Venus (English, Latin: Venus, astronomical symbol:♀），Of the eight planets in the solar system, it is the second one from the sunplanetThe orbital revolution period is 224.7 days, and there is no natural satellite.Venus was calledToo white, star orBlatant, appeared in the east in the morningVenus, appeared in the west at nightChang Geng。By the Western Han Dynasty, the author of Records of the Historian, Tianguan BookSima QianIt is found from actual observation that Taibai is white, which is linked with the "Five Elements" theory and officially named Venus.The English name originates from the goddess of love and beauty in Roman mythologyVenus(Venus), known asAphroditeIt is also the goddess of love and beauty in Greek mythology.The astronomical symbol of Venus is represented by the dressing mirror of Venus.
Venus is the second brightest celestial body in the night sky, second only to the moon. Its apparent magnitude can reach - 4.7, which is enough to cast shadows on the ground.Because Venus is inside the EarthInner planet, it will never run away from the sun: its maximum degree of departure from the sun is 47.8 °.Venus is a planet similar to Earthterrestrial planet, often called the sister star of the earth.It has the thickest atmosphere of the four earth like planets in the solar system, of which more than 96% arecarbon dioxideThe atmospheric pressure on the surface of Venus is 92 times that of Earth.The average temperature of its surface is as high as 735 K (462 ° C), which is the hottest planet in the solar system, even hotter than Mercury, which is closest to the sun.
Venus is covered by a highly reflective and opaque sulfuric acid cloud, blocking the visible light from space that may reach the surface.It may have owned the ocean in the past, but with the runawaygreenhouse effectCause the temperature to rise and evaporate completely.Water is most likely to suffer from the lack of planetary magnetic fieldPhotoinduced metamorphosisIt decomposes into hydrogen and oxygen, and free hydrogen is blown away by the solar wind and escapes into interstellar space.On September 15, 2020, scientists detected the presence of phosphine in the atmosphere of Venus, which may be a sign of extraterrestrial life.
HumanSolar system planetsThe space exploration of,Former Soviet UnionandU.S.ASince the 1960s, he has poured great enthusiasm and exploration competition into revealing the secrets of Venus.So far, all kinds ofdetectorThere are more than 40, and a large number of scientific data about Venus have been obtained.
Venus Probe List
particular year
Detector name
country
Task or achievement
one thousand nine hundred and sixty-seven
Venus 4
Soviet Union
Send back information about Venus atmosphere
one thousand nine hundred and seventy
Venera 7
Soviet Union
The ball landed in the middle of the night and measured the temperature
one thousand nine hundred and seventy-five
Venus 9 and 10
Soviet Union
Send back the first photo of rock and soil
one thousand nine hundred and seventy-eight
Pioneer Venus
U.S.A
Draw the first global map of Venus
one thousand nine hundred and eighty-one
Venus 13
Soviet Union
Take a batch of color photos and analyze a soil sample
one thousand nine hundred and ninety
Magellan
U.S.A
Gravitational data collected
two thousand and five
Venus Express
Europe
Monitoring the cloud layer, atmospheric circulation and magnetic field of Venus
Research
There are signs of life
On September 14, 2020, a study was published in the journal Nature Astronomy. Two telescopes in Hawaii and Chile found a possible sign of life in the thick clouds of Venus - the chemical characteristics of phosphine, which is a poisonous gas only related to life on Earth.New discoveries in the atmosphere of Venus suggest that microorganisms may be living in the clouds full of sulfuric acid on this greenhouse planet.The author of the study and some external experts said that this was far from being the first conclusive evidence of the existence of life on other planets.Relatively, they call it "a hint of possibility" - although they all agree that this discovery does not meet the strict requirement of the late Carl Sagan that "special conclusions need to be supported by significant evidence", they cannot find a better explanation in chemistry or geology.[9]
Explore Venus Mission
On June 2, 2021, NASA announced that it will carry out two new missions to explore Venus between 2028 and 2030 to study the atmospheric and geological characteristics of Venus. Each project will receive about 500 million dollars.These two tasks are called "DAVINCI+" and "VERITAS" respectively, which include studying the evolution process of Venus, further understanding the geological history of Venus and analyzing the difference between Venus and the Earth in the development direction.[10]
Astronomical data
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Motion track
revolution
Venus belongs to the inner planet, and its revolution around the sun causes different phases
Venus rotates on its axis in the opposite direction to most of the planets in the solar system.Venus revolves around the sun for 224.701 days, and its half length diameter is about 108.5 million kilometers.Although the orbits of all planets are elliptical, the eccentricity of the orbit of Venus is less than 0.01. When Venus is located between the Earth and the sun, it is called a downward conjunction (involution). It will be closer to the Earth than any other planet. At this time, the average distance is 41 million kilometers, and the downward conjunction occurs every 584 days on average.Since the eccentricity of the Earth orbit and Venus orbit is decreasing, the closest distance between the two planets will gradually increase.During the period of high eccentricity, the distance between Venus and the Earth can be close to 38.2 million kilometers.
rotation
Venus has a rotation period of 243 days, which is the slowest rotation among the major planets.Venus's star day is longer than Venus's one year (243 Venus days relative to 224.7 Earth days), but Venus'sSolar daythanSidereal dayFor short, observers on the surface of Venus will see the sun come and go every 116.75 days, which means that one day of Venus is shorter than one day of Mercury (176 Earth days).The sun will rise in the west and set in the east.Venus rotates only 6.5 km/h at the equator, while Earth rotates about 1600 km/h at the equator.[2]
If you look at the solar system from above the north pole of the sun, all the planets rotate counterclockwise, but Venus rotates clockwise, and Venus rotates counterclockwise.When the rotation of the planet is measured, how to explain the slow and retrograde rotation of Venus is a difficult problem for scientists.When he went fromSolar nebulaWhen Venus formed in, it must be faster than before, and it rotates in the same direction as other planets, but calculations show that in billions of years, Venus acts on its thick atmospheretideThe effect will slow down its original rotation speed and become the current situation.
The average conjunction period of Venus and the Earth is 584 days, almost exactly five Venus sun days.The reverse rotation of Venus may be caused by the collision between Venus and other asteroids long ago. In addition to this unusual reverse rotation, Venus is also a bit unusual.Venus's rotation period and orbit are synchronous, so when twoplanetWhen Venus is closest, it always faces the Earth with the same face (once every 5.001 Venus days).This could beTidal locking (tidal locking) -- when the two planets are close enough,Tidal forceWill affect the rotation of Venus.
Phase change
Venus, like the moon, also hasPeriodicityHowever, Venus is too far away from the Earth to be seen by the naked eye.The phase change of Venus was once regarded by Galileo as a strong proof of Copernicus' heliocentric theory.[3]
Venus phase change
Venus transit
Venus transit in 2004
becauseMercuryVenus is located within the orbit of the earth around the sun“Terrestrial planet”。Therefore, when Venus moves between the sun and the earth, it can be seen that there is a small black dot slowly passing through the sun's surface. This celestial phenomenon is called“Venus transit”。In astronomy, the two "transits of Venus" with the shortest time interval are often divided into one group.The occurrence rule of this phenomenon is usually 8 years, 121.5 years, 8 years, 105.5 years, and this cycle.According to astronomers, the transit time of this group of Venus is June 8, 2004 and June 6, 2012.This is mainly because after Venus has revolved around the sun for 13 times, it is just close to the earth that has revolved around the sun for 8 times again, and is between the earth and the sun. This period of time is equivalent to 8 years on the earth.In the 17th century AD, the famous British astronomer Haley once proposed that when Venus transits, the time required for Venus to cross the sun's surface should be measured at two different places on the earth at the same time, from which the sun's parallax can be calculated, and the accurateSun earth distance。Unfortunately, Haley himself lived to be 86 years old and never met the "transit of Venus".After Haley proposed his observation method, there were four transits of Venus, each of which received great attention from scientists.They traveled thousands of miles to the best observation site and made some important discoveries.When Venus transited on May 26, 1761, Russian astronomer Romonosov discovered the atmosphere of Venus at one fell swoop.In the 19th century, astronomers collected a lot of data through the transit of Venus, and successfully measured the distance between the sun and the earth of 149.6 million kilometers (called aAstronomical unit）。
The black drop effect recorded by venus transit in 1769
People can clearly see the circular outline of Venus with telescopes with a magnification of more than 10, and telescopes with a magnification of 40~100 have the best observation effect.Although it is not very difficult to observe this "transit of Venus", astronomical experts remind that when watching, you must not use the naked eye, ordinary telescopes or cameras directly, but wear appropriate filters, and the observation time should not be too long to avoid being burned by the strong sunlight.When Venus enters and leaves the transit, careful observers may find the so-called"Black drop" phenomenon。In fact, when two fingers are gradually close to the bright light, when they are very close, it can be found that although the fingers have not yet touched, they can see the shadow between the upper and lower fingers to connect them, like water drops between the fingers, which is the so-called "black drop" phenomenon.At the beginning and end of the transit, that is, the edge of the sun andInner planetWhen the edges are close to each other and are about to touch, you will find that there are very thin wires connecting the two edges. This is the transitBlack drop phenomenon。The cause is the blurring of the edge of the viewing wheel caused by the atmospheric visual acuity, light diffraction and the telescope's "limit resolution".In addition, in the incoming and outgoing phases, sometimes the edge of Venus's visual surface will be inlaid with a thin "halo" or "halo".This "halo" is formed by the reflection and scattering of sunlight from the top of Venus' atmosphere.It can be seen by eyepiece projection, but it will be clearer if the telescope is added with a filter.The change of the size of the halo ring, whether the ring brightness is even, and whether it can be seen in the background of the sun round wheel are all very interesting.
observation
Ground observation
Venus is aInner planetIf you use a telescope to observe it from the earth, you will find that it has a phase change.Galileo's observation of this phenomenon is in favor ofCopernicusOf the solar systemHeliocentric theoryImportant evidence.staySpace probeBefore the exploration of Venus, some astronomers believed that the chemical and physical conditions of Venus were similar to that of the Earth, and the possibility of discovering life on Venus was greater than that on Mars.Astronomers in the late 1950sradio telescopeThe surface of Venus was observed for the first time.
Venus is on the right of the middle, brighter than all other planets or stars, and Jupiter is on the top of the middle
Orbital ratio of VenusMercuryIt should be bigger.When the maximum distance angle is in the west (to the right of the sun) or east (to the left of the sun), it seems that it is twice as far from the sun as Mercury.Venus is one of the brightest objects in the sky, and the best time to observe it may be when the sun is just below the horizon.It must be noted that never look directly at the sun with your eyes.The sun goes down and Venus goes down. At this time, Venus is on the left of the sun;Venus rises first before the sun rises, and now it is on the right of the sun.It is easy to distinguish Venus, which is bright and slightly yellow.When Venus is big“new moon”When forming, useBinocularsIt is most appropriate to observe it.Venus is at the maximumTalus anglePoint andHypogynyWhen Venus is located between the Earth and the sun at the lower conjunction point, it will not be visible. Pay attention to adjust the focus of the telescope so that it can observe distant objects.
Venus
The Soviet Union launched the Giant on January 24, 1961Venus probe, crashed due to launch vehicle failure during space launch.On February 12, 1961, Venus 1 was launched. The probe that successfully flew to Venus weighed 643 kg. On November 12 and 5, 1965, "Venus 2 and Venus 3 failed. Venus 3 weighed 963 kg. When it landed hard on Venus, all communication and telemetry signals were interrupted. It is estimated that the instruments and equipment were damaged.Nevertheless, scientists in the former Soviet Union believed that there were gains, because the first battle that could directly "hit" Venus was successful.
On January 12, 1967, it was successfully launchedVenus 4The probe, which arrived at Venus in October of the same year, released a landing capsule to Venus and measured the atmospheric temperature, pressure and chemical composition within 94 minutes of its passage through the atmosphere.Launched in 1969Venus 5andVenus 6, break into Venus againAtmospheric soundingThe probe finally landed on the surface of Venus. Due to the damage of hard landing instruments and equipment, it could not detect the surface of Venus.August 17, 1970Venera 7 The probe was successfully launched. It passed through the thick clouds and dense fog of Venus and achieved a soft landing on the surface of Venus for the first time under the high temperature.Venus 7 measured that the atmospheric pressure on the surface of Venus is at least 90 times stronger than that of the Earth, and the temperature is as high as 470 ℃.
180 degree mosaic photo of Venus surface taken by the former Soviet Union's Venus 9 lander
On September 9 and 14, 1978, the former Soviet Union launched Venus 11 and 12, both of which successfully landed on Venus and worked for 110 minutes respectively.In particular, during the descent of Venus 12 to Venus on December 21, frequent lightning and rumbling thunder were detected over Venus. Only during the period from 11 kilometers to 5 kilometers from the surface of Venus, 1000 lightning flashes were recorded, one of which lasted for 15 minutes.
On October 30 and November 4, 1981“Venus 13”And“Venus 14”The automatic drilling device carried by its landing module went deep into the surface of Venus and collected rock samples.Research shows that the geological structure on Venus is still very active, and the magma of Venus contains water.From the photos sent back by the two, we know that the sky of Venus is orange, and the objects on the ground are also orange.The temperature of the landing area of Venus 13 is 457 ℃. The landing site of Venus 14 is relatively flat, a brownish red plateau. The ground is covered with brown gravel. The rock layer is hard and each layer is clearly defined.The pressure in the landing area of Venus 13 is 89 atmospheres;The landing area of Venus 14 is 94 atmospheres, which is equivalent to the pressure of the earth's ocean 900 meters deep.There is a layer of sulfuric acid gas like fog 30 km to 45 km away from the ground. This sulfuric acid fog is about 25 km thick and has strong corrosivity.The survey shows that Venus has an east-west jet stream at its equator, with a maximum wind speed of 110 meters per second.Venus's atmosphere is 97% carbon dioxide, with a small amount of nitrogen, argon andcarbon monoxideAnd water vapor.The atmosphere of Venus, which is mainly composed of carbon dioxide, is like the protective cover of a greenhouse. It only allows the heat of sunlight to come in and not let it go out, thus forming a high-temperature and high-pressure environment on the surface of Venus.
On June 2 and June 7, 1983, Venus 15 and Venus 16 were successfully launched successively, and they arrived near Venus on October 10 and 14, respectivelyArtificial satelliteThey orbit Venus once every 24 hours and probe the surface and atmosphere of Venus.The radar altimeter on the detector scans and observes the surface of Venus in the orbit around Venus. The surface resolution of the radar is up to 1 to 2 kilometers, and the terrain structure of Venus surface can be seen clearly. A 25% Venus surface topographic map north of 30 degrees north latitude has been successfully drawn.The former Soviet Union launched the Venus Harley probe in December 1984, and met with Venus on June 9 and 13, 1985, releasing the floating probe -Helium balloonAnd the landing capsule. The television camera they carried detected the clouds of Venus, and found that there was atmospheric circulation in the same direction as the rotation of Venus at the top of the atmosphere, with a speed of up to 320 km/h. The landing equipment also drilled and analyzed the soil of Venus.After completing the mission, the Venus Halley detector uses the gravity of Venus to change its orbit and fly toHalley's Comet。The characteristics of the former Soviet Union's Venus exploration are mainly to launch the landing device for investigation, overcome the high temperature and pressure on Venus with special technology, and obtained valuable first-hand data on the surface of Venus.
mariner
In the early 1960s, NASAKennedy Proposed by the PresidentMoon landing plan, to carry out the lunar exploration activities;However, when we saw the Soviet Union's exploration of Venus, we were particularly anxious.The American authorities immediately decided to split up their forces to explore Venus while landing on the moon.The United States launched the "Mariner 1" Venus probe on July 22, 1961. Soon after liftoff, it had to detonate itself due to deviation.On August 27, 1962, the "Sailor 2" Venus probe was launched. After flying 280 million kilometers, on December 14 of the same year, when it flew 3500 kilometers away from Venus, it measured the atmospheric temperature of Venus for the first time and photographed VenusPanoramaHowever, due to design defects, during the detection process, the optical trackerSolar panel、Battery packandRemote control systemThey all failed successively and failed to implement the plan successfully.The Mariner 5 Venus probe was launched on June 14, 1967, and passed 3970 kilometers away from Venus on October 19 of the same year, making atmospheric measurements.Launched on November 3, 1973“Mariner 10 ”MercuryThe probe passed Venus on February 5, 1974, and passed 5760 kilometers away from Venus. It took a television photograph of the atmosphere of Venus and sent back thousands of pictures of Venus.
Since 1978, the United States hasPlanetary explorationThe focus of the activity shifted to Venus.On May 20 and August 8, 1978, respectively, "Pioneer Venus 1 and 2" were launched, of which No. 1 successfully reached the orbit of Venus on December 4 of the same year and became its artificial satellite. The atmosphere of Venus was observed for 244 days, and the clouds, atmosphere andthe ionosphere, studied themagnetic field, the interaction between Venus atmosphere and solar wind was detected;The surface topographic map of Venus was also mapped using shipborne radar.In January 1988, two American geologists reported that the Aphrodite plateau area on the surface of Venus had characteristics very similar to the ocean ridges on the earth. They analyzed the American "pioneer Venus 1"spacecraftThe result of measuring the surface of Venus with radar signals when orbiting Venus shows thatrock stratumThe fracture mode is very similar to the situation near the mid ocean ridge on the Earth. The characteristics on both sides of the main ridge are approximately mirror symmetry, which is also an important feature of the mid ocean ridge.The mountains, valleys andfaultThe distribution characteristics of various aspects show that the crust of Venus is expanding, and its annual expansion speed of several centimeters is similar to the expansion of the earth's ocean floor.
"Pioneer Venus 2" entered the atmosphere of Venus together with four landing capsules. One of the landing capsules worked continuously for 67 minutes after landing and sent back some pictures and data.There are obvious physical and chemical characteristics at different levels in the clouds of Venus. When it rains on Venus, sulfuric acid rather than water falls. The detection also shows that there are extremely frequent lightning flashes on Venus;Venusian terrain is similar to that of the Earth, with mountains and vast plains;There is a volcano and a huge canyon, which is about 6 kilometers deep, more than 200 kilometers wide and 1000 kilometers long;There is a huge crater on the surface of Venus with a diameter of 120 kilometers, which is steep all around and up to 3 kilometers deep.
Magellan
In order to make greater achievements in the exploration of Venus, NASA decided to use its advanced radar detection technology to survey the full view and geological structure of Venus in detail through the dense clouds of Venus.On May 4, 1989,Space Shuttle Atlantis takeMagellanThe Venus probe took it into space and sent it to Venus the next day.The Magellan Venus probe weighs 3365 kg and costs 413 million dollars.Later facts showed that Magellan was the most advanced and successful Venus probe so far.Magellan is equipped with an advanced television camera radar system, which can map out the image of objects on the surface of Venus as small as a football field through thick clouds. Its definition is 10 times better than the image of Venus obtained so far.The transmitting and receiving antennas of the high-resolution synthetic aperture radar it carries are similar to the directional antenna of the famous Voyager probe, which is also a parabolic antenna with a diameter of 3.65 meters, but its performance is much better than the former. When it is 250 kilometers high near the equator of Venus, its resolution can also reach 270 meters.Magellan's central task is to study the geology andgeophysicsExploration research, through advanced radar detection technology, studies whether Venus has river bed and ocean structure. Some scientists in the former Soviet Union speculated that Venus had a vast ocean about 4 billion years ago.
After 15 months of navigation, Magellan ignited the reverse braking rocket on August 10, 1990, reducing its speed from 39600 kilometers per hour to 27900 kilometers, and entered the orbit around Venus.It takes about 189 minutes for the Magellan probe to circle along the meridian of Venus during its operation, and the scanning width is 20-25 kilometers;A 37 minute observation is planned from the Arctic region to 60 degrees south latitude, with a journey of about 15000 kilometers.On August 16, Magellan sent back the first batch of photos.
Magellan captured a 40 km × 80 km large lava plain on Venus. The radar mapping image is very clear, which can clearly identify volcanic lava flows, volcanic craters, mountains, active volcanoes, crustal faults, canyons and rock pits.There are thousands of Venus volcanoes. There are often deposits formed by meteorite impact around the volcanoes, like white flowers.Magellan found that the dust on Venus was fine and light, which was easy to be blown. The detection showed that there was indeed wind on the surface of Venus, probably like the "monsoon", blowing from time to time, and sometimes there would be big storms.The surface temperature of Venus is as high as 280 ℃~540 ℃.It doesn'tNatural satellite, no water dropsmagnetic field intensityIt is also very small. The atmosphere is mainly carbon dioxide. In a word, it is not suitable for life.About 70% of its surface is an extremely ancient basalt plain, 20% is low-lying land, and the plateau accounts for about 10% of the surface of Venus. The highest mountain on Venus is Maxwell Volcano, up to 12000 meters high.On the 25000 square kilometer plain near the Venus equator, there are three volcanic craters with a diameter of 37 to 48 kilometers.Venus has very irregular mountains, about 900 in total, and the traces are very young.
Magellan has taken radar images of most areas of Venus, and many of its images can often be superimposed and spliced with the radar images taken by the former Soviet Union's "Venus 15" and "Venus 16" detectors, so that interpretation experts can confirm each other, thus making people have a further understanding of Venus.Magellan has been exploring Venus from August 10, 1990 to December 12, 1994, and finally burned in the atmosphere of Venus.The Galileo probe, which flew to Jupiter in February 1990, passed Venus and successfully photographed the ultraviolet of Venus.In the infrared band image, the sulfuric acid cloud at the top of Venus' atmosphere is very prominent through ultraviolet light.Although Venus space exploration is fruitful, there are still many mysteries to be solved.Reportedly, in 2001Ministry of Education, Culture and ScienceThe Institute of Cosmic Sciences has formulated a Venus exploration plan to launch a Venus probe with an M5 rocket in 2007. It is expected that it will enter the big orbit around Venus in 2009Elliptical orbit, whichPerigeeAbout 300km,ApogeeAbout 60000 km;It can penetrate the atmosphere of Venus through five specialinfrared cameraUltraviolet cameras detect the atmosphere and geological structure of Venus.The future Venus exploration needs a long-life landing capsule, a special descent detection device, a remote control exploration balloon and aTrackerEtc.
Xiao Hao
The Venus probe Xiao, launched by Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) in May 2010, was originally scheduled to enter Venus orbit on December 7, 2010. However, when Xiao began to reverse inject its engine and prepare to slow down to enter Venus orbit, the communication equipment failed and lost contact with the ground command center briefly, so that the engine stopped and passed Venus.Dawn must wait until 2016 before it can again approach the orbit of Venus. The operation team said that if Dawn is still intact at that time, it will again challenge to enter the orbit of Venus.
Satellite halo
Non-existent satellite
It was once thought that Venus had a moon called Ness, named after the Egyptian goddess Seth (no mortal has ever seen her face under her veil).Its first discovery was made by an Italian born French astronomerGiovanni Domenico Cassini Completed in 1672.Astronomers' sporadic observations of Nice lasted until 1982, but these observations were later suspected (in fact, other dim stars appeared in the right place at the coincidental time), so they thought that Venus had no satellites.
Although asteroid 2002 VEsixty-eightIt maintains a similar orbit, but Venus has no natural satellites.basisCalifornia Institute of TechnologyThe model built by Alex Alemi and David Stevenson of the Institute of Early Solar System Research shows that, billions of years agoImpact eventVenus once had at least one satellite.According to Alemi and Stevenson, about 10 million years later, another impact changed the rotation of the planet, making the satellites of Venus gradually spiral inward until they collide with Venus and become one.If subsequent collisions create satellites, they will be absorbed in the same way.It is still unclear whether the scientific community will accept the research of Alemi and Stevenson.
temperature
Because of the stronggreenhouse effectAs a result, the average surface temperature of Venus is 464 ℃, and there is basically no regional, seasonal, day and night difference.In the lowlands near the equator, the surface of VenusLimiting temperatureUp to 500 degrees Celsius.Ganis Hill near Matte Mountain, a shield volcano, is the area with the highest surface temperature of Venus, about 527-827 ℃, while the top of Maxwell Mountain is the lowest surface temperature of Venus, about 380 ℃.The lowest temperature region on Venus is the top of the clouds, about - 45 degrees Celsius.
Future plans
In June 2021, NASA and ESA respectively approved new missions to Venus - "VERITAS" mission, "DAVINCI+" mission and "En Vison" mission. They plan to carry out two new missions to explore Venus between 2028 and 2030 to study the atmospheric and geological characteristics of Venus,Each plan will receive approximately $500 million in funding.In addition, Russia and India have also proposed and actively promoted their respective Venus exploration missions.Venus exploration and scientific research will usher in a new upsurge in the world.[15-16]
Geographical characteristics
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atmosphere
Ultraviolet photos of Venus taken in 2018 show the cloud structure
The sky of Venus is orange.Venus also has lightning, the largest lightning ever recorded lasted for 15 minutes.Venus's atmosphere is mainly composed of carbon dioxide, and contains a small amount ofnitrogen。Venus has a very high atmospheric pressure, 92 times that of the Earth, equivalent topressure。The existence of a large amount of carbon dioxide makes the greenhouse effect on Venus on a large scale.If there is no suchgreenhouse effectThe temperature will drop by 400 ℃.In the lowlands near the equator, the surface of VenusLimiting temperatureUp to 500 ℃.This makes the surface temperature of Venus even higher than that of Mercury, although it is twice as far from the sun as Mercury, and the sunlight it gets is only a quarter of that of Mercury (the light intensity at high altitude is 2613.9W/mtwo, surface 1071.1W/mtwo）。Although VenusrotationVery slow (Venus's "one day" is longer than Venus's "one year", and the rotation speed of the equator is only 6.5 kilometers per hour), but due to the thermal inertia and the convection of the dense atmosphere, the temperature difference between day and night is not large.The wind in the upper atmosphere can evenly transfer heat around Venus in only 4 days.
False color photos of Venus surface scanned by Magellan radar
The thick clouds of Venus reflect most of the sunlight back into space, so the surface of Venus receives less sunlight, and most of the sunlight cannot reach the surface of Venus directly.Venus thermal radiationreflectivityAbout 60%,visible light reflectance It's even bigger.Although Venus is closer to the sun than the Earth, its surface receives less light than the Earth.Without the greenhouse effect, the surface temperature of Venus would be very close to that of the Earth.People often take it for granted that the dense clouds of Venus can absorb more heat, which has proved to be ridiculous.On the contrary, without these clouds, the temperature would be higher.The greenhouse effect caused by the large amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is the real reason for absorbing more heat.In 2004, Venus transit at the top of the clouds, Venus has a strong wind of 350 kilometers per hour, but on the surface, it is calm and calm, not more than several kilometers per hour.However, considering the density of the atmosphere, even a very slow wind will have great power to overcome the resistance to progress.The clouds of Venus are mainly composed ofsulfur dioxideIt is composed of sulfuric acid and completely covers the surface of Venus.This makes it difficult for observers on Earth to observe the surface of Venus through this barrier.The temperature at the top of these clouds is about - 45 ℃.American AirlinesandSpaceThe data given by the General Administration shows that the surface temperature of Venus is 464 ℃.The temperature at the top of the cloud layer is the lowest on Venus, while the surface temperature is never lower than 400 ℃.[8]
The high temperature on the surface of Venus is due to the stronggreenhouse effectGreenhouse effect refers to the heat preservation effect caused by the lack of heat exchange between the sunlight transmitting confined space and the outside world.The greenhouse effect on Venus is astonishingly strong, because VenusAtmospheric densityIt is 100 times of the earth's atmosphere, and more than 97% of the atmosphere is "heat preservation gas" - carbon dioxide;At the same time, Venus has a layer of 20~30 km thickconcentrated sulfuric acidComposed of thick clouds.Carbon dioxide and thick clouds only allow sunlight to pass through, but do not allow heat to be emitted into space through the clouds.The enclosed solar radiation makes the surface of Venus become hotter and hotter.The greenhouse effect makes the surface temperature of Venus as high as 465 to 485 ℃, and there is basically no regional, seasonal, day and night difference.It also causes the pressure on Venus to be very high, about 90 times that of Earth.The thick Venus cloud layer obscures the day on Venus, and the sky is orange.There is a strong wind at the top of the cloud layer, about 350 kilometers per hour, but the surface wind speed is very slow, less than several kilometers per hour.It is very interesting that lightning andthunderstorm。
Venus has an atmospheric pressure of 90 standard atmospheres (equivalent to the pressure at the depth of 1 km of the Earth's ocean). The atmosphere is mostly composed of carbon dioxide, and there are also several layers of clouds thousands of meters thick composed of sulfuric acid.These clouds block the observation of the surface of Venus, making it look very fuzzy.This dense atmosphere has also produced the greenhouse effect, making the surface temperature of Venus as high as 400 degrees, more than 740 Kelvin (enough to melt the lead).Venus is naturally hotter than Mercury, although Venus is twice as far from the sun as Mercury.
Venus's atmosphere is mainly carbon dioxide, accounting for about 96%, and nitrogen 3%.At an altitude of 50 to 70 kilometers, dense thick clouds are suspended, dividing the atmosphere into upper and lower layers.Cloud isconcentrated sulfuric acidThe liquid drop is composed of sulfur particles, so it is yellow.On the earth with a good climate, it is hard to imagine such a crazy world in the solar system.
Venus approaches the surface atmosphere at a relatively slow speed, only a few kilometers per hour, but the upper layer can reach hundreds of kilometers per hour. Venus rotates at such a slow speed for 243 Earth days before turning a circle, but there is such a fast rotating upper atmosphere, which is still a mystery.In the photo, it is observed that the cloud layer on the surface of Venus presents an inverted V-shaped shape, which is called a zonal wind system.This zonal wind is actually convection caused by solar radiation.
When the Earth or Venus clouds form, the energy stored in the air by the sun can be released in a very powerful discharge.As the cloud particles collide, the charge is transferred from the large particles to the small particles, and the large particles drop and the small particles rise.The separation of electric charges caused a lightning strike.This is a very important process for the planetary atmosphere, because it raises the temperature and pressure of a small part of the atmosphere to a very high value so that molecules can form, which would not have happened under the temperature and pressure of the standard atmosphere.Therefore, some scientists speculate that lightning may contribute to the emergence of life on Earth.
In order to analyze Venus lightning, the research team has used“Venus Express ”Collect low altitude data for nearly 10 minutes. By comparing the similarities and differences between the electromagnetic waves generated by the two planets, it is found that the magnetic signal on Venus is relatively strong. However, after the magnetic signal is converted into energy flux, the lightning intensity is very similar to that of daytime lightning, which seems to be more common than that of nighttime lightning, while the lightning frequency is higher in the lower latitudes where the sunlight penetrates into the atmosphere of Venus most strongly.
Venus is very similar to Earth and is regarded as a pair of sister stars
Venus is aterrestrial planetBecause its mass is similar to that of the earth, it is sometimes called the "sister star" of the earth.Is the only one in the solar systemmagnetic fieldThe planet of.stayplanetsThe orbit of Venus is the closest to the circle,EccentricityThe minimum is 0.006811.Take the Earth as one of the vertices of the triangle, and connect Venus and the sun respectively. It will be found that this angle is very small, even at the maximum, it is only 48.5 °. This is because the orbit of Venus is inside the orbit of the Earth.Therefore, when Venus is seen, it is either in the morning or in the evening, and it is located in the east and west of the sky respectively.
Internal structure
Venus internal structure
There is no direct data about the internal structure of Venus. According to theoretical calculation, the internal structure of Venus is similar to that of the Earth. There is an iron nickel core with a radius of about 3100 kilometers. The middle layer is a "mantle" mainly composed of silicon, oxygen, iron, magnesium and other compounds, while the outer layer is a very thin "shell" mainly composed of silicon compounds.Scientists speculate that the internal structure of Venus may be similar to that of the Earth. According to the structure of the Earth, Venus mantle is mainly composed of olivine and pyroxene silicates, as well as a layer of silicate based crust, and the center is composed ofIron nickel alloyThe core of.The average density of Venus is 5.24g/cmthree, second to Earth andMercury, is the third of the eight planets (Pluto was classified as a dwarf planet in 2006, so it is called the eight planets).An iron core with a diameter of 3000 kilometers, the molten stone ismantleFill most of the planet.Just like the earth, convection in the mantle creates pressure on the surface, but it is lightened by many relatively small regions, so that it will not be destroyed at the plate boundary like the earth.
Surface geography
Geology and geomorphology
Venus Global Topographic Map
There are two main continental highlands on the Great Plains on the surface of Venus.The northern highland is calledIshtar Terra Ishtar Terra has the highestMaxwell Montes (Approxthe himalayas2000 meters), which is based onJames Clerk Maxwell Named.Maxwell Montes encircles the Lakshmi Planum.Ishta is about the size of Australia.There is a larger Aphrodite Terra in the southern hemisphere, with an area equivalent to that of South America.There are many broad lowlands between these highlands, including Atalanta Planitia, Guinevere Planitia and Lavinia Planitia.exceptMaxwell Montes In addition, all Venus landforms are named after women in reality or myth.Because Venus's dense atmosphere slows down meteors and other objects before reaching the surface of Venus, the craters on Venus are no more than 3.2 kilometers.[4]
Venus Global Radar Map
About 90% of the surface of Venus is formed by basalt lava solidified not long ago, and there are also very fewMeteorite craterThe interior of Venus may be similar to the Earth:earth 's coreAnd the mantle composed of lava make up most of Venus.Recent data from Magellan show that the crust of Venus is thicker and stronger than originally thought.It can be inferred that Venus has no movable plate structure like the Earth, but there are a lot of regularvolcanoEruptions spread all over the surface of venus.The oldest features on Venus are only 800 million years old, and most areas are very young (but there are also hundreds of millions of years).At that time, widespread mountain fires scrubbed the early surface, including several large craters formed in early Venus. The volcanoes of Venus are still active in isolated geological hotspots.[5]
Venusianmagnetic fieldIt is very weak compared with other planets in the solar system.This may be because Venus's rotation is not fast enoughCutting magnetic induction lineThe magnetic field is weak.In this way, the solar wind can hit the upper atmosphere of Venus without buffering.At the earliest time, people thought that Venus and the Earth had the same amount of water. However, the solar wind attack has made Venus's upper atmospheresteamIt decomposes into hydrogen and oxygen.The hydrogen atom escaped to space because of its small mass.The proportion of deuterium (an isotope of hydrogen that has a large mass and escapes slowly) on Venus seems to support this theory.The oxygen element is combined with the material in the crust, so there is no oxygen element in the atmosphereoxygen。The surface of Venus is very dry, so the rocks on Venus are harder than those on Earth, thus forming more steep mountains, cliffs and other landforms.A grand canyon stretching 1200 kilometers from south to north across the equator isplanetsThe largest canyon in China.[6]
In addition, according todetectorExplore and discover VenusMagmaIt contains water.Venus may have had a lot of water like the Earth, but it was evaporated and dissipated, making it very dry now.If the earth were closer to the sun, it would have the same fate.
Data from Magellan's aircraft imaging radar shows that most of Venus's surface is covered by lava flows and there are several large shielded volcanoes, such as Sif Mons, which is similar to the Olympus Mons of Hawaii and Mars.But it focuses on several hot spots.Most areas have formed landforms, which are much quieter than in the past few hundred million years.
There are no small ones on VenusCrater, looks smallplanetEntering the density of VenusatmosphereIt didn't burn up.The craters on Venus are in clusters, which seems to be because large asteroids usually break up in the atmosphere before reaching the surface of Venus.
Volcanic distribution
Venus is also the closest planet in the solar system to the Earth, and is also surrounded by clouds and thick atmosphere.Like the Earth, Venus is also very young, about 500 million years old.
Impact crater on the surface of Venus, false color photos of radar data
Venus is full of volcanoes, and is the planet with the largest number of volcanoes in the solar system.More than 1600 large volcanoes and volcanic features have been found.In addition, there are countless small volcanoes. No one has calculated their number. It is estimated that the total number is more than 100000, or even 1 million.Venus has much in common with the earth.They are similar in size and volume.Venus volcanoes have different shapes.In addition to the more commonShield volcanoThere are also many complex volcanic features and special volcanic structures.Scientists have not yet found active volcanoes, but due to limited research data, although most Venus volcanoes have long been extinguished, it is still possible that a small number are still active.However, there are many differences among these basic similarities.Venus's atmosphere is mostly carbon dioxide, so its surface has a strong greenhouse effect. Its atmospheric pressure is about 90 times that of the earth, which is almost equivalent to the water pressure of 1 km below the sea surface of the earth.[7]
Venus has no water on its surface and no water in its air. The main components of its clouds aresulphuric acidAnd much higher than the height of the earth's cloud layer.Due to the high atmospheric pressure, the wind speed on Venus is relatively slow.This means that the surface of Venus is neither affected by wind nor washed away by rain.Therefore, the volcanic features of Venus can be clearly maintained for a long time.
Venus has no plate structure and no linearVolcanic chainThere is no obvious plate extinction zone.Although there are many canyons on Venus, there is no trench that looks like the Earth.
False color photo of Mayat Mountain, magnified by 22.5 times in vertical direction
The evidence shows that the eruption form of Venus volcano is also relatively simple.The solidified lava layer shows that when most of the Venus Volcano erupted, only the outflow of lava flow showed no signs of violent eruption and ash ejection, and even the lava was not as muddy and viscous as the earth's lava.This phenomenon is not difficult to understand.Due to the explosive volcanic eruption under high atmospheric pressure, a huge amount of gas is required in the lava.On Earth, the main gas that causes the violent eruption of lava is water gas, while Venus lacks water molecules.In addition, most of the clayey lava flows and volcanic ash eruptions on the earth occur in the plate extinction zone.Therefore, the lack of plate extinction zone also greatly reduces the probability of violent eruption of Venus volcano.Mayat Mountain, one of the largest volcanoes on Venus, is 9000 meters higher than the surrounding area and 200 kilometers wide. There are many volcanoes and volcanic activities on the surface of Venus.At least 85% of the surface of Venus is covered with volcanic rocks. In addition to hundreds of large volcanoes, there are also more than 100000 small volcanoes scattered on the surface of Venus. Lava flows from volcanoes have produced long ditches, ranging from hundreds of kilometers, the longest of which is more than 7000 kilometers.
Shield volcano
Venus has more than 150 large shield volcanoes.These shields are mostly between 100km and 600km in diameter and about 0.3-5km in height.The largest one has a diameter of 700 kilometers and a height of 5.5 kilometers.Compared with the shield volcano on the earth, Venus volcano appears more flat.In fact, the base diameter of the largest Venus shield volcano is close to that of the Olympus volcano on Mars, but it is much smaller than the Olympus volcano due to lack of height.
Martian shield volcanoes are similar to those on Earth.They are mostly covered by long, radial lava flows with gentle slopes.Most volcanoes have blowholes in their centers.Therefore, scientists speculate that these shields are made of basalt, similar to the volcanoes in Hawaii.
The shield volcanoes on Venus are scattered, unlike the volcanic chains on Earth.This shows that Venus has no active plate tectonics.
Venus has about 100000 small shield volcanoes with a diameter of less than 20 kilometers.These volcanoes are usually distributed in clusters and are called shield zones.There are more than 550 shield zones marked on the map by scientists, most of which are between 100 and 200 kilometers in diameter.Shield zone is widely distributed, mainly in low-lying plains or low-lying hills.Scientists found that many shield zones have been renewedLavaThe plain is covered, so they speculate that the age of the shield zone is very old and may have formed in the early stage of volcanic activity.
magnetic field
Venus does not contain the global magnetic field, and the solar wind carries the interplanetary magnetic field to directly interact with the upper atmosphere/ionosphere of Venus.Due to the cutting motion between the interplanetary magnetic field and the Venus ionosphere, there will be induced currents in the ionosphere.The additional magnetic field excited by the induced current makes the interplanetary magnetic field gradually bend and "hang" outside the atmosphere of Venus when approaching Venus.Driven by the solar wind plasma flow, the suspended interplanetary magnetic field enters the sunny side of Venus, forming an "inductive" magnetotail structure similar to the earth's magnetic tail。[14]
Culture
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Chinese mythology
Venus was called Taibai in ancient China, and it was also called when it appeared in the east in the morningVenus, Xiaoxing and Xingxing are also called Changgeng and Dusk Stars when they appear in the west in the evening.Because it is very bright, it can most arouse the imagination of the imaginative Chinese ancients, and there are many legends about it.
In China's native religion Taoism,HyperplatinumIt is one of the core members, and its position is only in Sanqing (YuqingLord of Heaven and symbol of the creative power of the Dao、Shangqing Lingbao TianzunTaiqing Moral Heavenly Honor).At first, the Taoist god Taibaijinxing was a goddess wearing a yellow skirt, a cockscomb, and playing the pipa. After the Ming Dynasty, the image changed into an old fairy with childlike face and white hair. He often monitored the good and evil of the world under the orders of the Jade Emperor, and was called the Western Patrol.In Chinese classical novels, there are many legends about Taibai Venus, which shows his popularity.In the popular "Journey to the West", Taibai Venus is a multiple andSun WuKongA good old man to deal with.
It is said that Li Bai's birth was unusual because his mother dreamed that Taibai Venus fell into her arms and was born. Therefore, Li Bai was named after Taibai.After growing up, Li Bai also has some "immortal spirit". He wanders around the world, learns Daoist swords, and is good at drinkingChivalrous, laughing and proud princes.His poetry has the imagination of "going up to the sky and embracing the moon", and its momentum is like "the water of the Yellow River comes up from the sky", which nobody can match.Li Bai enjoyed the reputation of "Poetry Immortal" at that time, and was later honored as "Poetry Immortal".
Western Myth
In Van Gogh's famous starry night in 1889, Venus is on the right side of the tree
Venus is the goddess of love, beauty, fertility and navigationRoman mythName in;In Greek mythology, her name isAphrodite。In Greek and Roman mythology, Venus is the embodiment of love and beauty - Venus.Venus is a good name for her by the Romans, which means "beautiful painting". Aphrodite means "rising foam" in Greek, because it is said that she was born in the foam on the sea.The beauty of Venus made many goddesses envy her and attracted countless gods. Even her father Zeus pursued her.However, Zeus was very angry when his courtship was rejected, so he married her to the lame craftsman god Volgan (called Hephaestus in Greek mythology).But Venus later fell in love with the god of warMarsAnd gave birth to several children, including the little god of loveCupid。[1]
American mythology
The Venus calendar is a calendar rule based on the periodic activities of Venus.However, the Venus calendar is not a work of science fiction, but a calendar system that actually appeared in the ancient Maya civilization.For some unknown reason,MayanTwo sets of calendar systems are used at the same time, and one of them is based on the cycle operation of Venus.
Although Venus is dazzling, it does not always represent good luck.It sometimes hangs high in the east, sometimes shines in the west, which makes people unpredictable, so fear arises.For Maya and Aztecs, it symbolizes both death and resurrection.It isAztecQuezal Koyter, the god of the dead, can revive the extinct people with the skeleton stolen from the kingdom of the dead, and regenerate with the blood given by the god.Ancient Phoenicians.Jews think it isdevilThe incarnation of is an evil star. The ancient Mexicans were also afraid of Venus. They always closed the doors and windows at dawn to block its light.They believe that the light of Venus will bring disease.Of course, these legends are all idealistic ideas that the ancients imagined because they did not understand the laws of celestial body movement. In fact, Venus is Venus, and has nothing to do with human disasters.In short, Venus is always the brightest star in the night sky, whether it is a lucky star or a disaster star.
Related celestial phenomena
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In April 2023, experts in popular astronomical science introduced that on the evening of the 11th, a romantic scene will be staged in the northwest sky - Venus with the Pleiades, the bright Venus inlaid next to the famous Pleiades, particularly gorgeous.It is reported that Venus will pass near the Pleiades star cluster from April 10 to 12. The most recent event occurred on April 11. The angular distance between the two is about 2.5 degrees, nearly five full moons in the length of the apparent diameter.[11]
Venus transit
Transit refers to the phenomenon that the circular surface of the inner planet passes through the solar surface.Mercury and Venus are closer to the sun than the earth, and sometimes they are between the sun and the earth when they orbit the sun.At this time, observers on the earth can see a small black dot moving slowly on the solar surface, which is the transit phenomenon.Venus transit is a group of two transits. The interval between the two transits is 8 years, but the interval between the two groups is more than 100 years. Therefore, Venus transit is rare in a century.The last two transits of Venus occurred on June 8, 2004 and June 5, 2012 respectively, and the next one will not occur until 2117.Russian astronomer Romonosov discovered the atmosphere of Venus when he observed the transit of Venus in 1761.[17-18]
Venus transit
The moon covers Venus
The moon covers Venus
The so-called lunar occultation of Venus is the phenomenon that the moon just blocks Venus in the direction of line of sight during its operation.The moon will not only cover Venus, but also other celestial bodies during its operation, which may lead to the phenomenon of "moon occultation".
Such celestial phenomena are not rare.Because the major planets and the moon of the solar system all run near the ecliptic plane (that is, the earth's orbit plane around the sun), and the apparent diameter of the moon (relative to the visual angle of the earth observer) reaches 30 minutes, it will orbit the celestial sphere once a month, while other planets run relatively slowly.In addition, the distance between the earth diameter and the moon is relatively large, and the parallax of people in different regions is also large. Therefore, it is a common phenomenon to see the moon blocking the planets or stars behind in a certain region of the earth.For the global region, the lunar occultation star appears with a high frequency, almost once or twice a year. As of October 31, 2023, the last observed celestial phenomenon in China is March 24, 2023。[19]
Samsung First Line
Samsung First Line
The three-star line originally refers to the rare celestial phenomenon that Saturn, Mars (the outer planet closest to the Earth) and Antares (the brightest star in Scorpius) are connected in a straight line in turn. This celestial phenomenon is very rare and occurs once every 30 years.From the perspective of "three stars connected in a straight line", Venus also has a "three-star line" celestial phenomenon that connects with the other two stars in a straight line.According to the report of China News Network on December 2, 2021, from that day to December 18, 2021, as long as the weather is clear, you can watch the spectacular scene of Venus (Chang Geng Star), Saturn and Jupiter "three-star line" (three-star line) from all over the world outside the poles during the 30-60 minute sunset period.[20-21]
Five star Lianzhu
Five star Lianzhu
Five star alignment refers to the unique celestial phenomenon that Venus, Jupiter, Mercury, Mars and Saturn appear in the same direction at the same time and are connected like a string of beads. The ancients regarded it as auspicious.There were many records in ancient Chinese astronomical records, such as "five stars in a row", "five stars converge" and "five stars gather at a certain night". The most recent "five stars in a row" celestial phenomenon appeared in 2021. According to the report of People's Daily reprinted by Pengpai on August 18, 2021, the night sky the next day was a spectacle of five stars in a row, including gold, wood, water, fire and earth,It can be seen in sunny areas all over the country.[22-24]
A binary moon
On the morning of February 8, 2024 (Beijing time), Venus, Mars and the moon will perform the "double star moon" phenomenon in the southeast low altitude.
According to astronomical experts, at 6:00 a.m. on February 8, 2024, with the Beijing Tianjin Hebei region as the observation site, people can first see the bright Venus in the southeast low altitude. About half an hour later, Mars with a slight red light will also enter people's vision. Mars is located at the lower left of Venus, and a crescent moon will appear at the lower right of Venus,The three roughly form an equilateral triangle.[26]
At about 6:00 a.m. on March 8, 2024, look toward the low altitude southeast by east.The tiny waning moon is visible in Capricorn.Mars is on the left side of the waning moon, with an interval of about 6.5 degrees, and the brightness of Mars is about 1.25 degrees. Because it is close to the horizon, it is difficult to see clearly.Venus is the lowest, but also the easiest to find. It will be more convenient to find Mars and the moon after finding Venus.[28]
Schematic diagram of the southeast sky before sunrise on February 8
Venus conjunct Jupiter
The conjunction of Venus and Jupiter means that the two celestial bodies are very close in the sky when viewed from the Earth.Generally, Venus and Jupiter are the first and second stars in brightness in the night sky. Almost every year, they have the opportunity to "walk" together to form the celestial phenomenon of Venus and Jupiter.
On May 23, 2024, Venus and Jupiter will meet.Astronomical science experts said that this is a rare phenomenon of golden wood pole proximity, but the observation is not easy and there is a certain danger, because they are too close to the sun.[29]
world record
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The average surface temperature of Venus is about 480 ° C (the highest planet temperature in Guinness World PeriodRecord).[12]
Research findings
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In November 2021, researchers from the German Aerospace Center, the Max Planck Institute of Astronomy and the University of Cologne observed the presence of atomic oxygen on the daytime surface of Venus using stratospheric infrared observation equipment.This is the first time that atomic oxygen has been directly observed in the daytime of Venus.[13]
In 2023,The German Aerospace Center found that atomic oxygen was directly detected on the day side and night side of Venus.This research can support the space mission of exploring Venus in the future.[25]
On February 28, 2024, it was reported that in March, the observable celestial phenomena include Comet Ponce Brooks, Venus, the companion moon of Mars, Mercury, etc., Venus and Mars can be seen in the low sky near the east by south before sunrise.[27]
