U.S.AIn June 1942, the Army Department began to implement the plan of developing an atomic bomb using nuclear fission reaction, also known asManhattan Project (Manhattan Project)。The project focused on the Western countries at that time (except the NazisGermanyThe best nuclear scientists mobilized more than 100000 people to participate in this project. After three years and a cost of 2 billion dollars, they successfully carried out the world's first nuclear explosion on July 16, 1945, and produced two practical atomic bombs as planned.The whole project was a complete success.In the process of project implementation, LR. Groves and ROppenheimerThe idea and method of system engineering are applied, which greatly shortens the project time.The success of this project promoted the development of system engineering after the Second World War.
By December 6, 1941, the United States had formally formulated the top secret plan code named "Manhattan".President Roosevelt gave this plan a "special priority over all actions".
In February 1937,Nazi Germany The "uranium program" began to be implemented.At the end of 1941,Pearl Harbor IncidentLater, the United States took part in World War II and declared war with Nazi Germany.Some American scientists proposed to produceAtomic bomb。
For example, Einstein's original letter to Roosevelt is as follows:
Albert Einstein
Old Grove Rd.
Nassau Point
Peconic, Long Island
August 2nd, 1939
F.D. Roosevelt
President of the United States
White House
Washington, D.C.
Sir:
Some recent work by E.Fermi and L. Szilard, which has been communicated to me in manuscript, leads me to expect that the element uranium may be turned into a new and important source of energy in the immediate future. Certain aspects of the situation which has arisen seem to call for watchfulness and, if necessary,quick action on the part of the Administration. I believe therefore that it is my duty to bring to your attention the following facts and recommendations:
In the course of the last four months it has been made probable – through the work of Joliot in France as well as Fermi and Szilard in America – that it may become possible to set up a nuclear chain reaction in a large mass of uranium by which vast amounts of power and large quantities of new radium-like elements would be generated. Now it appears almost certain that this could be achieved in the immediate future.
This new phenomenon would also lead to the construction of bombs, and it is conceivable – though much less certain – that extremely powerful bombs of a new type may thus be constructed. A single bomb of this type, carried by boat and exploded in a port,might very well destroy the whole port together with some of the surrounding territory. However, such bombs might very well prove to be too heavy for transportation by air.
The United States has only very poor ores of uranium in moderate quantities. There is some good ore in Canada and the former Czechoslovakia, while the most important source of uranium is Belgian Congo.
In view of the situation you may think it desirable to have more permanent contact maintained between the Administration and the group of physicists working on chain reactions in America. One possible way of achieving this might be for you to entrust with this task a person who has your confidence and who could perhaps serve in an inofficial capacity. His task might comprise the following:
a) to approach Government Departments, keep them informed of the further development, and put forward recommendations for Government action, giving particular attention to the problem of securing a supply of uranium ore for the United States;
b) to speed up the experimental work, which is at present being carried on within the limits of the budgets of University laboratories, by providing funds, if such funds be required, through his contacts with private persons who are willing to make contributions for this cause,and perhaps also by obtaining the co-operation of industrial laboratories which have the necessary equipment.
I understand that Germany has actually stopped the sale of uranium from the Czechoslovakian mines which she has taken over. That she should have taken such early action might perhaps be understood on the ground that the son of the German Under-Secretary of State, von Weizs?cker,is attached to the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut in Berlin where some of the American work on uranium is now being repeated.
Yours very truly
Albert Einstein
The translation is as follows:
Albert Einstein
Old Grove Street
Konik, Long Island
August 2, 1939
F. D. Roosevelt
USA president
White House
Washington DC
Mr. President,
Through the exchange of research draft with E. Fermi and I. Silard, the recent work makes me believe that uranium will become a new type of important energy in the near future.Many problems caused by this need us to be more alert. If necessary, the government departments should take prompt action.Therefore, I believe it is my responsibility to remind you of the following facts and suggestions.
In the past four months, through Jolio's work in France, as well as Fermi's and Sillard's work in the United States, it has become possible to use a large amount of uranium to build nuclear chain reactors, thus generating huge energy and a large number of new radium like elements.It is now almost certain that this will be achieved in the near future.
This new phenomenon will guide the construction of the bomb, and it is possible - although not so sure - that a very powerful bomb will thus be made.Such a single bomb, carried by ship and exploded in the port, will probably destroy the entire port and the surrounding environment.However, such bombs may be too heavy for air transportation.
The United States has only a small amount of uranium ore suitable for use.There are some good ores in Canada and Czechoslovakia, but the best uranium resources are still in Congo.
Based on this situation, you may think that it is necessary for physicists who build chain reactors in the United States to maintain a permanent relationship with the administration.The possible way for you to achieve this is to entrust this task to a person you trust, who will work in an unofficial capacity.His tasks may include the following:
1. Get close to the government departments, be familiar with the future development, and make suggestions for the government's work, especially focus on obtaining uranium ore supply for the United States.
2. Accelerate the experimental activities by providing funds to solve the problems currently carried out by university laboratories with limited budgets.If there is already money, we can cooperate with individuals who are willing to contribute to this cause, or with the company's laboratories with necessary equipment.
I understand that Germany has actually stopped the uranium trade in Czechoslovak mines and taken over them.It is understandable that it has taken such early action. According to Weitzzek, the son of the Deputy Secretary of State of Germany, he served at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in Berlin, where American activities on uranium have been repeated.
You sincerely,
Albert Einstein
In early 1942,U.S.AAlthough scientists have a general idea of the mechanism of the atomic bomb, the direction of efforts, and even the cost and time, the huge project of nuclear research has exceeded the capabilities of scientific research institutions.at that timeAmerican economyIt has turned to war, and no industrial company can complete the construction of production facilities in a short time.Bush, one of the leaders of US nuclear research, believes that only the military with the highest priority can produceNuclear materialCome on.On March 9, 1942, he was givingFranklin Delano RooseveltIn his report, the President emphasized the bright future of the atomic bomb and proposed that all development and production management should be transferred to the military.On June 17, Bush prepared a detailed report for Roosevelt to hand over all nuclear programs to military leaders for implementation.At this time, Roosevelt had already studied Einstein's letter in the White House office and was hesitating all the time.After receiving Bush's proposal, Roosevelt immediately approved Bush's report.
Top secret plan
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President Roosevelt gave this plan a "special priority over all actions".The "Manhattan" project is surprisingly large.Because we didn't know the split at that timeUranium 235Which of the three methods is the best? Only three methods can be used at the same timefissionWork.This complex project has become a melting pot of American science. In the "Manhattan" project management areaOppenheimerLed by a large number of scientists from all over the world.It is hard to imagine the number of scientists. In some departments, there are even more people with doctoral titles than ordinary staff, and there are many of themNobel PrizeWinner.The Manhattan project used 539000 people at its peak, with a total cost of 2.5 billion dollars.This is incomparable to any previous weapon experiment.
Military support
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Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of StaffMarshallWith the support of the former S-1 Commission (an institution responsible for uranium research), the US military agreed to start building four types of uranium with different methodsisotopeSeparation plants and other research and production bases.The army named the whole plan "Alternative Materials Development Laboratory" and assigned Colonel Marshall of the US Military Engineering Department to take charge of all operations.
Because Colonel Marshall followed the rules and could not get along with the scientific consultants, the upgrading of the priority of the research plan and the selection of the location of the gas separation plant were delayed for two months.In September, the War Office of the Government and senior military leaders decided to lead the construction of the building of the US Department of Defensethe PentagonColonel Groves succeeded Colonel Marshall.Groves was promoted to brigadier general before taking office.
Priority
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Groves successfully upgraded the priority of the plan to the highest level and selectedTennesseeOfOak RidgeAs the base of uranium isotope separation plant.Because Colonel Marshall's main office would initially be located in New York City, they decided to name the new district "Manhattan".As a result, the Manhattan Engineering District (or Mann Work District for short) was born.The entire nuclear research program in the United States soon became known as the Manhattan Project.
ultimate objective
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The ultimate goal of the Manhattan Project is to build the atomic bomb before the end of the war.Although the S-1 Executive Committee has affirmed the feasibility of this plan before, there are still a lot of theoretical and engineering problems to be solved in order to achieve this new explosion.In LawrenceComptonWith the recommendation of others, Groves asked Oppenheimer to take charge of this work.In order to successfully complete the atomic bomb research plan, according to Oppenheimer's proposal, the military authorities decided to establish a newFast neutron reactionAnd the atomic bomb structure research base, which was later famous in the worldLos Alamos Laboratory。Oppenheimer was appointed as the director of Los Alamos Laboratory because of his talent and wisdom, as well as his profound insight into the atomic bomb.It was because of such a crucial appointment that he won the title of the "father of the atomic bomb" of the United States in the future.
Oppenheimer underestimated the difficulties at the beginning and thought that only 6physical scientistAnd more than 100Engineering techniciansThat's enough.However, by 1945, the laboratory had grown to more than 2000 civilian researchers and more than 3000 military personnel, including more than 1000 scientists.
Given that most scientists oppose the militarization of laboratories, Groves agreesUniversity of CaliforniaAs the nominal management unit and contract guarantee unit of Los Alamos, the army of the base is responsible for laboratory construction, logistics supply and security.This ensures free academic discussion within the laboratory.Oppenheimer encouraged scientists to discuss the scientific issues related to the atomic bomb boldly and put forward the opinions of even the gatekeeper, which would help the success of the atomic bomb to some extent.Oppenheimer listened to anyone's opinions and mastered the whole experiment process.Some physicists involved in nuclear research later recalled that they were not even as clear as Oppenheimer about the details and progress of their work.On many issues, breakthroughs were made due to Oppenheimer's decision, which ensured the implementation of the atomic bomb development schedule.Oppenheimer's prestige among scientists, ordinary workers and government officials is growing.Los Alamos is known as the "Nobel Prize Winner's Concentration Camp". People call Oppenheimer the "battalion commander" of this camp.Oppenheimer has never won the Nobel Prize, but he has such high personal prestige, which shows his organizational talent and personality charm.
Of the 150000 people working in the "Manhattan Engineering District", only 12 know the overall plan.In fact, few of the staff knew that they were engaged in the work of making atomic bombs.For example, Los Alamos Computing Center conducts complex calculations for a long time, but most staff members do not understand the practical significance of these works.Because they do not know the purpose of their work, it is impossible to make them really interested in their work.Later, a young man explained what kind of work they were doing.Since then, the work here has reached a climax, and many staff have volunteered to stay and work overtime.Through the hard work of all personnel, many technical and engineering problems of the atomic bomb have been solved.
Manufacturing success
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On December 2, 1942, under the guidance of Enrique Fermi, the University of Chicago built the world's first experimental atomic reactor and successfully carried out controllable chain reaction.
In the spring of 1943, the work of making atomic bomb led by Oppenheimer began in the laboratory of Los Alamos.
In March 1944, Xiangshuling Plant produced the first batch of enriched uranium 235.
On July 12, 1945, an experimental atomic bomb began its final assembly.
At 5:30 a.m. on July 15, 1945, the world's first atomic bombNew MexicoAlamogordoThe test was successfully conducted in a desert area of the Pacific Ocean on July 25Bikini AtollThe atomic bomb test was successful.On August 6 and 9, the United StatesJapanOfHiroshimaandNagasakiThe atomic bomb was dropped.along withSoviet UnionThe army sent troops to northeast China,Emperor of JapanAnnounced unconditional surrender on the 15th,the Second World WarIt's over.
The Manhattan Project not only produced the atomic bomb, but also left 1.4 billion dollars of property, including a Los Alamos with 9000 peoplenuclear weaponlaboratory;An oak ridge uranium material production plant with 36000 people and a value of 900 million US dollars and an attached laboratory;A Hanford plutonium material production plant with 17000 people and a value of more than 300 million dollarsBerkeleyAnd laboratories in Chicago and other places.
Atomic Energy Act
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In July 1946, on the first anniversary of the successful development of the atomic bomb, the United States Senate and the House of Representatives passed a bill proposed by Senator McMahon after fierce debate.TrumanThe order was signed on August 1, and the proposal came into force. This is the Atomic Energy Act of 1946.It marks the end of the US wartime nuclear program and the beginning of a new transition period, and has also become the guiding principle for the development of the entire US atomic energy in peacetime.
After the 1946 Atomic Energy Act came into force, the Manhattan Project led by Groves, with the consent of the Congress and the government, continued to support the entire nuclear program.When the new Atomic Energy Commission of the United States was formed, Truman decided to transfer all the property and power of the original Manhattan Project to the Atomic Energy Commission at 12:00 p.m. on the last day of 1946, thus officially starting a new transition period.The Atomic Energy Commission has four departments: the Research Department, which controls all research related to atomic energy;The Production Department, which owns and controls all facilities for the production of fissile materials and atomic energy and organizes the production of nuclear fissile materials;Engineering Department, which guides all equipment and projects related to the development of atomic energy;Military Applications Department, which deals with atomic energy matters related to armaments.The headquarters of the Atomic Energy Commission also moved from Oak Ridge toWashington。
