Chemistry

[huà xué]

Natural Science Discipline

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Chemistry is a basic natural science that studies the composition, structure, properties, transformation and application of substances at the atomic and molecular levels. It originates from life and production practice, and along with human society Progress and continuous development.^[7]

Different from the smaller Particle physics And Nuclear physics , the material structure and Chemical bond 、 Intermolecular force The scale of such interaction is Microcosm The closest to the macro, so their natural law It is also related to human survival Macro world Physics chemical property It is most closely related. As a communication between micro and macro Material world Chemistry is one of the main methods and means for human beings to understand and transform the material world.

Chinese name: Chemistry
Foreign name: Chemistry

Major code: 0703
Category: Science and engineering

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Basic concepts

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definition

Chemistry

Chemistry studies at the atomic level material The composition, structure, nature and change law of natural science^[1] , this is also Chemical change The core foundation of. Chemistry is a natural science based on experiments. The word "chemistry" in Chinese, if only from Literal interpretation It is the science of natural and man-made changes. Like physics, chemistry is a natural science Basic Sciences 。

Mendeleev Proposed Chemistry periodic table of ele ments It has greatly promoted the development of chemistry. Now many people call chemistry“ Central science ”Because chemistry is the core of some scientific disciplines, such as material science 、 Nanotechnology 、 biochemistry Etc. There are five secondary disciplines under modern chemistry: inorganic chemistry 、 Organic chemistry Physical Chemistry analytical chemistry And Polymer Chemistry 。^[2]

characteristic

Chemistry is one of the important basic sciences. It is an experiment based discipline Earth science , astronomy and other disciplines have achieved rapid development through mutual penetration, and also promoted the development of other disciplines and technologies. For example, nucleic acid The achievements of chemical research have improved modern biology from the cellular level to the molecular level, and established molecular biology 。

Research object

Different from the smaller Particle physics And Nuclear physics The basic properties of elements, molecules, ions (clusters) and chemical bonds studied in chemistry are related to human survival Macro world The most closely related microcosm of matter and material in natural law 。 The universe is composed of matter, which serves as a link between micro and macro Material world Chemistry is one of the main methods and means for human beings to understand and transform the material world. It is a discipline with a long history and vitality, which is closely related to human progress and social development And its achievements are Social civilization Important signs of.

From the beginning of using fire Primitive society In the modern society where various artificial materials are used, human beings are enjoying chemical achievements. Human life can be constantly improved and improved, and the contribution of chemistry plays an important role in it.

research method

For all kinds of stars chemical composition Based on the analysis of Element distribution The law of Interstellar space In the presence of simple compounds Celestial evolution And modern cosmology experimental data 。 Chemistry plays an important role in our understanding and utilization of substances.

development history

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Origin of Chinese name

The Chinese word "chemistry" first appeared in 1856 (the sixth year of Xianfeng in the Qing Dynasty) "Geophysical Exploration" by Williamson^[8] The word "chemistry" is mentioned in. In 1857, A Wylie's publications in Shanghai《 Shanghai Serial 》^[9] In the "little quotation" of the issue number, it was written: "I am writing the book Liuhe Congtan today, and I also want to communicate the feelings of China and foreign countries, carry out far and near events Ancient and modern changes I will write an article on each month after seeing and hearing what I have caught. " He also said: "Recently, the westerners learned from this, they kept improving, advanced anecdotes, enlightened the mysteries of philosophy, and blazed new trails in nature. Today, we will give a brief outline: First, chemistry. Every word has its own quality, and its own changes. Based on sincerity, we can analyze it in detail, and know that there are 64 yuan, and the quality of this thing has not yet been achieved."

With the spread of Liuhe Congtan, the word "chemistry" began to be accepted by Chinese intellectuals. Since the 1860s, the term chemistry has also been widely used in Chinese publications, such as Jingshi Tongwen Hall Textbook "Introduction to Gewu" (1868)《 Chemistry Guidelines 》(1873), Chemical Interpretation (1882), etc. In particular, by John Fryer and Xu Shou China's first set of modern chemistry translated in 1870-1883 Basic theory "Chemistry" is used in the title of works, such as《 Chemical identification 》, Chemical Elements, Chemical Textual Research, Chemical Mathematics, etc. These textbooks and monographs have played a key role in popularizing the word "chemistry" in China^[2] 。

historical origin

The history of chemistry is very old. It can be said that the earliest chemical practice began when people learned to use fire. Our ancestors drilled wood to make fire, baked food with fire, warmed themselves in cold nights, drove away beasts, and made full use of the phenomenon of light and heat when burning. At that time, it was just an accumulation of experience. The formation of chemical knowledge and the development of chemistry have gone through a long and tortuous road. It is accompanied by human society Progress and development social development The inevitable result of. Its development promotes the development of productive forces and the advancement of history. The development of chemistry mainly goes through the following periods:

embryo

From ancient times to 1500 BC, human beings learned to make pottery from clay, burn metal from ore, brew wine from grain, and color silk, linen and other fabrics in the raging fire. These are the first to come through long-term exploration under the direct inspiration of practical experience Chemical process However, chemical knowledge has not yet been formed, which is just the embryonic stage of chemistry. In ancient times, Primitive human For their survival, they found and used fire in the struggle against various disasters in nature. Primitive humans began to use fire, from barbarism to civilization, and also began to understand and transform natural materials by chemical methods. Combustion is a chemical phenomenon. (The discovery and utilization of fire have improved the living conditions of human beings and made them smart and powerful.)

After mastering fire, humans began to eat cooked food; Then human beings have discovered some material changes, such as those found in emerald green Malachite etc. Copper ore When burning charcoal on it, there will be red copper. In China, the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period began to transform from a bronze society Cattle ploughing The social changes triggered by this promoted the development of chemistry.^[3]

In this way, in the process of gradually understanding and utilizing the changes of these substances, human beings have made great contributions to human beings use value Products. Human gradually learned to make pottery and smelt; Later I learned how to brew and dye. These products, processed and transformed from natural materials, become ancient civilization Logo of. On the basis of these production practices, ancient chemical knowledge germinated.

Pill Period

From about 1500 BC to 1650 AD, chemistry was used in alchemy alchemy Controlled by. In order to obtain the elixir of immortality or gold symbolizing wealth, alchemists and Alchemy The magicians began the earliest chemical experiments, and then books recording and summarizing alchemy also appeared one after another. Although the alchemists ended up in failure, they were refining Elixir of life In the process of exploring the method of "turning stone into gold", we realized the mutual transformation between substances by artificial methods, and accumulated many substances Chemical change It has accumulated rich practical experience for the development of chemistry.

At that time, the word "chemistry" meant "alchemy". But with the decline of alchemy and alchemy, people see more of its absurd and untrustworthy side.

Phlogiston period

This period, from 1650 to 1775, was the gestation period of modern chemistry. along with metallurgical industry And laboratory experience accumulation , people conclude perceptual knowledge To carry out theoretical research on chemical changes and make chemistry a branch of natural science. The beginning of this stage was marked by British chemists Boyle by chemical element Indicate scientific concepts. Then, chemistry borrowed Phlogiston theory Free from alchemy. Phlogiston Said that Combustible It can burn because it contains phlogiston, Combustion process Although this theory is wrong, it unifies a large number of chemical facts under one concept and explains many chemical phenomena.

During the more than one hundred years of the popularity of phlogiston theory, chemists have done a lot of experiments to explain various phenomena, discovered the existence of various gases, and accumulated more new knowledge about substance transformation. In particular, the phlogiston theory believes that chemical reaction is a process in which one substance transfers to another Conservation of matter These ideas laid the foundation of modern chemical thinking. This period not only made preparations for the development of modern chemistry in terms of scientific practice, but also in terms of ideology. This period became the breeding period of modern chemistry.

From the 16th century, Europe industrial production The vigorous rise has promoted the development of medical chemistry and metallurgy The creation and development of chemistry. Turn alchemy to life and practical application, and then pay more attention to materials Chemical change Own research. In the element's Scientific concepts After establishment, through the precision of combustion phenomenon experimental study , established scientific oxidation theory and Law of conservation of mass , and later established Constant ratio law 、 Multiple ratio law and Law of combined quantity And laid a foundation for the further scientific development of chemistry.

Modern chemistry

This period, from 1775 to 1900, is the period of modern chemistry development. Around 1775, Lavoisier used quantitative chemical experiments to explain the Oxidation theory , ushered in the period of quantitative chemistry, and made chemistry develop along the right track. At the beginning of the 19th century, British chemists Dalton Put forward modern times Atomic theory , highlighted that the atomic mass of various elements is its most basic feature, and the introduction of the concept of quantity Atomism A major difference between. Modern atomism So that the chemical knowledge and theory at that time can be reasonably explained and become a unified theory to explain chemical phenomena. Then Italian scientists Avogadro Put forward the concept of molecule. Self use Atom molecule theory To study chemistry, chemistry is really established as a science. During this period, many basic chemical laws were established. Russian chemist Mendeleev find Periodic law of elements German chemists Libich and Weiler developed the theory of organic structure, which made chemistry a systematic science and laid the foundation for the development of modern chemistry.

In the second half of the 19th century, thermodynamics After the introduction of physical theory into chemistry, not only the chemical equilibrium and reaction rate And can be judged quantitatively chemical reaction The direction and conditions of the transformation of substances. Have successively established Solution theory 、 Ionization theory 、 electrochemistry and chemical kinetics The theoretical basis of. The birth of physical chemistry has raised chemistry to a new level theoretically. Through the analysis of minerals, many new elements have been found Atomic and molecular theory Experimental verification of, classic chemical analysis The method also has its own system. oxalate and urea Synthesis of valence Generation of concept, hexacyclic structure of benzene and carbon Valence bond The creation of tetrahedron and other theories tartaric acid Split into Optical isomer , and molecular Asymmetry And so on, leading to Structure Theory of Organic Chemistry With the establishment of, people have a deeper understanding of the nature of molecules and laid the foundation of organic chemistry.

Modern Chemistry

Chemistry in the 20th century is a science based on experiments. Experiments and theories have always been two interdependent and mutually reinforcing aspects of chemical research. After entering the 20th century, due to the influence of the development of other disciplines of natural science and the extensive application of contemporary scientific theories, technologies and methods, chemistry has made considerable progress in understanding the composition, structure, synthesis and testing of substances, and has made many important theoretical achievements. On the basis of the four branches of inorganic chemistry, analytical chemistry, organic chemistry and physical chemistry, new branches of chemistry have emerged.

The theory and technology of modern physics Mathematical method and computer technology Its application in chemistry has greatly promoted the development of modern chemistry. At the end of the 19th century, electronics X-ray and radioactivity The discovery of the new era created conditions for the great progress of chemistry in the 20th century.

stay Structural chemistry On the one hand, due to the discovery of electron, the modern nuclear Atomic model , not only enrich and deepen the periodic table of ele ments And developed molecular theory. Applied quantum mechanics research molecular structure 。

Starting from the study of the molecular structure of hydrogen Chemical bond The essence of Valence bond theory 、 Molecular orbital theory and Coordination field theory 。 The theory of chemical reaction also goes deep into the microcosmic realm. application X-ray As a new way to study material structure Analytical means , which can provide insight into material Crystal chemistry Structure. Diffraction methods for determining chemical three-dimensional structure, including X-ray diffraction 、 electron diffraction and Neutron diffraction Etc. Among them X-ray diffraction method The most information about the precise molecular stereo structure is accumulated by the application of.

The spectroscopic method for studying the structure of matter is also developed by Visible spectrum 、 Ultraviolet spectrum 、 infrared spectrum Expand to Nuclear magnetic resonance spectrum , electron spin resonance spectrum Photoelectron spectroscopy , X-ray resonance spectrum Mossbauer spectrum After being combined with computers, a large amount of material structure and performance related information has been accumulated, which is developing from experience to theory. electron microscope Magnification With continuous improvement, people can directly observe the structure of molecules.

The classical element theory has undergone profound changes due to the discovery of radioactivity. from Radioactive decay Theory creation, isotope discovery and artificial nuclear reaction And the realization of nuclear fission, the discovery of deuterium, neutrons and positron And others Elementary particle The discovery of Subatomic Level, and created the corresponding experimental methods and theories; It not only realized the idea of ancient alchemists to change elements, but also changed people's Cosmology 。

As a sign of the 20th century, human beings began to master and use nuclear energy. Radiochemistry and Nuclear chemistry And other sub disciplines have emerged and developed rapidly; Isotope geology , isotope cosmochemistry, etc Interdisciplinary They were born one after another. The periodic table of elements has been expanded Element 109 , and is exploring Superheavy element To validate elements“ Stable island Hypothesis ". And modern cosmology Dependent Origin of elements Theory and nuclides closely related to evolution theory Age determination And other works are constantly supplementing and updating the concept of elements.

phenolic resin The synthesis of, opened up the field of polymer science. 1930s polyamide The synthesis of fiber has widely confirmed the concept of polymer. Later, the synthesis, structure and performance research, and application of polymers kept coordinating and promoting each other, which enabled the rapid development of polymer chemistry.

various Polymer materials Synthesis and application for modern industry, agriculture Transportation 、 medical and health work 、 military technique , as well as people's clothing, food, housing and transportation, provide a variety of important materials with excellent performance and low cost, and become modern material civilization Important signs of. Development of polymer industry chemical industry An important pillar of. The 20th century is the golden age of organic synthesis. Chemical separation means and Structural analysis method Great progress has been made, many structural problems of natural organic compounds have been successfully solved, and many new and important Organic reaction and Specificity Organic reagent On this basis, fine organic synthesis, especially in asymmetric synthesis Great progress has been made in this regard.

On the one hand, a variety of Special structure And organic compounds with special properties; On the other hand, the unstable Free radical To bioactive protein 、 nucleic acid etc. Life foundation Substance. Organic chemists have also synthesized natural organic compounds with complex structures and effective drugs. These achievements have played a great role in promoting the development of science; It has height for composition biological activity And cooperate with other disciplines to solve the synthesis problem of living substances and the chemical problem of pre living substances, providing favorable conditions.

Since the 20th century, the development trend of chemistry can be summarized as follows: from macro to micro, from qualitative to quantitative, from Stable state It has developed into a metastable state, gradually rising from experience to theory, and then used to guide design and pioneering and innovative research. On the one hand, provide production and technical departments with as many New substances New materials; On the other hand, in the process of mutual penetration with other natural sciences, new disciplines continue to emerge and explore life sciences and The origin of the universe The direction of development.

Discipline classification

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In the development process of chemistry, many branches at different levels have been derived according to the different molecular categories and research means, purposes and tasks. Before the 1920s, chemistry was traditionally divided into four branches: inorganic chemistry, organic chemistry, physical chemistry and analytical chemistry. After the 1920s, due to world economy Rapid development Chemical bond Electronic theory and quantum mechanics The birth, electronic technology and computer technology With the rise of, chemical research has gained new means in both theory and experimental technology, which has led to the rapid development of this discipline since the 1930s and has taken on a new look.

Chemistry is generally divided into biochemistry, organic chemistry Polymer Chemistry 、 Applied chemistry and Chemical Engineering , physical chemistry, inorganic chemistry and other seven categories, a total of 80, actually including seven branches.

According to the development of modern chemistry and its mutual penetration with astronomy, physics, mathematics, biology, medicine, geology and other disciplines, chemistry can be classified as follows:

inorganic chemistry

Elemental chemistry , inorganic synthetic chemistry Inorganic polymer Chemistry Inorganic solid chemistry 、 Coordination chemistry (i.e complex compound Chemistry) Isotope chemistry 、 Bioinorganic Chemistry 、 Organometallic chemistry , Metal Enzyme chemistry Etc.

Organic chemistry

General organic chemistry, organic synthetic chemistry, metal and non-metallic organic chemistry, physical organic chemistry Bioorganic Chemistry Organic analytical chemistry.

physical chemistry

Structural chemistry 、 Thermochemistry 、 Chemical thermodynamics 、 chemical kinetics 、 electrochemistry 、 Solution theory 、 Interfacial chemistry 、 Colloid chemistry 、 quantum chemistry 、 Catalysis And its theory.

analytical chemistry

chemical analysis , instrument and new technology analysis. Including performance measurement, monitoring, various spectral and photochemical analysis, various Electrochemical analysis Methods Mass spectrometry Various electron microscope, imaging and morphology analysis methods, online analysis, activity analysis real-time analysis Detection methods for various physical and chemical properties and physiological activities, extraction, ion exchange, chromatography, mass spectrometry, etc separation method , separation and analysis, synthesis, separation and analysis, etc.^[4]

Polymer Chemistry

Natural Polymer Chemistry Polymer synthetic chemistry Polymer Physical Chemistry 、 Polymer Applications 、 Polymer Physics 。

Nuclear chemistry

radioactive element Chemistry Radioanalytical chemistry 、 Radiation chemistry 、 Isotope chemistry 、 Nuclear chemistry 。

biochemistry

General biochemistry, enzymes, microbial chemistry Phytochemistry 、 Immunochemistry , fermentation and bioengineering, food chemistry Coal chemistry Etc.

Other chemical related Marginal discipline also: Geochemistry 、 Marine chemistry 、 Atmospheric chemistry , environmental chemistry Astrochemistry Etc.

Material Chemistry

Related concepts

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Chemical change

There are changes in the generation of other substances (such as candle burning, steel rusting, food decay, grain brewing, animal and plant respiration, photosynthesis, etc.).

chemical property

Chemical property Technical Term It is the property of substances in chemical changes. If the chemical commonness of the material category: acidic, alkaline Oxidizability 、 Reducibility 、 thermal stability And some other features.

periodic table of ele ments

The periodic table of elements is the core of chemistry, with 118 kinds chemical element The set table of. periodic table of ele ments yes Periodic law of elements A specific form expressed in a table, which reflects the internal structure of the element atoms and the law of their interrelation. The periodic table is called the periodic table for short. The periodic table has 7 periods, 16 families and 4 regions. The position of an element in the periodic table can reflect the atomic structure 。 The same horizontal elements in the periodic table form a cycle. Atomic Number of electronic layers Equal to the ordinal number of the period. The elements of the same vertical line (the Ⅷ family includes three vertical lines) are called "families".

periodic table of ele ments

green chemistry

green chemistry Also known as "environmentally sound chemistry"“ Environmentally friendly chemistry ”"Clean chemistry", green chemistry is a "new chemical baby", which was born and developed in the past decade. It involves organic synthesis, catalysis biochemistry 、 analytical chemistry And other disciplines with extensive contents. The biggest feature of green chemistry is that it uses scientific means to prevent pollution at the beginning, so both the process and the end are Zero emission Or zero pollution. Many countries in the world have taken "chemical greening" as one of the main directions of chemical progress in the new century.

Chemical education

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development

Chinese chemical education Since the third day of junior high school, senior high school has become one of the science subjects. In addition to two compulsory textbooks, there are also Chemistry and Life, Chemistry and Technology《 Material structure and properties 》Six topics in Principles of Chemical Reaction, Fundamentals of Organic Chemistry, and Experimental Chemistry Elective Courses 。 There are six editions in China: PEP Jiangsu Education Press 、 Shandong Education Press Zhejiang Science Edition, Guangdong Education Edition, Shanghai Education Edition. new Reform of college entrance examination And became one of the four elective subjects.

Experimental instrument

Test tube Rubber tip dropper 、 Beaker 、 Tweezers 、 Test tube clamp 、 Volumetric flask 、 Tray balance 、 Glass rod , funnel Separating funnel 、 Alcohol lamp 、 Alcohol blowtorch 、 Conical flask 、 Gas collector 、 Condenser tube 、 Evaporation pan 、 Iron trestle 、 Medicine spoon 、 Combustion spoon Etc.

Training objectives

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This major cultivates students with basic theories, knowledge and experimental skills of chemistry, and can scientific research institution , institutions of higher learning and enterprises and institutions Etc scientific research , teaching and management Senior professionals 。

Training requirements

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book Professional students Mainly learn the basic knowledge, basic theory basic skill And related works technical knowledge , received fundamental research and Applied Basic Research Aspect Scientific thinking And scientific experiment training scientific literacy And have the ability to use the knowledge and experimental skills learned to carry out applied research technological development and Science and technology management Basic skills.

Knowledge and skills

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1. Master mathematics, physics and other aspects fundamental theory And basic knowledge;

2. Master inorganic chemistry 、 analytical chemistry (including instrumental analysis ）、 Organic chemistry Physical chemistry (including Structural chemistry ）、 chemical engineering Basic knowledge, basic principles and basic experimental skills of chemical engineering drawing;

3. Understand Similar majors General principles and knowledge of;

4. Learn about national science, technology and chemistry Related industries Policies and regulations on intellectual property;

5. Understand the theoretical frontier, application prospect, latest development trends, and chemistry related Industrial development Status;

6. Master Chinese and foreign language data query bibliography retrieval And application modern information technology Basic methods for obtaining relevant information; Have certain experimental design, create experimental conditions, summarize, sort out and analyze experimental results, write papers, and participate in academic exchange Ability.^[5]

Opening colleges and universities

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First level discipline	0703 Chemistry	Peking University
		Nankai University
		Jilin University
		Fudan University
		Nanjing University
		Zhejiang University
		University of Science and Technology of China
		Xiamen University
Secondary discipline	070301 Inorganic Chemistry	Sun Yat-sen University
	070302 Analytical Chemistry	Tsinghua University
		WuHan University
		Hunan University
	070303 Organic Chemistry	Sichuan University
	070303 Organic Chemistry	Lanzhou University
	070304 Physical Chemistry	Beijing Normal University
		Fuzhou University
		Shandong University
	070305 Polymer Chemistry and Physics	Sun Yat-sen University

Key (Cultivated) Disciplines

Secondary discipline	070303 Organic Chemistry	Zhengzhou University
	070304 Physical Chemistry	Tsinghua University
	070305 Polymer Chemistry and Physics	Beijing University of Chemical Technology

world undergraduate major ranking

ranking	school	country	score
one	Massachusetts Institute of Technology	U.S.A	ninety-seven point five
two	University of California, Berkeley	U.S.A	ninety point five
three	Harvard University	U.S.A	ninety point four
four	Stanford University	U.S.A	eighty-seven
five	California Institute of Technology	U.S.A	eighty-five
six	Oxford	britain	eighty-four point eight
seven	University of California -Los Angeles	U.S.A	eighty-four point seven
eight	University of Cambridge	britain	eighty-three point eight
nine	University of Hong Kong	Hong Kong, China	eighty-three point three
ten	Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine	britain	eighty-three point two
eleven	Hong Kong University of Science and Technology	Hong Kong, China	eighty-two point nine
twelve	Swiss Federal Institute of Technology -Zurich	Switzerland	eighty-two point seven
thirteen	National University of Singapore	Singapore	eighty-two point one
fourteen	The University of Tokyo	Japan	eighty-one point five
fifteen	Federal Institute of Technology, Lausanne	Switzerland	eighty point eight
sixteen	Yale University	U.S.A	eighty point four
seventeen	Northwestern University (USA)	U.S.A	seventy-nine point four
eighteen	Kyoto University	Japan	seventy-eight point eight
nineteen	Peking University	China	seventy-eight point six
twenty	University of Melbourne	Australia	seventy-eight

^[6]

Professional ranking

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ranking	School name	Star rating	Number of schools
one	Peking University	5★	four hundred and twenty-nine
two	Nanjing University	5★	four hundred and twenty-nine
three	Jilin University	5★	four hundred and twenty-nine
four	East China University of Science and Technology	5★	four hundred and twenty-nine
five	Xiamen University	5★	four hundred and twenty-nine
six	Fudan University	5★	four hundred and twenty-nine
seven	Tianjin University	5★	four hundred and twenty-nine
eight	Nankai University	5★	four hundred and twenty-nine
nine	Sun Yat-sen University	5★	four hundred and twenty-nine
ten	WuHan University	5★	four hundred and twenty-nine
eleven	Lanzhou University	5★	four hundred and twenty-nine
twelve	Hunan University	5★	four hundred and twenty-nine
thirteen	Dalian University of Technology	5★	four hundred and twenty-nine
fourteen	Beijing University of Technology	5★	four hundred and twenty-nine
fifteen	Fuzhou University	5★	four hundred and twenty-nine
sixteen	Nanjing University of Technology	5★	four hundred and twenty-nine
seventeen	Sichuan University	5★	four hundred and twenty-nine
eighteen	Zhejiang University of Technology	5★	four hundred and twenty-nine
nineteen	Shaanxi Normal University	5★	four hundred and twenty-nine
twenty	Northwestern University	5★	four hundred and twenty-nine

Nobel Prize in Chemistry

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Early 20th century

1901 J H. Van Hoff （ Netherlands ）Found in solution chemical kinetics Law and osmotic pressure law.

1902 E. H Fischer (Germany) synthesized sugars and purine Inducer 。

In 1903, S. A. Arenius (Sweden) proposed electrolyte Solution theory 。

1904 W Ramsay Found in the air inert gas 。

In 1905, A. von Beyer (Germany) engaged in Organic dye And hydrogenation Aromatic compound Research.

In 1906, H. Movasan (France) engaged in fluorine The study of elements.

1907 E Bishner (Germany) is engaged in enzyme and Enzyme chemistry Biological research.

1908 E Rutherford (UK) first proposed radioactive element The theory of metamorphosis.

1909 W Ostwald (Germany) engaged in Catalysis 、 chemical equilibrium as well as reaction rate Research.

1910 O Wallach (Germany) Founder of alicyclic compounds.

1911 M Curie (France) discovered radium and polonium.

1912 V Greenia (France) invented Grignard reagent ——Organic Magnesium reagent 。 P. Sabati (France) metal powder As a catalyst, an effective method for preparing hydrogenated unsaturated hydrocarbon was invented.

1913 A Werner (Switzerland) engaged in Coordination compound And intramolecular atoms Valence Research.

1914 T W. Richards is committed to Atomic weight The atomic weights of many elements have been accurately measured.

1915 R Wilstedt (Germany) engaged in Plant pigment （ chlorophyll ）Research.

There was no award from 1916 to 1917.

In 1918, F. Harper (Germany) studied and invented an effective large-scale Synthetic ammonia process 。

1920 W H. Nernst (Germany) engaged in electrochemistry And thermokinetics.

F. 1921 Soddy (UK) engaged in Radioactive material For the first time“ isotope ”。

F. 1922 W. Aston (UK) discovered isotopes in non radioactive elements and developed Mass spectrometer 。

F. 1923 Pregel （ Austria ）Founded Organic compound Trace of analytical method 。

1925 R A. Sigmund (Germany) is engaged in Colloidal solution And established Colloid chemistry 。

1926 T Swedberg (Sweden) engaged in colloid chemistry Moderately dispersed Systematic research.

In 1927, H O. Wallander (Germany) study identified Cholic acid And many similar substances Chemical structure 。

1928 A Wendaus (Germany) developed a family sterol And its relationship with vitamins.

1929 A Harden (UK), Feng· Oyler – Sherpin (Swedish) explained sugar fermentation process And enzymes.

1930 H Fischer (Germany) engaged in hemoglobin And the nature and structure of chlorophyll.

1931 C Bosch (Germany), F Begius (German) invented and developed High-pressure chemical method 。

1932 I Lanmill (America) founded surface chemistry 。

1934 H C. Yuri's discovery Deuterium 。

1935 J F. J. Curie, I J. Curie (France) invented Artificial radioactive element 。

1936 P J. W. Debye The concept of molecular magnetic dipole distance was proposed and applied X-ray diffraction clarify molecular structure 。

1937 W N. Haworth (UK) engaged in carbohydrate and vitamin C Structure research of. P. Carlyle (Switzerland) Carrot 、 riboflavin And vitamin A Vitamin B2 Research.

1938 R Kuhn (Germany) is engaged in Carotenoids as well as vitamin Class.

1939 A Butenant (Germany) engaged in sex hormone Research.

Mid twentieth century

In 1943, G Heywich（ Hungary ）Using radioisotope tracer technology to study chemical and physical changes.

1944 O Hahn Discovery Heavy nuclear fission Reaction.

1945 A 1. Weiltanan (Finland) Studies Agrochemistry And nutritional chemistry, invented the method of storing and maintaining fresh feed.

1946 J B. Sumner (USA) for the first time Separation and purification Enzyme. J. H. Northrop ，W. M. Stanley (USA) Separation and purification of enzyme and Viruses protein 。

1947 R Robinson (UK) engaged in alkaloid Research.

1948 A W. K. Discovered by Tiseleus (Sweden) Electrophoretic technique and Adsorption chromatography 。

1949 W F. GEOK (USA) has been engaged in Chemical thermodynamics The research of the substance is based on the research of Physical reaction Research.

1950 O P. H. Dears, K Alder (Germany) discovery Diels Alder reaction And its application.

1951 G T. Sieberg, E M. Macmillan (America) found Transuranic element 。

1952 A J. P. Martin, R 50. M. Singer (UK) developed and applied Distribution chromatography 。

1953 H Staudinger (Germany) engaged in annular Polymer compound Research.

L. 1954 C. Pauling (USA) clarified the nature of chemical binding and explained the complex molecular structure.

1955 V Vignold (USA) determined and synthesized Sulfur Of biological substances (especially the posterior lobe Oxytocin and Vasopressin ）。

1956 C N. Sherwood (UK), N N. Semyonov（ Russia ）Propose Gas phase reaction Chemical kinetic theory (especially Branched chain reaction ）。

1957 A R. Todd (UK) engaged in Nuclease And nucleic acid coenzyme Research.

1958 F Sanger (UK) is engaged in insulin Structure research.

1959 J Helovsky (Czech Republic) proposed Polarography Theory and invented Electrochemical analysis In Polarographic analysis 。

1960 W F. Libby invented“ radioactivity Carbon dating ".

1961 M Calvin (USA) suggested Plant photosynthesis mechanism.

1962 M F. Perutz 、J. C. Kendrew (UK) measured the fine structure 。

1963 K Ziegler (Germany), G Nata (Italy) discovered the use of New catalyst And engaged in fundamental research 。

1964 D M. C. Hawking (UK) use X-ray diffraction technology Complex measurement crystal and macromolecule Of space structure 。

1965 R B. Woodward (United States) for organic Synthetic method Contribution of.

1966 R S. Maliken For (USA) quantum mechanics Created the chemical structure Molecular orbital theory , clarifying the molecular covalent bond Essence and electronic structure.

1967 R G. W. Norris, G Porter (UK), M Aigen (Germany) invented the technology for measuring rapid chemical reactions.

In 1968, L. Onzag (America) engaged in Thermodynamics of irreversible processes Basic research of.

1969 O. Hassel (Norway), K H. R. Barton (UK) for development Stereochemistry Theory.

L. 1970 F. Leroy（ Argentina ）Discover sugar nucleotide And its role in sugar synthesis.

1971 G. Herzberg（ Canada ）Engaged in Free radical Electronic structure and geometry Structure research.

1972 C B. Amphenson (US) has identified Ribonucleotidase Active location research.

1973 E O. Fischer (Germany), G Wilkinson (British) engaged in Organometallic compound Research.

1974 P J. Flory Engage in Polymer Chemistry Basic research in both theoretical and experimental aspects.

1975 J W. Comfort（ Australia ）Research Enzyme catalyzed reaction Of Stereochemistry 。 V. Prelog (Switzerland) engaged in Organic molecule And stereochemistry of organic molecules.

1976 W N. Lipscom (USA) engaged in A Borane Structure research of

1977 I Prigokin （ Belgium ）Main research Non-equilibrium thermodynamics , proposed“ dissipation Structure "theory.

1978 P D. Mitchell (UK) engaged in Biomembrane On energy conversion Research.

1979 H C. Brown (USA), G Wittig (Germany) developed a new organic synthesis method.

The end of the twentieth century

1980 P Berger Nucleic acid biochemistry Research. W. Gilbert (USA), F Sanger (UK) determined the Base Sort order.

1981 Kenichi Fukui (Japan), R. Hoffman (England), who applied quantum mechanics to develop Conservation principle of molecular orbital symmetry and frontier orbital 。

In 1982, A. Kruger (UK) developed Crystallography Of Electron diffraction , and engaged in nucleic acid Protein complex Of Tridimensional structure Research.

1983 H Pottery cloth (USA) clarified the electronic properties of metal coordination compounds reaction mechanism 。

1984 R B. Merrifield (USA) developed a very simple peptide synthesis method.

1985 J Karl, H A. Hauptmann (USA) has developed the application of X-ray diffraction to determine substances crystal structure Of Direct calculation method 。

1986 D R. Hershbach Li Yuanzhe (China Taiwan ）、J. C. Polyani (Canada) Studies chemical reaction Dynamics of the motion process of the system on the potential energy surface.

1987 C J. Pederson, D J. Klum (USA), J M. Lane (France) Synthesis crown ether chemical compound.

1988 J. Dysenhofer, R Huber and H. Michel (Germany) analyzed photosynthesis Reaction center Of three-dimensional structure 。

1989 S Altman , T. R. Cech (America) found RNA It has the catalytic function of enzyme.

1990 E J. Curry (USA) created a unique organic synthesis theory—— Inverse synthesis analysis Theory.

1991 R R. Ernst (Switzerland) invented Fourier transform nuclear magnetic resonance Spectroscopy and 2D Nuclear magnetic resonance technology 。

1992 R A. Marcus (USA) contributed to the theory of electron transfer reaction in solution.

1993 K B. Invented by Morris (America)“ polymerase chain reaction ”Law, M Smith (Canada) pioneered the method of "oligonucleotide site directed mutagenesis".

1994 G A. Euler (US) in the case of hydrocarbons, i.e Hydrocarbons The research field has made outstanding contributions.

1995 P Kruzen (Germany), M Molina, F S. Roland (the United States) elaborated on ozone layer The chemical mechanism of the impact proves that man-made chemistry material It is destructive to the ozone layer.

1996 R F. Cole (USA), H W. Crotone (UK), R E. Smalley (USA) found carbon A new form of element - Fuller's sphere (also known as buckyball ） C60 。

P. 1997 B. Boyer (USA), J E. Walker (UK), J C. Sko（ Denmark ）Discovery Human cells It is an ion transport enzyme responsible for storing and transferring energy.

1998 W Cohen (Austria) J Popp (UK) proposed density functional theory 。

1999 Ahmed Xavier (American Egypt ）Nanomicrosecond spectroscopy is applied to the study of transition states of chemical reactions.

Early 21st Century

Haig (USA), McDilmead (USA) Hideki Shirakawa (Japan) Active power due to the discovery of conductive plastics.

2001 William Knowles (USA) ryoji noyori (Japan) in“ chirality catalytic hydrogenation ”Achievements in the field. K B Sharpless (China) has made achievements in the field of "chiral catalytic hydrogenation".

In 2002, John B. Finn (America) Koichi Tanaka (Japan) has developed soft hydrolysis in mass spectrometry analysis of biopolymers Adsorption Ionization method. Kut Ute Richie Israel Electromagnetic resonance Spectroscopy The three-dimensional structure of biopolymer was determined.

2003 Agri (USA) and McNunn (USA) Studies Cell membrane water channel Structure and operation mechanism.

2004 aaron ciechanover (Israel) Avram Hershko (Israel) Owen Ross Found ubiquitin Regulated Protein degradation ——An important mechanism of protein "death".

2005 yves chauvin (France) Robert H. Grubbs (USA) Richard R. Schrock Having studied organic chemistry Olefin metathesis reaction 。

2006 Roger Kornberg (USA)“ Eukaryote Molecular Basis of Transcription ".

2007 Gerhard Ertl (Germany) Study of solid surface chemistry.

2008 Xiacun Repair (Japanese American), Martin Chalfield (United States) Qian Yongjian (Chinese American) GFP（ green fluorescent protein ）And further research.

In 2009, Vankatraman Lema Crisnan (British American), Thomas Steitz (United States), Ada Yunus (Israel)“ ribosome The structure and function of ".

In 2010, Charles Heck (the United States), Genuine Kishiying (Japan) Suzuki seal (Japan) Palladium catalyzed cross coupling reaction 。

In 2011, Daniel Sheketman (Israel) discovered Quasicrystal This material.

2012 Robert Lefkowitz (USA) Brian Kobilka (USA)“ G protein coupled receptor Research ".

2013 Martin Kapras 、 Michael Levitt 、 Ariel Vaschle "For complex chemical systems Multiscale Model ".

Development prospect

Announce

edit

1. Ensure human survival and constantly improve human Quality of life 。 For example, chemical production of fertilizers and pesticides to increase grain yield ； utilize Chemosynthetic drugs To inhibit bacteria and Viruses , Guarantee human health ； Utilize chemistry to develop new energy and materials to improve human's Living conditions ； Comprehensive application of natural resources and protect the environment To make human life better.

2. Chemistry is a very practical natural discipline, which, together with mathematics, physics and other disciplines, forms the basis for the rapid development of natural science. Chemical Core knowledge It has been applied in various regions of natural science, and chemistry is an important pillar of the powerful force to transform nature. Unlike particle physics and Nuclear physics The scale of atoms, molecules, ions (clusters) and chemical bonds studied by chemists is Microcosm It is the closest to the macro level, so it can use chemistry to prepare what humans need, which does not exist in nature, and has specific physics Chemical properties Substances and materials. Chemists use chemical perspectives to observe and think social problem , use chemical knowledge to analyze and solve social problems, such as energy problem Food problem environmental problems 、 health problem , resources and sustainable development.

3. The intersection and infiltration of chemistry and other disciplines have produced many marginal disciplines, such as biochemistry, geochemistry Cosmochemistry , marine chemistry, atmospheric chemistry and so on, which make biology, electronics, aerospace, laser, geology, ocean and other science and technology develop rapidly.

4. Cultivate the mentality of continuous progress, discovery, exploration and curiosity, stimulate human's desire to understand nature and understand nature, and enrich human's spiritual world.

Nowadays, chemistry is increasingly penetrating into all aspects of life, especially those closely related to the development of human society Major issues 。 In short, chemistry and human clothing, food, housing, transportation, energy, information, materials, national defense, environmental protection, electronics, metallurgy, medicine and health resource utilization It is a practical subject urgently needed by the society.^[2]

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