Sumer

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Sumer (4100-2000 BC) Mesopotamia South, yes Sumerian Created civilization. Mesopotamia is the birthplace of the earliest known civilization in the world, and also one of the earliest civilizations that can be verified.

Chinese name: Sumer
Foreign name: Sumer
State: Asia
major city: Elidu Uruk 、 Ur 、 Nippur 、 Kish

official language: Sumerian language
National leaders: Enmebaragsi
Major ethnic groups: Sumerian
Major religions: Su Mei Polytheism

catalog

five Architecture
six Sociology
seven Art
eight military

nine gods
ten Decline

Development history

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Sumerian

Sumerian sumerian civilization It's the whole thing Mesopotamia It is the earliest civilization in the world, and it is also the earliest civilization in the world. Sumerian civilization is mainly located in Mesopotamia (i.e Two river basin ）South. Radiocarbon 14 dating test shows that the beginning of Sumerian civilization can be traced back to 6500 BC. It ended around 2000 BC and was later Semitic Human built Babylon, Cuba Kingdom instead. According to the archaeological findings Cuneiform Before the creation of the more ancient characters (the earliest recognized written records) about 3600 BC. But for a long time no one knew the origin of the Sumerians. They call themselves "blackheads" and talk about Semitic A language unrelated to the language of a tribal area.

Encyclopedia x ignorance: illustrating Sumerian civilization

origin

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Early civilization

Sumer

historian Between 4100 BC and 3000 BC sumerian civilization On the one hand, it is called "early high civilization". During this period, all Sumerian city states and Sumerian characters already existed, but the history of this period is still very unclear. There may be many reasons, such as insufficient archaeological discoveries, or the lack of systematic historical records when civilization just started. It is found that Cuneiform The documents of the time are mainly economic or administrative documents, which cannot yet outline the complete history of the time. The earliest Sumerian period was composed of several independent city state These cities are connected by canals and Boundary stone division. The center of each city country is the city's patron saint or the temple of the patron goddess. Each city country has a religious rites Ruled by a priest or king.

Early dynasties

Sumer Map

From the historical data obtained from archaeological discoveries, Sumer city states entered an era of "hegemony among nations" from 2900 BC.

Sumer

The larger city-state has Elidu , Kish Lagash 、 Uruk , Ur, Winmar and Nippur 。 These cities water right , trade routes and nomadic people For nearly a thousand years, they have been fighting with each other for paying tribute. Archaeology has been able to roughly outline the historical situation at that time, but due to the limited historical data found, the history that people know today may still be the tip of the iceberg of the actual situation at that time.

Sumer

Kish is considered to have been a relatively strong city-state, because later many Sumerian monarchs did not even actually rule Kish, but also claimed to be the king of Kish. (However, some historians now believe that this is not enough to show that Kish once dominated. There may be other reasons, such as religion, for claiming to be the King of Kish.) The earliest king that can be verified to exist is the King of Kish Enmebaragsi 。 archaeologist The discovery of royal inscriptions in Lagesh has enabled people today to know the complete list of kings of Lagesh and related historical events for about 150 years from 2500 BC to 2350 BC, which also makes Lagesh the only relatively complete city state among Sumerian city states that people today know.

Sumer sculpture

Around 2500 BC, Lagesh became stronger. During the reign of Ulnansh King, Lagesh dominated Sumer. When King Anayem and King Etimena arrived, Lagesh conquered many places, and Sumer had a trend of unification. Later, King Lugar Anda caused a riot because of his poor governance Urukakina The people of Human history Last First Political reform Movement, trying to safeguard the interests of civilians. At the time of civil strife in Lagesh, a large-scale war broke out among Sumerian countries Lugar Zaksi Conquer Lagesh and kill Urukakina. Blood slaughters the whole city. Urukakina had been in power for only six years, and his reform was therefore abandoned. (History of Civilization, 51).

Priestly King of Winmar Lugar Zaksi (Lugal Zage Si, 2359-2335 BC) Destroyed the dynasty of Lagesh, occupied Uruk, and made it his capital. He claimed that his empire was from Persian Gulf It spread to mediterranean sea 。

Akkad era

Sumer

Later, Lugar Zaksi was defeated by the Akkadian King Saar. Akkad Kingdom Unified Mesopotamia (Akkadians belong to Semitic , not Sumerian). In the late period of Akkad Kingdom, many Sumerian city states began to revive. Later, after Akkad was destroyed by the barbarian Gutium, Sumer was revived. Lagesh is also in a Gudea (Gudea) was very prosperous and powerful under the rule of the king (or the second dynasty of Lagesh).

Ur Third Dynasty

Or called Ur Empire , 2111 BC to 2003 BC

Sumer

The barbarian Kuti destroyed the Akkad Kingdom, but the rule of the Kuti was not stable, which made Sumer city states revive briefly. In 2120 BC Uruk Utuhgar, a man, set up his own army to become the King of Uruk and defeated the Kuti. Utuhgar was appointed after occupying Ur Ulnam Governance of Ur (The relationship between Utuhgar and Urnam is still a subject of study in the history circle. One says that Urnam is Utuhgar's younger brother, and the other says that Urnam is Utuhgar's son-in-law). But perhaps while Utuhgar was still alive, Ulnam had already turned against him and refused to submit to him. In about 2112 BC, Utuhgar died of an accident (or possibly a conspiracy). After that, Ulnam fought from south to north. Following the Akkad Kingdom, he unified the whole Mesopotamia and established a powerful Centralization Dynasty—— Ur Third Dynasty He began to call himself "King of Sumer and Akkad".

Although the Ur Third Dynasty was a Sumerian dynasty, it was different from the former Sumerian city states. Like the Akkad Kingdom or the later Babylonian Kingdom, it was a powerful centralized country.

Sumer

The earliest code in human history that can be seen today is laws of ur-namma , although only some fragments have been saved. During the Third Dynasty of Ur, great construction was also carried out in Ur, and the temple remains of Ur are still available today.

At the end of the Third Dynasty of Ur, the royal power declined, the separatist regimes everywhere, and the foreign Amorites continued to invade. At last, the invasion of the Elam gave the third dynasty of Ur the most fatal blow. King Ibrahim (reigned from 2026 BC to 2004 BC) was defeated and captured. The Third Dynasty of Ur perished.

perish

Sumer

After the collapse of the Third Ur Dynasty, there was no Sumerian regime in history. The Sumerian nation also gradually disappeared from history - although later Babylon, Assyria Period, Sumerian language 、 Cuneiform It still exists.

The influence of Sumerian civilization continues. But the Sumerians themselves were gradually forgotten. The Jewish literature slightly mentions Sumer

Sumerian activity area natural resources Relatively scarce. Not only Forest resources Rare, and Mining of mineral resources It's also difficult, not even like Ancient Egypt The area is rich in stone resources. Nevertheless, Sumerians not only understand geology Know the process of ore mining and smelting, and also produce a metal that has never been seen before in history, which is the first alloy in human history - bronze.

Queen Sumer - Shuboyad

Stars and planets in the sky. Surprisingly, in the ancient books of Sumerians, we can find Astrology The picture is almost the same pattern. Could they have invented modern surveying and mapping instruments at that time? People always follow the ancient history from two directions. One is to follow the clues provided by many myths, so human beings have the historical origin of God; One is to follow the track of civilization changes displayed in cultural classics, so that human beings have a historical development. Therefore, various archaeological achievements often prove either the prophecy of God or the hypothesis of human beings. In fact, all people from Cultural sites The significance of the cultural relics unearthed in Ancient history Vacancies can be filled in some form. Perhaps many cultural relics can indeed play a role in connecting historical fragments, while more cultural relics just mark the real existence of historical fragments, leaving a piece of historical obscurity, even mystery.

Sumer sculpture

Almost all excavation results are proving that Sumerians are the first to enter Mesopotamian Plain Of Ancient nation Because they are a black haired race from afar, they call themselves "black heads" in the inscriptions on the stone tablets they bring. Since I came here, I have accumulated fertile soil from two rivers Delta The Sumerians found that there was no stone like that of their native land or that of Egypt Papyrus Growing, he invented such a writing method: Ooze make Clay tablet , and then write, and dry it after writing, so as to keep the document. Because they used pointed pens when writing, the characters they wrote were cuneiform, which is the origin of the famous cuneiform characters.

Sumer region

So, where did the Sumerians come from Mesopotamian Plain What about? One possibility is from Iranian Plateau Because the earliest Sumerian buildings unearthed were built according to the principle of wood structure Timber structure building Usually, it is only widely used in mountainous areas with dense trees, but this contradicts the myth and legend of Sumerians; Another opposite possibility is to come from the rough sea to the place where the river flows into the sea Funerary goods Among them, only one gold and one silver, each about 0.6 meters long, can be found in Euphrates River A model of a small boat sailing on.

Statue of Sumerian

Therefore, some researchers believe that: Afghanistan Mountain to Indus River Among the residents of the valley, they came to find the traces of Sumerians. This area is about 2500 kilometers east of Mesopotamia Plain. This hypothesis seems to have been quickly proved by archaeologists, because a highly developed Historical Cultural Site , which unearthed relic Among them, there are several rectangular seals, which look the same as Ur Those excavated from the ruins of the ancient city are very similar. However, there is an inexplicable problem: remote date Is it possible for an ancient nation or country to migrate to a place more than two thousand kilometers away, without leaving a clue in the national myth or a record in the cultural classics. Therefore, although people have worked hard to find Sumerian homes; It also confirms the existence of Sumerian culture, and this culture has a great impact on Mesopotamia cultural ring However, the question of where the Sumerians came from has never been answered.

Sumer Ruins

However, the mystery of Sumerians is far more than that. For example, Sumerians have an unusually long life span and surprisingly high intelligence. However, these are all recorded on the clay tablets. Whether they are true or not needs to be proved. The only thing that does not need to be proved is the numerous ladder shaped structures built on the plains around the ancient city site of Ur Pyramid 。 What's the use of these pyramids? According to the records on the clay tablets, they are all used for sacrifice. Because their gods always live high on the top of the holy mountain, they need to pray at the top of the pyramid, so that people can get close to the palace of the gods, so that the gods can easily accept people's worship. The influence of this way of worship on the Mesopotamian plain expanded rapidly and remained for thousands of years, from the Kingdom of Babylon to the Kingdom of Assyria, from Babylon to Nineveh Such stepped pyramids can be seen everywhere, even the Babel Tower in the Bible. Its shape is also stepped. If it can be built, it will also be a magnificent pyramid.

Sumer

Therefore, many amazing miracles are also related to the Sumerian pyramids. In the ancient books and patterns left by Sumerians, the images of Sumerian gods recorded are all related to the stars in the sky. None of these gods has a human shape. Each god represents a star. There are many different planets, large and small, around each star. The entire astrological map is almost the same as that mapped by modern people! At least one thing is unbelievable, which is that maybe Sumerians can see those stars. However, common sense tells us that it is impossible for them to observe those stars and planets with their own eyes! In addition, on some patterns, some people wear stars, some people drive flying balls with wings, and even there is a pattern: a string of small virtual and real balls are surrounded into a big circle, which makes people look like a gene model.

Sumer

If we say that these written records are not enough to prove that Sumerian culture surpasses other ancient peoples Cultural characteristics Then, Sumerians' use of numbers can be said to have reached an unsurpassed level: on a clay tablet found near the pyramid, a calculation problem of multiplying two numbers was listed, and if the final product was used Arabic numerals The result is a 15 digit number 195955200000000, which is the mathematics that Sumerians have reached 6000 years ago Knowledge level 。

However, the Greeks around 500 BC still believed that the five digit number 10000 was simply a "too big to calculate", and those who exceeded 10000 were called“ Infinity ”。 Multibit number For Europeans, it was not until 1600 A.D. that mathematicians and philosophers such as Descartes and Leibniz first used the word for calculation. In the concept of ordinary people in the West, it was only after the 19th century that people began to understand the number of people, so that the name millionaire became synonymous with the largest millionaire with countless wealth.

Sumerian art

The name Sumer is not a Sumerian name, but a name given to them by others. The first people to use this name were Akkadians. Sumerians call themselves "sag-gi-ga" and call their place of residence "ki en gir". The word Shumer used by Akkad people may be a variation of the local dialect of this name. Sumerians' language, culture, and possibly appearance are different from their Semitic neighbors and heirs. In the past, some people believed that they were invaders, but archaeological excavations proved that the early Obeid culture from the 53rd century to the 46th century began in southern Mesopotamia Residential culture It is continuous.

Sumerian Statue

Today's southern Iraq is arid Alluvial plain It is a difficult area for local residents. To survive here, people here must have control Tigris River And the capacity of the Euphrates River to ensure the source of irrigation and drinking water throughout the year. In Sumerian, there are many words such as canal, dam and reservoir. Obeid ceramics and earlier northern Samarra period (from the 58th century to the 50th century). The people of the Samarra culture used the water of the Tigris River and its tributaries to carry out early and primitive Irrigated agriculture 。 In the 1980s, French archaeologists Lhasa The settlements excavated near (Larsa) clearly show the connection between the two cultures.

Here, eight layers of early ceramics of Obeid culture coexist with those of Samarra culture. The Sumerians have expanded southward from here, and their advanced social organization They have the ability to control water and survive and develop in a difficult environment, while the original local hunting culture cannot compete with them. Others believe that the word Sumerian should only refer to Sumerian, and there is no isolated Sumerian people. In linguistics, Sumerian is a Isolated language , does not belong to any language family.

Agriculture

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Sumer relief

The plants planted by Sumerians include barley Chickpea 、 Lentil 、 Millet Seeds, wheat, turnip date palm , onion, garlic, bitter cauliflower Leek And horseradish, their livestock Including cattle sheep 、 goat And pigs. Domestic cattle It is their main negative livestock, and donkeys are their main transport livestock. Sumerians also fish and hunt birds.

Sumer agriculture relies on huge irrigation system 。 Its irrigation system includes shadouf , canals, canals, dikes, weirs and reservoirs. Canals and canals must always be repaired to remove silt. The government has people who manage canals and canals, and the rich can use their own canals.

Farmers use canals to flood their land, and then Water drainage Drop. Then they use cattle to trample on farmland and kill grass. Then they use Pickaxe To dig the ground. After the land dried, they do hoeing , rake and loosen the soil with a shovel. Sumerians harvest in autumn. They form a team of three. After harvest, use the stone mill to separate the grain and stem, use the rice beater to separate the grain and bran, and finally use the wind to separate the grain and bran.

business

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Sumerian

Archaeological findings from Anatolia Of Obsidian , from northeastern Afghanistan lapis lazuli , beads from Dilmont (today's Bahrain) and some engraved Indus Civilization The seal of the characters of the Persian Gulf indicates that there was a wide trade network along the Persian Gulf at that time.

Gilgamesh epic It refers to trade with distant countries in exchange for rare goods such as wood in Mesopotamia. especially Lebanon Of cedar Wood was well received.

Sumerians used slaves, but slaves were not the mainstay of Sumerian economy. Female slaves were used to weave, print, mill, and hamal 。

Sumer's ceramics have the design of using cedar oil painting. They use bow drill to ignite fire to bake ceramics. Sumer is a mason and jeweler who can process Alabaster （ calcite ）, ivory, gold, silver Agate stone And lapis lazuli.

Architecture

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Sumer Ruins

The two river plains are short of stone mines and trees, so Sumer's buildings are all made of mud bricks Mortar Or cement connection. Mud brick buildings will be destroyed over time, so they will have to be demolished, leveled and rebuilt after a period of time. As time goes on, the cities on the two river plain are constantly rising. Such historic sites are called Tells. stay Middle East Such historic sites can be seen everywhere. The most spectacular and famous buildings of Sumerians are Pagoda temple They are built on a huge platform. The Babel Tower in the Bible may also be a similar building. Sumer's round seal is also similar to the reed house used by the marsh Arabs in southern Iraq until recently.

Sumer Ruins (1 sheet)

The temples and palaces in Sumer used more complex structures and techniques such as pillars, secret chambers and clay nails.

The architecture of this period has unique achievements. Two river basin The south was originally a river sand alluvial land, and there was no stone available for construction. Sumerians made of clay Adobe , as the main building material. In order to make the building waterproof, they inlaid ceramic pieces on the wall, similar to the modern mosaic.

The most important Sumerian architecture is the pagoda temple. It is built on several large earth mounds On the foundation , which is similar to Step Pyramid The building is called "Kikulata". Uruk The temple is the most typical representative of the pagoda temple.

Sumer

The tower on the ruins of Uruk City is the oldest remnant Mesopotamia One of the pagoda temples (stepped temples). According to textual research, the pagoda temple was built in the 21st century BC by King Nammu to show his respect for the goddess of fertility.

Sociology

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Sumerian

Sumerian culture has two centers Elidu And northern Nippur 。 The cultural influences of these two centers are quite different. Nippur is Enlil The Holy Land. Enlil is the god of the underworld. The spells and magic he gave to human beings can drive good ghosts and evil ghosts. His field is in a mountain, and his products live underground. Elidus is the god of culture enki He is the holy land of light and kindness, the master of underground fresh water, a doctor and a friend of mankind. He has brought art, science, industry and civilization to mankind. It is said that the earliest model calligraphy It's his product. Eli Du was originally a seaport. Its trade with the outside world and the integration of various cultures here undoubtedly played an important role in the development of its culture. Its worldview and its geographical position Related: It believes that the mainland emerges from the sea, like Euphrates River The mouth of the sea is expanding. stay History Before the beginning, the culture of Elidus has been in harmony with that of Nippur cultural fusion Has. Babylon seems to be a colony of Elidu, while Ur near Elidu is a colony of Nipur, where the moon god enshrined is the son of Enlil of Nipur. In the fusion of the two cultures, the influence of Eliot seems to play a major role. However, in Samuel Noah Kramer's work "The Deification of Sumer", the author revived a story "Enji and Elidu: The Journey of the Water God to Nipur", which mentioned that Elidu created the God Enji and brought tribute to Nipur to obtain Enlil's blessing. Samuel basically judged that Nipur's cultural origin was earlier than Elidu's. This can also be proved from the myth genealogy of Enji as Enlil's son. Therefore, the mutual influence of the two cultures still needs to be further clarified.

Sumerian Statue

Later Sumerian laws protected women, and women could reach a high status, but men were the masters of the whole culture.

Myth and legend

The earliest ones related to Sumerian myths and legends big flood The story is Noah's Ark 's story

Sumerians believe that man was born to obey the gods, and the king is the agent of the gods in the world. People must obey the gods, or they will be punished, so they build towering Pagoda temple To show the relationship between man and God.

Every city in Sumer has its own gods and theology, and these gods have also changed over time, so it is impossible to say Sumerian religion 。 Sumerian religion has many gods and one main theology. Sumerian belief is the earliest recorded belief, which is later Mesopotamian mythology , religion and Astrology The source of.

God Anu

Sumer's main god is the god of heaven Anu Anu's most important partners are Enji in the south, Enlil in the north and the god of Venus Ishtar 。 The sun god is called Utu, and the moon god is called Inanna The mother god is called Namu, and there are hundreds of other gods. Each god is connected to a city. The importance of these gods also changed with the political rise and fall of these cities. Man is made of clay by God for the purpose of serving God. If God is angry, they use earthquakes or storms to punish people. Sumerians believe that people can only survive under the mercy of God.

The temple in Sumer consists of a central hall, with passages on both sides, and the outside of the passage is the place where the priests live. On one side of the hall, there is a high platform, on which there is a mud brick table dedicated to animals and vegetable victims. Granaries and warehouses are generally located near temples. Later, Sumerians began to build temples on square platforms. These high platforms have been continuously improved to form a pagoda temple. The "Underworld" in Sumerian Tradition Official name It is "Apzu/Apsu". Ap/Ab is an abyss in Sumerian, and "Apsu" is in Sumerian Mythology It means "flowing with clear spring water Underground lake ”。 Apus, the "God of the Freshwater Abyss", was one of the Sumerian gods of the early six generations. He was paired with the female dragon Tiyamat, but he was imprisoned underground by Enji, the water god, during the war of destruction, until he died. From then on, he became the underworld. There are many versions of the god who rules Apus. Some people say that it is the god of water enki Some people say it's the moon god Inanna His lover Dumz (full name Dumz Apsu) or sister Iriqigara.

Sumerian Mythology Carving

Enji's statement may come from his imprisonment of Apus to death in the War of Destruction, so the guardian city of Enji, Eli, is considered to be the prototype of Apus. Iriqigala is special. She not only does live in Apsis, but also cannot leave Apsis to the world. Other gods cannot enter Apsis, because once she dies, she cannot return to the world (except for the characters in the story of Ianna). Dumz was caught in the story of "Inanna and Dumz", and he and his sister would spend six months in Aps every year in turn.

Apus is different from the hell in the Christian concept. Although it is dirty, dark and full of demons and ghosts, it is not a place for sinners to be punished. Both gods and people will be treated differently in "Apus" according to their actions before death.

Art

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Sculpture: Sculpture was quite developed in this period.

Sumerian art

The Sumerian sculptures were probably used for religious purposes. The statue body is in the shape of a round pole, with both hands in front of the chest, and the posture is pious, facial expression He was calm and uniform, his eyes were wide open, and his expression was pure, simple and focused. Akkadian carving is more realistic. stay Nineveh The unearthed Bronze Head of King Sargon is realistic. The spirit is solemn and dignified, and the personality is firm, showing the exquisite craftsmanship. The relief stone slab of Naramsin depicts the historical scene of the mountains where King Naramsin led the military government in a realistic way. The diagonal composition makes the relief dynamic and Sense of space Simple landscape depiction shows the specific environment.

painting The existing Sumerian paintings represent the military flag unearthed in Ur, which is painted with asphalt Of woodblock Shell, diorite, pink limestone A mosaic of war and victory scenes. The picture is divided into three layers, which is gradually developed according to the development of the story, and the arrangement of characters, animals and utensils is orderly. Character image By side, body Lateral foot Mainly, inclined to plane description. Color contrast Distinctive, geometric decoration is used around and between layers, which is very like a tapestry, with thick Decorative 。

industrial art Sumerians were the most outstanding people in ancient times Craft Artists They left behind a large number of exquisite handicrafts, such as gold artifacts, weapons, gold helmets, daggers, musical instruments, etc.

Sumerian Statue

Sumerian Oxhead Harp It is the oldest exquisite musical instrument. The top of the piano rack is decorated with ox head celestite and Gold foil Made of, the spirit of the cow is very vivid, Gu Qi's nose seems to be playing. The body is composed of Boxwood Made of wood and used on the front of asphalt shell It is inlaid with people and animals, which shows that the hero of ancient mythology, Jill Gamei, is carrying on with two headed bulls and some deified animals human activity The scene is full of strange colors.

Languages

Sumer

Sumerian language Is a kind of Isolated language , which is not similar to any other known language. To compare Sumerian with others, especially Ural Altaic languages All attempts to unite the two languages have failed. Sumerian is a agglutinating language That is to say, its words are composed of words glued together.

The Sumerians invented a Hieroglyphics Later, this kind of writing developed into Cuneiform 。 This is the oldest known human script. Today, hundreds of thousands of Sumerian articles have been excavated, most of which are carved on clay plates. This includes personal and business letters Remittance , recipes, encyclopedic lists, laws, hymns, prayers, magic spells, scientific articles including mathematics, astronomy and medicine. Many large buildings, such as large sculptures, also have characters carved on them. Many versions of articles have been preserved because they are often copied (for example, as a writing exercise). Copying was the only way for people to spread articles at that time. Semitic Sumerian is still the language of religion and law after the language people became the rulers of Mesopotamia. Even experts are hard to understand Sumerian 。 Especially the early Sumerian characters are very difficult because they often do not contain all grammatical structures.

military

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Sumer Fighting Vehicle

Sumerians use the city wall to protect their city, but their city wall is made of mud bricks, so if the enemy has enough time, he can dig the wall during the siege to cause the collapse of the city wall. Sumer's army was mainly composed of infantry. Light infantry Their weapons are axes, daggers and spears. Regular infantry are also equipped with bronze helmets, felt cloaks and leather skirts. In Sumerian army Wild donkey Pull the car. These early chariots are not very useful in combat. Some people think they are mainly used as Means of transport , but the soldier's pendant above OMAHAWK And spears. The Sumerian chariot had four wheels and two soldiers on it, pulled by four wild donkeys. The car body is a woven basket, and the wheels are solid. The remote weapons used by Sumerians include sling And a simple bow.

manual

Sumer handicraft industry yes: wheel 、 saddle 、 saw , hammer Shovel , nails Pin , bracelets, rings Earrings, necklaces Cauldron, knife, fork, spear, bow Barrels Sword, glue, dagger, bag, helmet, armor, boots, leather, slippers make wine 。

gods

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Anunaki (Anunnaki): The general name of the gods.

igigi (Igigi): the general name of gods.

Supreme Main God

Namumu (Nammu): Chaos Goddess, the original sea, gave birth to the "Mountain of Heaven and Earth" and the water god Anki.

Anqi (Anki): The god of water, the god of creation, the god of heaven and earth, was later divided into An and Ki.

security (An): The god of the sky, the lord of the heaven and the father of the gods. However, he did not recognize the "destiny" and had no real respect for the gods binding force , just formal Lord of Gods 。 Of course, in general, the gods will give the "god of the sky" enough respect, and Ann is also happy to live in the "heaven" without too much demand on his followers, except for a few times to human beings bless Besides, it will only appear when it is extremely dangerous. Therefore, many Sumerians regard him as a dispensable god.

Start （Ki）： Earth Goddess , Ann's sister and spouse, also known as Nintu, Ninmah Ninghulsage （Ninhursaga）。 Like ancient Greek Of Gaia （ Gaea ）Similarly, she is associated with many male gods. In her early days, she was the sister and wife of An; Later, his son Enlil (Enlil) Possession, giving birth to the "military god" Ninurta （Ninurta）； Then he became another son enki (Enki). At the same time, she is also regarded as "the god of medicine" and "the queen of mountains", namely Ninhursaga.

Enlil (Enlil): The spiritual master, the god of atmosphere, born of heaven and earth, becomes "the god of the earth and the storm" after combining with his mother Qi (Ki). Because he has the "destiny card" Tabrett, the three gods and human beings are very afraid of him. stay Sumerian Mythology In the system, Enlil's storm is an invincible force; As long as he wears Tabrett, any attack on him is invalid and invincible, so he adds the word "Pele" (meaning "Lord") before his name, as the actual "Lord of the gods" and "Lord of the earth", even his priests have a very prominent position. Because he is very strict with human beings, he is always in conflict with Enki, another main god, and often creates human disasters for some trivial reasons, which makes him moody.

enki (Enki): His temple is Elidu , the master of the abyss, the god of water, wisdom and technology, and Ann and Enlil Three main gods 。 In contrast to Enlil, Enqi is generous to human beings. As long as human beings do not break the boundary of "God is immortal and human beings are doomed to die", they will try their best to help human beings. Whenever Enlil decided to punish human beings, he would always deal with Enlil and strive for the support and sympathy of the gods to win the victory over Enlil. Once, Enlil was forced to stop because of Enqi's opposition“ big flood ”, and grant“ protecter ”Eternal Life and Peace of Atra Hassi Godhead 。 However, if Enlil was determined, the wise Enji would also consider retreating first.

Nanna Nanna Suen: Nanna means "God", the god of the moon and the month, the eldest son of Enlil, the "sun god" Utu“ Great Goddess ” Inanna And the father of the "Hades" Nigar, who has a very mysterious power. However, he was very low-key, and did not like to be exposed. His life was like the moon covered by layers of clouds. Because of his numerous believers, Enlil felt threatened and brutally destroyed his city-state Ur, so the "Nana believers" suffered a serious crisis of faith. After that, although the "Nanna Belief" has recovered, this power can no longer make Enlil feel the slightest threat. Although some "Nanna believers" still believe that the mysterious power of the moon god is superior to everything, the powerful power of Enlil forced them to act in a low profile.

Utu (Utu): Helios, Inanna Brother, son of Nana, God of justice and protector of heroes. Although he is very brave, he is far from the ancient Greek Apollo So elated (with Egypt and MYTHOS Different, Sumerians worship the moon god before the sun god. They do not regard the sun god as the highest god, nor as the agricultural protection god, so there are few myths and legends about the sun god. It is said that Ianna liked Enqimudu, the "god of agriculture", but he forced her to marry Dumutz, the "god of animal husbandry". As a result, Ianna became very dissolute and liked to rape her lover. Later, she sold her husband Hades 。

Inanna (Inanna): also known as Ninanna, the Queen of Heaven, is usually regarded as the daughter of Nana Suen, the moon god, but some people also think that she is Ann, Enlil, Enqi, etc Deity Her daughter, who Sumer called the "Great Goddess", is the ruler of the Universal Code (me), in charge of war, fertility and love, and is also the patron god of Venus and Uruk City. Because she didn't like her husband, she found many lovers and was called a "whore" by the gods. Even her priests used the temple as a hotel and a brothel, openly flirting with men and even having relationships on the street (passers-by generally didn't care). It is said that the young girls in every family who have not yet gone out of the cabinet must go to the temple of Inanna and sell them for the first time, or they will be in danger of not getting married; A male priest must also serve in her temple from his own palace.

Another important legend is the power struggle between Ianna and her sister Ilkalula. Inanna has always wanted to be the "God of God", but she did not dare to challenge Enlil and Enqi directly, so she would Target locking In the "underworld" (located under the abyss) under the control of her sister, she tried to seduce her brother-in-law Gujarana in exchange for power, so she and Ilkalula always had a quarrel. When Gujarana died, Inanna began the "journey of the underworld" (see Ishtar's Descending to the Underground World) at the risk of taking risks to try to seize power. However, Ilkalula made full use of the "home court" advantage and almost effortlessly executed Inanna in the country of death. Later, although she was saved by Enqi, the "Lord of the Abyss", she never dared to think about her sister's throne any more.

Speaking of Enqi, there were many disputes between them. Because Ianna used both seduction and force to snatch 100 treasures from Enqi, and gave them to the Uruk city-state under her administration, making the city an important town in the Sumerian world. In the meantime, she also killed the troops that Enqi sent to kill, which made the "Lord of the Abyss" lose face, but Enqi did not hold her grudge. After Inanna was killed in the underworld, Enlil and Nanna stood by and only Enqi designed to save her. After Enlil destroyed Ur, the city state of Nanna Suen, the relationship between Inanna and Enlil deteriorated sharply. In the civil war against Zu, she even refused to fight for Enlil's kingship.

After being hit one after another, Ianna also deeply reflected on herself. She realized that it seemed impossible for her to become a god directly. At present, all she could do was to do something practical for human beings. Although Ianna is moody to her lovers, she has no bad feelings towards human beings and gives them mother like care. When Enlil launched the "Great Flood", she also shed tears of sympathy for mankind. After her resurrection, she focused on taking care of her own people, hoping to become the "God of God" in the human mind in another form.

Dumutz（ Dumuzi): Inanna's husband, the god of animal husbandry, is also called "the portrait of Enji". It is said that:

When Ianna returned to the ground, she saw him at ease on the throne. Thinking of the gratitude and resentment several years ago, she did not hesitate to refuse the request of the keeper of Hades to arrest her husband, and gave the gift to Hades (we can imagine how the goddess's husband's position was at that time, ^ _ ^). From then on, Dumutz and his sister Geshtinanna, Every year, she would take turns to suffer in Hades (one said that she served as the clerk of Elishijigar, the "Queen of the Underworld" during her stay in Hades).

Elishgigar (Ereshkigal): The Lady of the Earth, Ianna's sister, also known as Ilkalula, which means the Queen of the Underworld, is a very powerful goddess (because in the Sumerian myth system, whether you were a king or a beggar, a good man or a criminal, the Underworld under the abyss is the only destination of mankind, and the Queen of the Underworld actually has the same status as the three main gods), The gods had an inexplicable fear of her. When the "Great Goddess" Ianna went to the underworld to seize power, she set seven paths Heavy door Every time she passed through one door, she was stripped of her important ornaments. After walking through seven doors, she was naked and soon lost her magic power, so she was sentenced to death by the judge of hell. However, the posthumous son of her and her husband Gugalana also miscarried because of Ianna!

Gujarana (Gugalana): The master of the underworld, Ilkalula's husband, has no position in the relevant myths - it can be imagined that Ilkalula's strong position in the family can almost eliminate his existence! Before long, Gujarannah really disappeared from the world (perhaps he had no need to exist from the beginning). It is difficult to speculate on the cause of his death, but it is certain that with his death, the conflict between Ilkalula and her sister, Inanna, broke out. Inanna failed to win in Hades, and Ilkalula did not persist for long, because Nagar soon invaded Hades from the heaven and became the actual master of Hades.

Nergal (Nergal): God of War, God of Long Range Shooting and cholera The god, also called Era, is the brother of Ningilsu and Nishaba, closely related to Mars and Sagittarius. In related myths and legends, he forced to marry Ilkalula and became the keeper.

Common deity

Ancestor (Zu): also known as Anzu Pazuzu （ Pazuzu ）, bird spirit, the guard of the temple, claimed to be the strongest among the younger gods, and once participated in the flood launched by Enlil. Later, he stole Talbrett, the card of destiny, in an attempt to stand on his own feet, and was defeated by Ningjiersu.

Ninurta (Ninurta): also known as Ningirsu, Lagash The main god, the military god, Nejar's brother (one is the son of Enlil, another is the son of Enji), once suppressed the rebellion launched by Anzu.

Azag (Azag): The giant stone monster born by An and Qi was defeated by Ninurta.

Seven gods Ann's seven sons symbolize the seven kinds of Ella Destructive power He is also Nejar's assistant.

Nisaba (Nisaba): Goddess of agriculture, learning and secretary. Naboo, the "god of learning" in Babylon,

It is the masculine case of the word Nishaba. It is said that she is the daughter of Enlil.

Namtar (Namtar): The god of death, which is said to be born to Enlil and Elishjigar.

Ninazu （Ninazu）： Hades The god, known as "the one who knows water", is also the god of medicine. One is born of Enlil and Ninglil, and the other is born of Elishjigar and Gujarana.

Niedi (Neti): The keeper of Hades, Ilkalula's faithful servant, is responsible for monitoring the movements of the dead.

Gallas (Galla): The demigod of death, under Ilkalula.

Ningjizjida (Ningishzida): The son of Ninazu is also related to life.

Ningiers : One of Enlil's sons.

Nagar : One of Enlil's sons.

Gibil (Gibil): The god of fire, also known as Nuscu, is an important assistant of the main god Enlil.

ADAd (Adad): Enlil's loyal subordinates.

Ismud (Isimud): Enji's assistant.

Enqimu Du (Enkimdu): God of agriculture, the first lover of Ianna.

Shira (Shara): The main god of Wenma, one of the sons of Ianna.

Lulal Lulal: The main god of Badtibila, one of the sons of Ianna.

Ningshubul (Ninshubur): Ianna's maid.

Ishum (Ishum): Negar's assistant.

Lahore （Lahar）： livestock God.

Ashnan Ashnan: God of grain.

Nbilulu (Enbilulu): The god of Styx.

Sumugan (Sumugan): God of the plains.

Nanshe: goddess of fishery.

Mythical influence

About 3000 BC, the Semites (Semites) entered the two river basins and conquered large areas of Sumerian land. In 2750 BC, Sargon The Semites were united to defeat the Sumerians, and some of the conquered Sumerians stayed and established a relationship with the Semites first Akkadian Empire And then established the famous Kingdom of Babylon ； The other part of Sumerians quietly left the two river basins, and their whereabouts are unknown. (According to archaeological findings, shortly after that, the civilization of the Third Bronze Age began in Indus River Rise on the flooded plain, ancient India In the myth, there also appeared a storm god like Enlil, and the related sacrificial rites are still in use in India, including every ritual act performed by the priest, that is, the great king ironing board There is no difference in what is recorded on. Unfortunately, those civilizations were soon destroyed by illiterate barbarians, unable to confirm the relationship with Sumerians.) Later, the invasions of the two river basins continued: there were Hittites, Assyria People, Persians, Macedonians, Romans, Arabs, Turks (all white people), did not stabilize until modern times. distinctive sumerian civilization It has disappeared forever in the two river basins. As one of the oldest civilizations in the world, Sumer's myths and legends have not lost their influence on religions and cultures in various regions, Babylon, Cuba , Assyria, ancient Hebrews, ancient Greece, Canaanite culture, can see some of its shadow. For example: Great Flood, Martu, Ishkur, Dagan, Ashur, Zababa, etc.

1. Flood legend

The original poem of this story was recorded on a broken mud board. It said that Ann, Enlil and Enqi created human beings, animals and plants, stipulated the life span of people, and built five big cities. Later, for some reason, human beings offended the gods, who decided to send down the "Great Flood" to exterminate human beings. Be in sympathy with human beings, and offer "Shu Lu" to worship the gods Park City ”The ruler of Napsidim made a bulletin and taught him to build Ark To avoid disaster. When the flood comes, all living beings are submerged, only Jiyusudra（ Noah ）And his ship survived.

2. Maltese chart （Martu）

nomadic people The god of "" later specifically referred to the Amorites (later Babylonians), also known as Amurru. After Babylon united the two river basins, the god became the main god Marduk. Nabu (formerly Tutu), the son of Marduk, was the god of learning and later inherited his father's throne. It is said that both Marduk and Nergal sometimes take the shape of a dragon and appear together (similar to ancient times Greek religion Medium, Zeus And Hades And have the ability to come back from the dead.

3. Ishkur （Ishkur）

Akkad, also known as Akkad, was an obscure god in Sumerian mythology, but was honored as Baal Haddad became the god of thunderstorm.

4. Dagan （Dagan）

God of the earth, yes Canaanite religion and Greek religion It has a deep influence.

5. Ashur （ Ashur ）

The main God of the Assyrians. After Assyria ruled the two river basins, the god replaced Marduk. It is said that this god is related to Nagar.

6. Zababa （Zababa）

Akkad, the god of war, the sacrificial center was originally Kish Later, it spread to Hittite and became the local god.

Creation Myth

The creation myth is the most core and basic part of all myth systems. What it tells Open up the world 、

The story of the origin of all things often constitutes the prototype scale of the world outlook and values of a specific society ideology It plays an important role in setting an example and providing fundamental proof.

The complete creation myth has not been found in the existing Sumerian myth. The important material about the Sumerian concept of universe creation is the introduction to a poem named Gilgamesh and Nkidu and the Other World.

Kramer, a Sumerian scholar, believes that the Sumerian Cosmogenesis 。

The understandable parts of the introduction he translated are as follows:

After the sky moves away from the earth,

After the earth separated from the sky,

After the human name is fixed;

After Anshen took away the sky,

After Enlil took the earth,

In Eleshidgar Be treated as Kuer's prize is brought to Kuer;

After he set sail, after he set sail,

After Kul's father set sail,

After Enki set sail for Kuer;

Kramer pointed out that if we explain and analyze the content of this section, it can be expressed as follows:

At the beginning, heaven and earth were together, but later they were separated and separated from each other. Therefore, human creation can be carried out. Tianshen An took away the sky, while Enlil, the air god, obtained the earth. All these seemed to be carried out according to the established plan, but then something happened that caused division. The goddess Elishiga, equal to Greek Persephone ——The queen of the underworld, who may have been a celestial goddess at first, was Kuer Into the underworld. Undoubtedly for revenge, God of Water set sail Go and attack Kul. The latter is obviously supposed to be a monster or dragon. Instead of standing by and watching, it attacks Enki's ridge Throw Large and small stones, and encourage the original flood to attack the front and back of Enji's ship. This poem does not explain the results of the battle, because the introduction of the whole universe or creation has nothing to do with the basic content of Gilgamesh's works. The reason why it is placed at the beginning of the whole poem is that Secretary Sumer is used to starting their stories with some poems about creation. At the end of the 24th century BC, the small Sumerian state was semitic The Akkadians of the tribe were exterminated, while the ancient Egyptians included Semitic Later, he believed in the sole god "La" (the ancient Egyptians called themselves KMT, and the word Hamite Semites was derived from this word), which restrained Natural deity Culture.

Decline

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Sumer

As early as the beginning of the third millennium BC, Iran Huzestan area is formed by local residents Elan The Elan country was founded by the people. In history, it has been repeatedly city-state 、 Akkad Kingdom 、 Babylonian Empire 、 Assyrian Empire ）He conquered and defeated these countries many times to regain independence. Originating in what is now southern Iraq Two river basin Civilization, Egypt, China and ancient India were called the four major civilizations of the ancient world. according to Beijing Daily "In the world view Dragon Culture ”， Mesopotamia The round stone seal belonging to Sumerians five thousand years ago unearthed in the south is carved with a dragon with two horns on its head, which is similar to the image of China Prehistoric era Dragon of. The dragon in Chinese is not unique to China.

Since the Neolithic Age, Euphrates and Tigris The two rivers have nurtured many agricultural villages. In about 3000 BC, Sumerians who migrated from the outside to the arid and rainless areas in southern Iraq used river water to irrigate farmland and invented the world's earliest cuneiform characters in production, thus creating a batch of the earliest city state And the splendid Sumerian civilization. Under the influence of the Sumerians, the Akkadians, who speak the Sami language locally in the two river basins, joined the historical stage and established the Akkadians and Ur Third Dynasty Two empires. Although Sumerian civilization continued to expand and develop into Babylonian civilization, and brought northern Assyria into the civilization circle of the two river basins, Sumerian population seemed to be decreasing. In 2004 BC, the Third Dynasty of Ur was ruled by Issing and Larsa Two dynasties replaced. From this period on, a number of Sumerian cities represented by Lakesh and Wenma went into decline, deserted and finally reduced to ruins. The nomadic tribes newly moved into the two river basins Baghdad The Babylonian dynasty was founded in the nearby city of Babylon, and the Ising and Larsa dynasties in the southern Sumer area were defeated. As the cities in the south were gradually abandoned, the Sumerians completely disappeared among the Babylonians. After the Babylonians and Assyrians pushed the civilization of the two river basins to the top, the region was Iranian Plateau Persian conquest on the. 331 BC, representing Greek culture Alexander, the conqueror of Western Asia, conquered all of Western Asia. Like many Sumerian cities a thousand years ago, many ancient Babylonian and Assyrian cities were abandoned one after another, and the civilization of the two river basins was lost completely soon. Its remains were buried in the sand dunes for 2000 years, until the archaeological excavation in the second half of the 19th century. The reasons for the extinction of ancient civilizations in the two river basins are complex. On the one hand, external emerging civilizations such as Greece and Islamic Civilization The conquest and replacement of is an important reason. On the other hand, excessive agricultural development has worsened the congenital deficiency ecological environment Is also a major internal cause 。 In 1982, the famous American Assyria Jakobson's book "Ancient Salinization and Irrigated agriculture 》The book discusses the relationship between irrigation agriculture and land salinization in Sumer area in the south of the two river basin, and points out that this is an important reason for Sumerians to withdraw from the stage of history prematurely.

Sumer related books

south Iraq The soil of Sumer is fertile alluvial clay, suitable for grain planting. But the climate is dry with little rain, and irrigation agriculture is the main Production mode 。 However, both soil and river water contain exchangeable Sodium ion And salt. Normally, sodium ions and salts are Water hose To the underground water layer, as long as groundwater level If a certain normal distance is kept from the surface layer, groundwater containing sodium and salt cannot harm farmland. The ancient Sumerians only knew about irrigation but did not know that the salt in the soil must be filtered with sufficient water and completely discharged. As a result, the salt in the local groundwater layer increased year by year. When excessive water seeps into groundwater, the salt water level will rise Capillary action With the help of intrusion into the surface layer Soil salinization 。 From the ruins of Jirsu in Sumer, the French archaeological team found that Third dynasty Large scale agriculture at the end of 2004 Mudboard instrument 。 These 400 years of literature tell us that from the beginning of civilization, the problem of land salinization that followed the ancient irrigation agriculture has always puzzled Sumerian farmers and nobles. It is likely that this vicious circle finally led to the permanent abandonment of a large number of Sumerian cities represented by Jilsu in the late Babylon period (about 1700 BC). First, the land official document written at the time of King Wurukaji of Lakeshi listed the salinized area of two plots of land: 258 hectares of barley land and about 2.8 hectares of salinized land, with 1% of salt land; 110 hectares of barley land and 39 hectares of salinized land, the salinized area is 35%. Another document recorded three farmlands with salinization areas of 20%, 40% and 100% respectively. A farmland called "Old Wheat Field" was a salt free land (wheat is not salt tolerant) where wheat was the main crop in the city-state. After 300 years of irrigation Ur Third Dynasty (2111-2004), 6% of the area was salinized. A document written in the first year of Ibrahim (2027 BC) tells us that a 259 hectare farmland in the city of Kuala has 162 hectares of salt water ponds. During the Sino Babylonian period around 1000 BC Land salinization He left a deep impression on the king, so that he was considered to be one of the severest reprisals of gods for human crimes. The stone inscription awarded to the minister by the Babylonian king Marduk Aladdin land title The curse on those who break the covenant is: "May Adad, the canal leader of heaven and earth Alkaline soil Surround the fields, make barley hungry and thirsty, and the green will never disappear! " Another king's stone tablet mantra is "May Adad defeat his field, destroy wheat on the ridge, grow alkaline grass instead of barley, and take alkaline soil instead of spring!" Far away in the northern Assyrian region, there is sufficient rain, no irrigation is needed, and farmland salinization is not serious. But the king of Assyria knew Saline alkali land And use it as a means to punish the rebellious cities. Adadnerari (1307-1275 BC) and his son Shalmanashal (1274-1245BC) both claimed in the inscriptions: "After I conquered and destroyed the (enemy) city Lye Sow on it. " The salinization of farmland in Sumer is also reflected in the local crop varieties and Output per unit area On. At the beginning of civilization Uruk period Among the remains, it was found that the container for wheat was similar to that for barley. When the land began to salinize, the salt intolerant wheat began to decrease year by year.^[1] In Gilsu in 2400 BC, wheat accounted for 16%, and the rest was barley. About 100 years later in Akkad, wheat dropped to 3%. According to the documents of the Third Ur Dynasty, wheat only accounted for 1.86% of the land in Gilsu at that time. Later, in Sumer, people could hardly grow salt intolerant wheat. Although barley is more salt tolerant, salinization of the land will reduce its yield. Gilsu Unearthed literature It shows that barley yields 2537 liters per hectare in the first 2400 years and 1460 liters in the first 2100 years. Around 1600 BC, the city of Jirsu had been completely abandoned and the land had been seriously salinized. At this time, the yield of barley in the neighboring city of Larsa was only 897 liters per hectare. Many inventions of Sumerians were very important to the later development of technology and culture. Some people think they invented the wheel. The characters they invented are the earliest known writing system. They were the first to record astronomical phenomena. They introduced a timing system that divides hours into 60 minutes and 60 seconds per minute. It is possible that they invented the military array. They introduced intensive agriculture in ancient Mesopotamia. Many important crops and livestock (livestock and cattle) have expanded from here. Therefore, Sumerians are the most creative and inventive human culture in the early period.

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