupiter, the narrow angle camera it carried took a picture of the very dim Jupiter ring 1.2 million kilometers away from Jupiter.Arrived in July of the same yearVoyager 2More information about Jupiter's rings was obtained, which confirmed this conclusion.
Jupiter RingIts shape is like a thin disk, its thickness is about 30 kilometers, its width is about 9400 kilometers, and it is 128300 kilometers away from Jupiter.The ring is divided into an inner ring and an outer ring. The outer ring is bright, and the inner ring is dark, almost connecting with Jupiter's atmosphere.HaloidSpectral typeType G, the ring also revolves around Jupiter, turning once every 7 hours.According to the study of the pictures taken by the spacecraft, it is now known that Jupiter's ring system is mainly composed ofBright ring、Dark ringAnd halo.The bright ring has an extremely thin halo outside the dark ringDust cloudThe thickness of the bright ring and the dark ring is no more than 30 kilometers. The bright ring is about 130000 kilometers away from the center of Jupiter and 600 kilometers wide.The dark ring is on the inner side of the bright ring, with a width of up to 50000 kilometers, and its inner edge is almost connected with Jupiter's atmosphere.Bright ringedOpacityIt is very low, and its annuli can only intercept about one ten thousandth of the sunlight.Near the outer edge of the bright ring, there is a bright band about 700 kilometers wide, which is about 10% brighter than the rest of the ring. The brightness of the dark ring is only a fraction of that of the bright ring.The extension range of halo can reachtorus10000 kilometers up and down, which extends to the extreme on both sides of the dark ringFar pointThe outer boundary is slightly farther than the bright ring.It is estimated that the size of annular particles is about 2 microns, which can really be regarded as particles.Because of the radiation pressureMicrometeoriteThe life span of impact and other causes is much shorter than that of the solar system.In order to prove that the Jupiter ring is a relatively stable structure, several possible complementary sources of ring particles have been proposed to maintain the dynamic stability of the number of small dust particles.
If the halos are to remain in shape, they need to be constantly replenished.The two stars revolve in the haloSmall satellite：Ganymede 16andGanymede XVIIIs the best candidate for the source of halo material.The poles of Jupiter have auroras, which seem to come from IoVolcano eruptionThe material coming out along JupiterGravitational lineFormed by entering Jupiter's atmosphere.Jupiter has rings, and the ring system is the solar systemGiant planetThey are mainly composed of black crushed stones and snow masses.Jupiter's halo is hard to observeSaturnIt's so spectacular, but it can also be divided into four circles.Jupiter RingIt is about 9400 kilometers wide, but less than 30 kilometers thick. It takes about 7 hours for the ring to rotate around Jupiter.GalileoThe spacecraft's exploration of Jupiter's atmosphere found that there was another strong radiation belt between Jupiter's halo and the outermost atmosphere, roughly equivalent tothe ionosphereThe radiation belt is ten times stronger.
Infrared photos of Jupiter taken by the Very Large Telescope of the European Southern Observatory
In 1610,Galileo Galilei (Galileo di Vincenzo Bonaulti de Galilei) andSimon Marius (Simon Marius) independently discovered four large satellites (Galileo satellite) of Jupiter, which was the first time to discover a satellite that did not belong to the Earth, and also the first time to discover a celestial body that apparently did not move around the Earth.That's rightNicolaus Copernicus （Mikołaj Kopernik）Heliocentric theoryThe main support was Galileo's outspoken support for Copernicus, which made him under the threat of the church.In the 1660s,Giovanni Domenico Cassini (Giovanni Domenico Cassini) used a new telescope to discover Jupiter's spots and colored zones, and observed that the planet appeared flat;It is flat at the two poles.He also estimated the rotation period of the planet.In 1690, Cassini found that the atmosphere experienced a poor rotation.The Great Red Spot is a remarkable goose egg shaped feature in Jupiter's southern hemisphere, which may have beenRobert Hooke (Robert Hook) and Cassini observed it in 1665;Although this is still controversial.The earliest known drawing comes from the pharmacist Samuel Heinrich Schwabe, who showed the detailed information of erythema macroderma in 1831.It is said that the Great Red Spot became very prominent in 1878 and disappeared from sight on many occasions from 1665 to 1708.In 1883 and the early 20th century, it was once again recorded as declining.Giovanni Alfondo·Borelli (Giovanni Alfonso Borelli) and Cassini carefully made the motion table of Jupiter's satellites, which can predict the time when these satellites pass in front of or behind Jupiter.In the 1670s, it was observed that when Jupiter and the Earth were on both sides relative to the sun, the satellite motion events would occur 17 minutes slower than predicted.DenmarkastronomerOle Rmer (Ole R ø mer) infers that what he sees is not something that happens immediately (Cassini had previously rejected such a conclusion), and this time difference can be used to estimate the speed of light.In 1892,Edward Emerson Barnard (Edward Emerson Barnard)CaliforniauseLick Observatory 36-inch(910 mm)Refracting telescopeThe fifth moon of Jupiter was observed.The discovery of this relatively small satellite proved his keen eyesight and made him famous quickly.This satellite was later namedEuropa（Amalthea）。This is the last planetary satellite discovered by human vision, and all subsequent satellites were found from the photos.
In 1932, Rupert Walter based Jupiter'sabsorption spectrumIt was determined that Jupiter's atmosphere contained methane and ammonia.In 1938, three long-lived white goose egg shaped anticyclones were observed.For decades, they have been the characteristics of Jupiter's atmosphere independently, sometimes close to each other, but never merged.Finally, the two were merged in 1998, and the third was absorbed in 2000, known as the oblong BA.In 1955, Barnabock and Kenneth Franklin detected 22.2MHz wireless from Jupiterelectrical signalBurst.These bursts match the rotation period of Jupiter and can also be used to improve the rotation rate.It is found that there are two forms of radio bursts from Jupiter: a long burst (L burst) lasting several seconds and a short burst (S burst) lasting less than one hundredth of a second.
Scientists found that the radio signals from Jupiter have three forms of transmission: first, 10 meter radio bursts (10 meter wavelengthradio waves）And is subject to Io and Jupiter's magnetic fieldInteractionImpact.The second, centimeter radio radiation (radio waves with a wavelength of centimeter) was firstFrank Drake(Fank Drake) and Hein Hvatum.This signal originates from the circular band near the equator of Jupiter, which is the cyclotron radiation caused by accelerated electrons in Jupiter's magnetic field.ThirdRadiant heatIt is produced by heat in the atmosphere.
NASA launched thePioneer 10 Detector, this is the first emissary to detect Jupiter, which passes through dangerousAsteroid beltAnd the strength around JupiterRadiation zoneAfter one year and nine months, with a journey of 1 billion kilometers, it first flew to Jupiter in October 1973, detected Jupiter's massive magnetosphere, studied Jupiter's atmosphere and sent back more than 300 Jupiter images.In April 1973, the United States launchedPioneer 11 The probe, which arrived at Jupiter on December 5, 1974, is only 46000 kilometers away from the surface of Jupiter, which is closer than Pioneer 10.Sent back information about Jupiter's magnetic field, radiation belt, neutral, temperatureAtmospheric structureAnd observed the south pole of Jupiter.
Voyager probe
Voyager 1
On August 20 and September 5, 1977, the United States launchedVoyager 2andVoyager 1Detectors These two sister detectors follow two differentOrbital flight。One hundred days after launch, Voyager 1 overtook Voyager 2 and arrived earlyJupiter exploration。On March 5, 1979, Voyager 1 met Jupiter at 275000 kilometers away from Jupiter, took thousands of pictures of Jupiter and its satellites and sent them back to Earth.Through these photos, we can find that there is also a ring around Jupiter, and we can also detect volcanic eruptions on Jupiter's satellite.Voyager 2 arrived near Jupiter on July 9, 1979, passed between Jupiter and its moons, and took thousands of photos at 720000 kilometers away from Jupiter.[10]
Galileo probe
GalileoThe probe was launched in 1989 and reached the orbit around Jupiter in December 1995.It traveled 2.8 billion miles and its end date was six years later than originally expected.Galileo orbited Jupiter 34 times, obtained first-hand detection data about Jupiter's atmosphere, and put a probe on Jupiter in 1995.It found Jupiter's moonsEuropa、Ganymede、GanymedeThere is a salt water ocean under the surface ofJupiter satelliteThere is a violent volcanic eruption.
Galileo Jupiter probe
The first task of Galileo is to study the Jupiter system for two years. In fact, Galileo entered the orbit of Jupiter in 1995 and crashed in 2003. It has worked in Jupiter for eight years.It orbits Jupiter, making one revolution in about two months.At different positions of Jupiter, the data of its magnetosphere are obtained.In addition, its orbit is also reserved for close rangeObservation satelliteOn December 7, 1997, it began to carry out its additional mission, passing Io and Europa at close range for many times. The most recent one was on December 15, 2001, only 180 kilometers from the surface of the satellite.
In order to save fuel, Galileo was not sterilized. In order to avoid its contact with Europa, which may have life, the Galileo probe crashed into Jupiter on September 21, 2003, ending its nearly 14 years ofspace explorationCareer.This will be the first time since 1999 that NASA has controlled the probe to crash on a celestial body outside the Earth.[11]Galileo has made great contributions to the study of Jupiter's satellites.Before Galileo arrived at Jupiter, only 16 of Jupiter's moons were found.After Galileo arrived, it found many more satellites, making the number rise to 63.
Juno yesNASAXinjiang Boundary PlanA spacecraft bound for Jupiter.FromCape Canaveral Air BaseThe launch is scheduled to arrive in July 2016.The detector will be placed aroundPolar orbit, study the composition of Jupiterfield of gravity, magnetic field and magnetosphere and magnetic pole.Juno will also search for clues about how the planet was formed, including whether there is a rock core, the amount of water in the deep atmosphere, the distribution of mass, and the wind speed can reach 618Kilometers per hour(384Miles per hour）Depth of.
Juno detector
Juno detectorLaunched on August 5, 2011, accelerated to Jupiter on October 9, 2013 by using the gravitational slingshot, and reached the orbit of Jupiter on July 5, 2016 to carry out in-depth exploration of Jupiter.Since then, Juno has circled Jupiter about 32 times a year,[12]Detect the internal structure of Jupiter;Determining the atmospheric composition of Jupiter;Study JupiterAtmospheric convectionAnd discuss the origin of Jupiter's magnetic field and magnetosphere.Through its exploration, scientists hope to understand the formation, evolution and internal structure of Jupiter, a giant planet, as well as Jupiter's moons.[13]
James Weber Space Telescope Observations
Pictures of Jupiter captured by James Webb Space Telescope
August 22, 2022 local time, in the United StatesAerospaceThe official website of the bureau released the latest pictures of Jupiter captured by the James Webb Space Telescope.[20]
Impact event
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Comet Shoemaker Levy 9 impacts Jupiter
On March 24, 1993, American astronomers Eugene Merle Shoemaker, Carolyn Shoemaker andAstronomerDavid H. Levy, using the 46cmAstronomical telescopeFound a comet and named it after themComet Shoemaker Levy 9。This onecometMore than one year and two months after it was found, it broke into 21 pieces from July 16 to 22, 1994, the largest of which was about 4 kilometers wide at a speed of 60 kilometers per secondContinuous fireIt usually collides with Jupiter.[14]
The impact of Jupiter in 2009, photographed by the Hubble Space Telescope, is about 8000 kilometers long
On July 21, 2009,AustraliaAn amateurAstronomerAnthony Wesley, using 14.5 inches in his backyard at 1:00 a.mReflecting telescopeFound that Jupiter wascometperhapsasteroidThe impact left Earth sized impact marks on the surface of Jupiter.NASAJet Propulsion LaboratoryAt 9:00 p.m. on the 20th, Wesley's discovery was confirmed, and on the 21st, it was confirmed that Jupiter had encountered another impact from other stars in the past quite a short period of time, which made the south pole of Jupiter fall blackScar spotA hole the size of Earth appears in Jupiter's atmosphere above the impact site.[15]On June 3, 2010,AustraliaOfAmateur astronomerAstronomerObservedOneThe impact of comets caused less events than previously observed.Anotherthe PhilippinesAmateur astronomers also videotaped the event.
Geographical characteristics
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overview
Jupiter is a giantLiquid hydrogenStars.As the depth increases, at a depth of at least 5000 km from the surface,Liquid hydrogenAt high voltage andHigh temperature environmentLower formation.It is speculated that the center of Jupiter is asilicateIn the nuclear region composed of iron and other materials, the material composition and density are in continuous transition.Jupiter isGaseous planet(also known asJupiter like planet）, that is, a planet mainly composed of non solid matter, which issolar systemThe largest planet in the world, with an equatorial diameter of 142984 kilometers.Jupiter's density is 1.326g/cm³，It is the second gas planet, but it is far lower than the four in the solar systemterrestrial planet。
Mass size
The mass of Jupiter is 2.5 times that of other planets in the solar system. Because its mass is so hugecentroidIt falls outside the surface of the sun, 1.068 away from the sun centerSolar radius。Although Jupiter is 11 times the diameter of the Earth and 1321 times the volume of the Earth, it is very huge, but its density is very low, so the mass of Jupiter is only 318 times that of the Earth.The radius of Jupiter isSolar radiusOne tenth of, the quality is onlySolar massSo the density of the two is similar.Jupiter Mass (MJOr MJup）UsuallyBe treated asDescribe other celestial bodies (especially exoplanets andBrown dwarf）The mass unit of.So, for example, exoplanetsHD 209458 bThe mass of is 0.69MJup, andandromedaκThe quality of b is 12.8MJup。
theoretical modelIt shows that if Jupiter's mass is larger than today's, instead of 318 Earth masses, it will continue to shrink.A little change in mass will not make the radius of Jupiter change significantly, about 500Earth mass（1.6MJup）There will be obvious changes.Although with the increase of mass, the internal volume will shrink due to the increase of pressure.As a result, Jupiter is considered to be a star that has almost reached the maximum radius that can be determined by the planetary structure and evolution history.As the mass increases, the shrinkage process will continue until it reaches a perceptible levelStar formationQuality, about 50MJupHigh qualityBrown dwarf。
However, it takes 75 times the mass of Jupiter for hydrogen to fuse stably into a star.leastRed dwarfThe radius is only about 30% of that of Jupiter.Even so, Jupiter still emits more energy.It receives energy from the sun, and the energy generated inside is almost equal to the total energy received from the sun.This extra heat is caused byKelvin Helmholtz principleProduced by shrinking.This process causes Jupiter to shrink by about 2 cm each year.When Jupiter formed, it was slightly larger than the current observation.[5]
Jupiter image
atmosphere
JupiterUpper atmosphereIs determined by volume or gas moleculepercentage About 88%~92%hydrogenAnd about 7%~11% helium, and the remaining 1% is other gases.becauseHelium atomThe quality ofhydrogen atomThe proportion will change when discussing the mass composition of Jupiter:atmosphereinhydrogenAnd helium respectivelyTotal mass75% and 24%, and the remaining 1% are other gaseous substances, including tracemethane、steam, ammonia and silicon compounds.In addition, Jupiter also contains trace amounts of carbonethane、hydrogen sulfide, neon, oxygenphosphine, sulfur, etc.Having frozen ammonia in the outermost layer of the atmospherecrystal。Jupiter also passes throughinfraredandultraviolet raysTrace benzene and hydrocarbon were found during measurement.
JupiteratmosphereThe ratio of hydrogen and helium is very close to the originalSolar nebulaThe theoretical composition of theinert gasIt is two to three times that of the sun. The neon in the upper atmosphere only accounts for 20 parts per million of the total mass, about one tenth of the proportion of the sun. The helium is almost exhausted, but there are stillIn the sun80% of helium.This difference may be caused by the precipitation of elements into the interior of the planet.
fromspectroscopyIn terms of analysis,SaturnIt is considered to be the most similar to Jupiter in composition, but other gas planetsUranusAndNeptuneCompared withhydrogenAnd helium, because there is nospacecraftAccording to the analysis of actually penetrating into the atmosphere, there are still no planets except JupiterHeavy elementQuantitativeAccurate data。[5]
a bank of clouds
Jupiter has the largest planetary atmosphere in the solar system, spanning a height of more than 5000 kilometers.Since Jupiter has no solid surface, its atmospheric base is usually considered asatmospheric pressureIt is equal to 1MPa (10bar), or ten times the earth surface pressure.Jupiter's atmosphere is divided into four levels:troposphere、stratosphere、Warming layerandExosphere。Unlike Earth's atmosphere, Jupiter does notMesosphereWithout a solid surface, the troposphere at the bottom of the atmosphere smoothly converts into the fluid inside the planet.This is the temperature and pressure of hydrogen and heliumcritical pointThe result above means that there is no clear boundary between the phases of gas and liquid.[8]
JupiterAtmospheric compositionAccording to the number of molecules, 81% arehydrogen18% is helium, and 75% and 24% by mass respectively.Only about 1% of other gases, includingmethane、steam、ammoniaEtc.This is similar to the composition of the primordial solar nebula, the predecessor of the solar system, but the proportion of heavier elements in Jupiter is many times higher than that of the primordial solar nebula.Gas planetarySaturnSimilar composition, butUranusandNeptuneThere is much less hydrogen and helium in.Because Jupiter has strong internal energy, the temperature difference between its equator and poles is not much more than 3 ℃, so the north-south wind on Jupiter is very small, mainly east-west wind,Maximum wind speed130~150 m/s.Jupiter's atmosphere is full of dense and activeCloud system。Clouds of various colors were billowing violently like waves.Lightning andthunderstorm。Because of Jupiter's rapid rotation, it can be observed in its atmosphere parallel to the equator, alternating light and darkBanded patternOf whichBright bandIt is an upward moving area, and dark lines are lower and darker clouds.[9]
Simulated circular animation showing Jupiter's cloud belt motion with reverse rotation
There are red, brown, white and other colorful stripe patterns on the surface of Jupiter. It can be inferred that the wind direction in Jupiter's atmosphere is parallel to the equator, and the west wind and east wind are blowing alternately due to different regions, which is an obvious feature of Jupiter's atmosphere.The atmosphere containsmethane、acetyleneOrganic components, and there areThunderPhenomenon generationorganic compoundThe probability of is quite high.
The shrinking Jupiter's Great Red Spot (1995/2009/2014)
JupiterGreat erythemabe locatedSouth LatitudeAt 23 °, it is 20000 km long and 11000 km wide.The detector found that the Great Erythema was a mass of intense upward airflow, which was dark brown.This colorful cyclonecounter-clockwise directionRotate.There is a small particle in the center of the large erythema, which is the nucleus of the large erythema, and its size is about several hundred kilometers.This core remains stationary in the surrounding counterclockwise vortex movement.Great erythemaIts life span is very long, and it can last for hundreds of years or more.As early as 1665,ItalyAstronomer Cassini discovered it.The bright red of the great erythema is impressive, and the color seems to come fromphosphorus。[9]The rotation of erythema magna is counterclockwise, and the cycle is about six days.The length of the Great Red Spot is 24000 to 40000 kilometers, and the width is 12000 to 14000 kilometers.Its diameter is large enough to accommodate two to three Earths.This stormMaximum heightAbout 8 kilometers higher than the surrounding clouds.Storms usually occur inGiant planetatmosphereJupiter also has white and brownGoose egg shapeStorms, but the smaller ones are usually not named.White goose eggs tend to contain relatively cold clouds in the upper atmosphere.The brown goose egg shape is warmer and located in ordinary clouds.Such storms can last for only a few hours or centuries.
Surface geography
magnetic field
Jupiter's magnetic field is 14 times stronger than the Earth's, ranging from 4.2 at the equatorGaussian(0.42mT) topolar region10 to 14 gauss (1.0 to 1.4 mT), which issolar systemThe strongest magnetic field (exceptSunspot）。Surrounding the planet is weakPlanetary ringSystematic and powerfulMagnetosphere(Jupiter's magnetic field is very strong, and its magnetic field on the side away from the sun even extends to the orbit of Saturn).This field is considered to be generated by eddy current - swirling motionConductive material——CoreLiquid metal hydrogen。The volcanoes in Eo'o satellite release a large amount ofsulfur dioxide, forming alongSatellite orbitOfGas ring。These gases are ionized in the magnetosphere to generate sulfur and oxygen ions.They are associated withHydrogen ion, in Jupiter'sEquatorial planeformationPlasma sheet。These flakyplasmaRotate together with the planet, causing deformation into the magnetic field planeDipole magnetic field。The current in the plasma plate generates a strong radio signal, resulting in a range of 0.6 to 30MHzThe explosion of.
Jupiter magnetosphereIt has a large range and complex structure. The huge space between 1.4 million and 7 million kilometers away from Jupiter is Jupiter's magnetosphere;The magnetosphere of the earth is only within the range of 50000 to 70000 kilometers from the earth's core.Five of JupiterLarge satellite（IotoEuropa）[1]Are covered by Jupiter's magnetospheresolar windAttacks.There is a belt called Van Allen Belt around the earthradiation zoneThere are also such radiation belts around Jupiter.Voyager 1It is also found that the side of Jupiter facing away from the sun is 30000 kilometers longThe aurora borealis。In early 1981, whenVoyager 2Already left Jupiter and flewSaturnOn the way, he was once again affected by Jupiter's magnetic field.From this point of view, JupiterMagnetotailAt least 60 million kilometers away.
JupiterMagnetosphereThe distribution range is larger than that of the earthMagnetosphereIs more than 100 times larger than that in the solar systemMagnetosphere。becausesolar windandMagnetosphereLike the Earth, Jupiter also has auroras in the polar region, with an intensity about 100 times that of the Earth.[5]
Jupiter is moving towardCosmic spaceRelease huge energy.It emits twice as much energy as it receives from the sun.That means JupiterRelease energyHalf of it comes from inside.There is a heat source inside Jupiter.Some people think that its thermal energy may be formed byGravitational potential energyIt is transformed into liquid hydrogen and convection to the surface on a large scale.[1]The reason why the sun continuously emits a lot of light and heat is thatInside the SunAll the timenuclear fusionReaction, which releases a lot of energy in the process of nuclear fusion.Jupiter is a huge liquid hydrogen planet, which has incomparable naturalnuclear fuel, plus Jupiter'sCenter temperatureIt has reached 280000 K and is ready to carry outThermonuclear reactionHigh temperature conditions required.As for the high pressure conditions required for thermonuclear reaction, according to the contraction speed of Jupiter and the accretion characteristics of energy released to the sun and energy carrying particles, after several billion years of evolution, Jupiter's central pressure can reach the initial nuclear pressureReaction timeRequired pressure level.Jupiter is very similar to the sun in composition, but it doesn't burn like the sun because its mass is too small.To become a star like the sun, Jupiter needs to increase its mass by 80 times. According to astronomers' calculations, only if its mass is greater thanSolar massOnly 7% can carry out deuterium fusion reaction and emit light and heat.[7]
internal structure
Jupiter has a stone coreironandsiliconform.[1]The rock andhydrogenBlending ofparticulate matterThe composition has no clear boundary, and is surrounded by a layer of liquid metal hydrogen containing a small amount of helium, mainly hydrogen.The inner core is the gathering place of most planetary materialsLiquid hydrogenExists in the form of.The most common form basis on Jupiter may only exist under the pressure of 4 billion Pa, which is the environment inside Jupiter（SaturnAlso)Liquid metal hydrogenIt consists of ionized protons and electrons.Under the temperature and pressure inside Jupiter, hydrogen is liquid rather than gaseous, which makes it the electronic conductor and source of Jupiter's magnetic field. Jupiter's magnetic field intensity is about 10Gaussian, 10 times larger than the earth.It may also contain some helium and trace ice in this layer.Jupiter is also one of the strongest radio sources known in the sky.[6]
Schematic diagram of Jupiter's internal structure, pink area is metallic hydrogen
The temperature and pressure inside Jupiter steadily increase towards the core due to the Kelvin Helmholtz mechanism.At the "surface" with a pressure of 10 Pa, the temperature is about 340K (67 ℃; 152 ℉).In the region of hydrogen phase transition - the temperature reaches the critical point - hydrogen becomes a metal,Phase transition temperatureIt is 10000K (9700 ℃; 17500 ℉), and the pressure is 200GPa.The temperature at the core boundary is estimated to be 36000K (35700 ℃; 64300 ℉), and the internal pressure is about 3000~4500GPa.
temperature
The relationship between the vertical temperature change of Jupiter's atmosphere andEarth's atmosphereSimilarly, the temperature of the troposphere decreases with the increase of altitude, reachingTropopauseThe tropopause is the junction of the troposphere and the stratosphere.In Jupiter, the tropopause is about 50 kilometers above the visible cloud layer, where the pressure is 0.1 bar and the temperature is 110K;In the stratosphere, when turning to the warm layer, the temperature has risen to about 200K, the height is about 320km, and the pressure is 1 microbar;In the warming layer, the temperature continues to rise, reaching 1000K at about 1000km, where the pressure is about 1 naba.
Since the bottom boundary of the atmosphere cannot be determined, the place where the pressure is 10 bar is generally regarded as the lowest place in the troposphere, aboutpressureIt is about 90km below 1 bar, and the temperature is about 340K.stayscientific literatureIn, the place where the atmospheric pressure is 1 bar is regarded as the "surface" of Jupiter with height 0.Like the earth, at the top of the atmosphere,ExosphereThere is no clear boundary at the top of,density gradientGradually decrease until it turns smoothlyInterstellar matterThis is about 5000 km above the "surface".
JupiterThermogenic layerLocated at a pressure lower than 1 microbar, it can displayAirglowPhenomenon, aurora in polar region andX-rayRadiation.In its interior, there are several layers of electrons and ionsthe ionosphere。Thermosphere was first discovered outside the earthHydrogen positive ionThis ion is in the strongInfrared radiationAnd it is the main mechanism of thermosphere cooling.[18]
Meet the Earth
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Jupiter, the largest planet in the solar system, will run to this round on September 26, 2022Convergence periodThe nearest position to the earth.The "meeting" between Jupiter and Earth is about 3.95Astronomical unitAbout 591 million kilometers.Zijinshan Observatory, Chinese Academy of SciencesAccording to popular science experts, the conjunction cycle of Jupiter and the Earth is 399 days, or about 13 months. In each cycle, Jupiter and the Earth will meet once.[21]
Culture
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world record
Jupiter is the largest planet in the solar system, the shortest planet in a dayspacecraftVisitedouter planet, has the mostTrojan asteroids Of the planets, the most active volcanoes in the solar system, and the most dense satellites in the solar system. Jupiter has the mostMeteorite crater, the strongest magnetic field, the most powerful aurora in the solar system, the largestAnticyclonestorm.[17]（Guinness World Records）
Jupiter's equator has a diameter of 143884 kilometers, and its volume is more than 1000 times that of the Earth.(Guinness World Record for the Largest Planet Volume)。[25]
Astronomical observation
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On February 6, 2023, astronomers reported 12Jupiter satellite, increasing the number of known satellites of this gas planet to 92.Jupiter therefore has the most moons in the solar system.[24]
After dark on February 15, 2024 (Beijing time), people can see the astronomical landscape accompanied by the moon and Jupiter with the naked eye in the southwest sky, that is, the Jupiter moon associated celestial phenomenon.At that time, Jupiter will be at the lower left of the moon, and its brightness will reach - 2.3.[26]
From March 13 to March 15, 2024, after sunset, a crescent crescent moon is located in the western low altitude, passing JupiterUranusandPleiadesNearby.[27]
After the night of March, Mercury will be seen in the low sky near the west in the second half of the month, and Mercury will be far from the east on the 25th
In March 2024, Mercury will have three large distances to the east. March 25 is the first time and the best condition.At sunset, Mercury is in the northwest sky, the horizon height is close to 18 °, the brightness is about - 0.2, etc. At this time, the western sky is very busy, Jupiter, Uranus and the brightening Comet Ponce Brooks are also nearby.[28]
