Protestantism, also known as Protestantism, andCatholicism、The Orthodox ChurchAnd calledThree major schools of Christianity。Including the 16th centuryReformation Movement in EuropeNew sects emerging from the Roman Universal Archduke Church (Archduke's Christianity): Lutheran, Calvinist, and Enrigan sects, as well as more sects from these sects.Protestantism is also called "Zhengzheng Religion" and "Kangluo Sect".China often uses“Christianity”The word refers solely to Protestantism.It is often called the Jesuit religion because of itsRoman Catholic Church(i.eCatholicism）They protested and did not recognize the papacy of Roman bishops, so the West generally calledProtestantismIt is "anti Luo Zong" or "protest Zong".The word originates from the German word "Protestanten", originally referring to theGerman EmpireProtestant lords and city representatives who protested the resolution to restore Catholic privileges at the meeting later became the common title of all Protestant sects.Mainly distributed inbritain、Germany、Switzerland、Five Nordic CountriesandU.S.A、Canada、Australia、New ZealandEtc.[1]
The Catholic Church with the Pope as its core is the "grand tradition" of integrating medieval Western EuropenationOr there are various "small traditions" in various regions.When they are shown to be reactionary to the "great tradition" in terms of doctrine or organization, the heresy tribunal will rule them as heresy.Since the 13th century, heretical tribunals have frequently pursued heretics throughout Western Europe.After entering the late Middle Ages, the undercurrent of nationalism had formed, and the so-called "heresy" was increasingly combined with the movement of national self-determination, causing greater shock to the church.The heretical movements led by Wycliffe and Hus respectively took place in the marginal areas of the Western European public religious cultural circle, namelybritainAnd Bohemia.[1]
britainAs an outlying island of the European continent, the relationship with the Pope has always been tense.In 1351, Britain and the Parliament formulated the Sacrificial Appointment Act, which stipulated that the election of bishops and other clerics should not be interfered by the Pope.In 1353, it was also legislated to prohibit "unauthorized exercise of religious judicial power", prohibit citizens from appealing outside the UK, and deprive offenders of their civil rights.Although these laws may not be effectively implemented, they clearly show the rise of British nationalism.Against this background, the church reform theory proposed by Wycliffe was immediately combined with the turbulent political situation, which triggered a large-scale social movement.[2]
Wickliff believed that the church should not focus on the popes and cardinals,lordThe core is the entire electorate.The only leader of the church isChrist, not the Pope.Wycliffe did not directly oppose papacy, but heThe BibleAccording to the Bible, the Pope should accept the standard of church leaders required by the Bible.In other words, the Pope must be as simple, pious and hardworking as Peter, rather than being keen on power and wealth.Otherwise, he would not be God's voter, let alone the leader of the church.[3]
Bohemia and Britain belong to the two poles of Europe, but in 1383, the Princess of Bohemia married the King of England, and the exchanges between the two countries began to deepen.Bohemia's population consists of Germanic and Slavic people.Although Prague is an independent archdiocese, in fact, Germany has a significant influence here.Bohemians want to make their own voice.In the great division of the church caused by the two popes of Rome and Avignon at the beginning of the 15th century, Bohemians hoped to get rid of the influence of the Germans and hold a neutral attitude between the two popes, but the Germans of Bohemia hoped to continue to support the Pope.Conflicts between ethnic groups are reflected in the form of religion.In 1410, Hus was severely punished by the German Archbishop of Prague.This aroused even greater indignation among Bohemians, and even burned the Pope's decree of absolute punishment.[4]
Humanism and Renaissance
The word "Renaissance" comes from French and is now widely used to refer to the literary and artistic renaissance that took place in Italy in the 14th and 15th centuries.[5]The core of the Italian Renaissance world view is to return to the ancient cultural splendor and marginalize the medieval ideological achievements.Renaissance writers did not value these ideological achievements and believed that they were far from the achievements of ancient times.This situation exists in culture as well as in theology: they believe that the ideas of the late classical period surpassed the theological works of the Middle Ages both in content and style.Indeed, the Renaissance can be seen in part as a reaction to the Nordic University's ideological line of linking the liberal arts school with the theological school.In disgust with the language used by scholasticism and the technicality of discussion, Renaissance writers put them aside.In terms of Christian theology, the key to the future is to directly face the Bible text and the works of the Godfather period.
The mainstream of thought in the Renaissance is often called "humanism".Humanism is a movement in culture and education.The core factor of humanism is to return to the original resources of Western European culture in ancient Rome and Athens.The theological correspondence of this movement is to directly return to the basic resources of Christian theology, mainly referring to the New Testament.This movement has proved to be of great significance.One of the most important results it brings is a new evaluation of the fundamental importance of the Bible as the root of theology.With the increasing interest in the Bible, it is increasingly clear that the Latin version of this existing resource has shortcomings.The most famous of these Latin translations is Vulgate, which was the most influential Latin version of the Bible in the Middle Ages.The Old Testament was originally written in Hebrew (a small part of which was in Aramaic);The New Testament was written in Greek.The "Wuda translation" provided a Latin translation for those who understand Latin, but its reliability was soon questioned.[6]
The research of humanists reveals that there is a regrettable difference between Wu Jiada's translation and its original translation, thus opening the way for subsequent doctrinal reform.It is for this reason that humanism has decisive significance for the development of medieval theology:[7]It proves the unreliability of the Bible translation, and thus seems to indicate the unreliability of theology based on it.As the humanists revealed one error after another in this translation, the biblical basis of scholasticism seemed to collapse.
Lutzong molding
At that time, the social crisis and church crisis intensified in Western Europe under the feudal system.Some national princes and citizens are dissatisfied with the status quo, and the lower people suffer more;The Holy See andHoly Roman EmpireThe prestige of the church has obviously declined, and the reformers within the church have repeatedly raised difficulties.Luther was already depressed about the world and the church situation at that time when he was in college.He practiced and studied in the monasterytheologyIn philosophical theory, I carefully explored the true meaning of relieving depression, but I realized nothing.When he looked for the way of "salvation by God's forgiveness of sins" to relieve his "spiritual pain", he realized that the etiquette and good deeds required by the traditional church to be performed by people did not help people to relieve this deep inner depression, and the scholastic theology could only lead people's hearts into a dead end.Although he yearned for some reform minded figures in the Middle Ages, such as Wei Lian Aokang and J. Huss, and was influenced by humanists such as D. Erasmus, he had no intention of opposing the traditional church and the papal system.Later generations believed that during this period, he had formed the basic connotation of the proposition of justifying by faith.The theme of this proposition is that the person whose soul is saved is called righteousness before God, not because of the merit accumulated by his own good deeds, but because of God's grace and people's sincere belief in God.At that time, the church claimed that the Pope had tricked believers into saying that they could be forgiven by God no matter how great their sins were.Luther's proposition of Justification by Faith is an attack on the theological basis of this statement.Pope Leo X to repair RomeSt. Peter's CathedralIn the name of this, he sent senior officials of the Holy See to Germany to sell ransom coupons to collect money.Many vassals and citizens are very dissatisfied with this.Friedrich, the candidate of Saxony who has always sponsored Luther, is not allowed to peddle redemption coupons in the Saxony electoral district, but it is not prohibited in the Principality of Saxony. In fact, peddling activities have gone deep into the vicinity of Weidenburg.In response, on October 31, 1517 (November 1), Luther posted 95 Outlines "Welcoming Debates" on the gate of the Cathedral of Wittenburg Castle in the form of academic debate.The outline is written in the style of theological argument, and the tone is very gentle;It only blames some churches for their malpractices without attacking the church itself. Article 71 also clearly affirms the Pope's right to pardon sins.The main point of confession is repentance, not confession to the priest;Physical asceticism and asceticism are useless without inner repentance;It is no good to atone for sins by accumulating merits. Only the merits of Christ can help to forgive sins;The "meritorious bank" of the church only lies in the fact that God has obtained the gospel of Christ's salvation grace.His claim of justification by faith was not put forward in the outline.However, the outline has greatly reduced the sales of redemption certificates in Germany, and no one has bought them in some places.Luther's move won support from all walks of life, and also angered the Holy See.
In 1520, Luther's great achievement was to publish three treatises To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation[8], Babylonian Captivity of the Church[9]And On Christian Liberty[10], openly stating that the Pope had no right to interfere in secular regimes.He claimed that if the church could not reform itself, the state power should be saved, and called the Roman church "the biggest thief and bandit in the world under the banner of the Holy Church and St. Peter".He believes that the Pope is not the final interpreter of the Bible. All believers can communicate with God directly and become priests without the need for priests to act as intermediaries.However, this problem has revealed many different interpretations of the Bible, and Luther has always suppressed it, so some critics said that he actually changed the power of interpretation to his own.
As Luther insisted on his own views, the Pope officially announced the encyclical expulsion of Luther.Luther decided to fight openly with the support of princes and citizens, wrote the encyclical against the antichrist, and burned the encyclical of the pope and some religious laws in public on December 10.At that time, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, in order to compete with France politically, hoped to get the support of the Pope and oppose Luther's reform.Therefore, at the Imperial Conference in 1521, it was decided to execute the encyclical order of the Pope and convict Luther.However, due to the opposition of the attending princes and Luther's tough attitude when being interrogated, the meeting finally decided to let Luther go first, and then convicted and issued an arrest warrant.On his way home, Luther was sent to Fort Watt for protection by the Saxon Elector by way of robbery and kidnapping.During his seclusion in Waterburg, Luther devoted himself to the German translation of the Bible.At this time, Luther's supporters had already taken action, and the religious reform movement was like a prairie fire, developing rapidly.
Founders of Reformed Religion: From Zwingli to Calvin
Many factors, such as the prosperity of humanism, the tradition of local autonomy, the intersection of major countries, and the reaction of commercial cities to the Holy See, constitute
protestantism
The reason why Switzerland, as a small country, has become an important place for religious reform.Zwingli was the first person to lead the religious reform in Switzerland.As for the ritual of church worship, he denied that good deeds had redeeming value, and believed that saints could not intercede for all in front of Christ, the vows of seclusion were not binding, and purgatory did not exist.These are precisely the basis of Roman Catholic Church practice.Regarding the church, he believed that Christ was the only head of the church.For specific church organizations, the ultimate authority belongs to the Christian community;On the practical level, this authority is taken by the duly organized government agenciesThe BibleTo put it into practice.Zwingli's emphasis on worship etiquette and the reform of church organization was later given special play by Calvin, which became an important feature of the "Reformed Sect".[11]
Zwingli is inZurichThe reform of WTO was quickly responded in Switzerland.But because of theHoly CommunionThere was a great difference between the concept and Luther, so the Swiss reform lost its German ally in the dispute with Luther.In 1531, Zwingli was killed in the Kappel War against the Catholic Alliance.Since then, the center of the Swiss religious reform has moved to Geneva. In Calvin, the religious reform has reached another peak.
Calvin wrote his famous book "Institutes of the Christian Religion" in March 1536.Just four months after the publication of this book, it was introduced to William Farel, the religious leader in Geneva at that time. The latter sincerely made Calvin stay in Geneva, and Calvin's career as a reformer in Geneva began.[12]Later, because of the dissatisfaction of the bourgeoisie who controlled the government at that time during the reform process, he was expelled from Geneva.
Calvin returned to Geneva in 1541. His first job was to write a set of Ecclesiastic Ordinances. Calvin's great influence on Christianity was also reflected in his reform of church organizations.It can be said that Calvin set a precedent for the local church to elect church clergy and manage the church in a republican system.In 1559, he started to establish the Geneva Academy.The college soon became the stronghold of the Reformed Sect, cultivating a large number of Reformed talents and becoming the backbone of the reform movement in the Netherlands, England, Scotland, Germany and Italy. With the arrival of the new Qing Dynasty disciples in the United States, it also affected the religion and politics of the United States.Calvin, as the only "international religious reformer", has had a tremendous impact on modern history and the world.
The Reformation in England: the Establishment of the Anglican Church
protestantism
Compared with the situation on the mainlandReformationIt's a somewhat different road.Although there is a certain pressure of reform in the church, the important force of reform comes from the people who ascended the throne in 1509Henry VIII。Henry gradually showed that he was tending to replace the authority of the Pope with his own authority in England.The Church of England was founded for this purpose.Henry did not seem to care much about doctrine or theology, but tended to focus on the practical relationship between religion and political rights.He appointed Thomas Cranmer (1489 – 1556) asArchbishop of Canterbury , which brought at least some Protestant influence to the Church of England.
In 1547, Henry VIII died, his sonEdward VISuccession to the throne.Because of their youth, the real power was in the hands of his ministers, who all had strong Protestant tendencies.Until Edward died in 1553, his successorMary TudorShe is very sympathetic to Catholicism.She took a series of actions to suppress Protestantism and try to restoreCatholicismIn 1556, he publicly burned Crammard in Oxford.The position of the Archbishop of Canterbury in Cranmere was determined byPohler(Reginald Pole).In 1558, when Mary died, Catholicism had not yet fully recovered.
stayElizabeth IAfter inheriting the throne, she wanted to appease both Protestants andCatholicismOn the other hand, it can also enable the Queen to have the supreme right to religious affairs, so the so-called "Elizabeth Plan" (1558 – 1559) was adopted to establish the British Church as a reformed episcopal church, which has a large number of Protestant faith clauses and moreCatholic rites。This is also laterEpiscopal ChurchA major feature of.
In 1559, Britain established a bishopric group with the Archbishop of Canterbury as the highest religious leader.In 1563, the British Parliament passed the Thirty Nine Articles, marking the completion of the top-down religious reform and the final formation of the Anglican Church.Since then, British religion has entered a more stable situation.[13]
Puritan Movement in Britain
The first wave of deeperReformationThe tide isPuritan movement（Puritanism）。Puritanism, named after "cleansing" or "cleansing", refers to the request for further reform of the Church of England in the 16th and 17th centuriesprotestant, they have a great deal ofRoman Catholic ChurchThey are dissatisfied with the factors of the Church, and put forward the idea of "cleaning" or "purifying" the Church, which represents the power to push the British religious reform towards the mainland.Puritanism is the sum of the beliefs and practices of these Puritans.Puritanism can also be called a phenomenon of religious migration.These Puritans had to go into exile on the European continent when Queen Mary restored the Roman Catholic ChurchGenevaZurich's profound influence.When Elizabeth was in power, they returned to England and began to try to reform the Church of England with the religious understanding and church model of the mainland.
becausePuritan movementThe reform advocated by Elizabeth destroys the peace situation that Elizabeth has been trying to maintain, so Elizabeth opposes it.In Puritanism, there were two possible choices about how to deal with the gap between the church and itself.One is the "improvement" line, that is, continue to stay in the state church, but try to introduce Puritan organizations, rituals and systems into the state church, and wait for the government to adopt suggestions to gradually modify the state church;The other is the "revolutionary" line, that is, to completely separate from the state church and establish a church that conforms to the teachings of the Bible. The latter is known as the "Separatist" in history.According to the secessionist church view, the British king's supreme jurisdiction over church affairs can be denied, which may lead to serious political consequences.In 1592, the British Parliament issued a decree stipulating that anyone who raised an objection to the Queen's ruling over the church, or did not attend church, or participated in the "secret assembly" using illegal worship ceremonies, would be punished by criminal law.In this way, the secessionists had to go into exile in Europe.
In 1603, James I became king of England.In 1604, he presided over a meeting attended by Anglican bishops and Puritans.He accepted the request of the Puritans and approved the translation of the new version of the Bible, which was translated into the famous "King James Version" in 1611.But the main theme of his religious policy is anti Puritan.Many British Puritans went into exile in other countries. During this period, another important development of Puritanism was to go to America. In 1620, it opened a colony in Plymouth. Since then, Puritanism has had an important impact on the United States.
Main factions of Protestantism
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Ludezong
Also called "Xinyi Sect".One of the main sects of Protestantism.It is named after Martin Luther's religious theory.The European Reformation Movement in the 16th century came into being in Germany.Martin Luther's Ninety five Outlines in 1517 opened the prelude to the religious reform in Europe in the 16th century.Then a group of followers gathered around him.It emphasizes "justifying by faith", believes that people's salvation lies in faith rather than in the church or people's good deeds, emphasizes that the authority of the Bible is higher than the authority of the church, and weakens the role of the church and clergy.It emphasized that church organizations should adjust measures to local conditions, and advocated the establishment of national churches not subject to the jurisdiction of the Holy See, in the form of national languages and rituals.
Calvinist
Also called "Genuine", "Elder".One of the main sects of Protestantism.Because of Calvin's religious theory based on the general name of the various schools of thought.He maintains that the Bible is the only basis and authority of faith, and emphasizes that righteousness is justified by faith and can not be saved by deeds.Publicizing God's predestination has nothing to do with the individual's own efforts.Abolish the Catholic bishopric system and establish the presbyterian system;It advocates that the elders, pastors and deacons should be elected by the believers to jointly govern the church, and denies the authority of the Roman church;Simplify religious rites;He claimed that secular political power was subordinate to religious power.
Episcopal Church
Also called‘Anglican Communion’A transliteration of English.It originally means "English".It is named because it originated in England and became the state religion in England.In the 1630s, although it was independent from the Roman Church, it retained most of the traditions of the Catholic Church in terms of doctrine, etiquette and organizational system.Having the basic beliefs of Protestantism;Adhere to the Bible as the supreme authority of the doctrine;Maintain the bishopric system;emphasizebaptismandHoly CommunionThere are two things to wait for.In addition, churches in other countries and regions do not belong to the Church of England in organization, but continue to use this name.Although there is no unified worldwide organization for the Anglican religious associations in various countries and regions, they are still traditionally honoredArchbishop of Canterbury Be a spiritual leader.
Baptist Church
The origin of the Baptist Church can be traced back to the 17th century.It represents a more radical group in the religious reform, and it insists that the church is a group of believers, rather than a mixture.[14]In the early 17th century, it was born in England and among British exiles in Holland.Some theologians of this sect believe that this sect already exists, and it can be traced back to a sect that followed similar etiquette in the Middle Ages and the Re baptism in the 16th century.He opposes baptizing infants and believes that the baptist must reach adulthood when he can understand the meaning of baptism;He also emphasized the relationship between baptism and "burial" in the New Testament, and advocated that the baptized must be immersed in water to symbolize the rebirth after death and burial.Therefore, the sect called this ritual "baptism" in China.Other doctrines include those from Calvin, those from Aminius, and those who reject all the creeds of the church.It emphasizes the independence of each church and opposes the interference of the state church and the government in local churches.When it came into being, it belonged to the independent group of Puritans.Later, it gradually became the Baptist Church, the Baptist Church, the Sabbath Baptist Church and many other branches.It is mainly distributed in Britain, the United States and other countries.It was introduced into China after the Opium War.
methodism
Methodism is also called "Wesleyan Sect" and "Wesleyan Sect".The general name of churches (such as Methodist Church, Methodist Church, etc.) based on John Wesley's religious thoughts.It is also called "Methodist Sect" because of its emphasis on following moral norms and advocating a strict religious life.Its church management implements the supervision system, so it is also called "supervision sect".It was born in England in the 18th century.Originating from a sect within the Anglican Church, it gradually became known as an independent sect.It soon spread to the British colonies in North America.He advocated church reform and focused on missionary activities among the lower class.It was mainly distributed in Britain, the United States and other countries, and spread to China after the Opium War.
The Importance of the Reform MovementtheologyThe foundation is the authority of the Bible, and the principle of "only the Bible" is adhered to by Luther.In the late Middle Ages, the Roman Church believed that the Bible and tradition were the inspiration of God's dual source, and they went hand in hand, and would not conflict with each other.The church not only preserves the truth of the Bible, has the authority to teach, but also formulates the BibleCanon ；Therefore, the position of the church is above the Bible.These propositions are exactly what Luther wants to refute.He pointed out that the authority of the Bible was not taken from the church;On the contrary, the status of the church is determined by the Bible.[15]Although the church has formulated the canon of the Bible in history, it only recognizes the value of the Bible, rather than establishing its authority."People believe in the gospel, not because the church determines the truth of the gospel, but because the gospel is the word of God."[16]The Word of God is the ultimate basis for establishing canon.All the godfather's instructions and the church's teachings are testimony to the Bible, just as John the Baptist's work is to lead people to Christ.[17]At the same time, it should be noted that Luther did not abandon all the traditions of the church in the past. What he opposed was only the traditions that ran counter to the clear teachings of the Bible.He also tried to prove the internal consistency between the Bible and tradition. However, in Luther's view, the position of the Bible was still higher than that of tradition.The Bible is the "touchstone", the "norm mormans"
Justification by faith
Luther's theological doctrine of Justification by Faith is closely related to his belief process.When Luther thought, how can a sinner find God who is kind to him?Many years of monastic life, the procedure of atonement, and the promised promises could not give Luther peace of mind.Fortunately, the theological breakthrough he experienced on the monastery tower brought him light.[18]The relationship between man and God has now been rebuilt. This is not to make people acceptable to God through good deeds, but to accept repentant sinners in Christ based on God's promise.It is God's grace that a man is justified and forgiven his sins.In the matter of justification, God is active and man is passive;God has achieved all the time needed for salvation and met all the conditions for salvation.Therefore, God's righteousness is not the criterion for judging the world, but a gift given to the world, so that he can meet God's requirements and obtain eternal life.Luther's new discovery completely overthrows the whole medieval Roman Catholic concept of salvation, which emphasized merit and good deeds.[19]Luther even said, "Only faith can unite man with God."[20]There is no object of faith except God, because only He is our unconditional refuge.Such sincere faith in God is the beginning of eternal life.[21]Luther believed that what Christ said: "Those who believe have eternal life" is "the basis of our justification."[22]On the other hand, the term "justified by faith" may be easily misunderstood, as if Luther was saying that the only good deed needed for salvation is faith.But for Luther, faith is not good.[23]Luther believed that justification, in fact, is "the righteousness attributed to", that is, a Christian is both a righteous person and a sinner (simul Justus et peccator).[24]
All believers are priests
Protestantism believes that since faith alone can be saved, every believer can be a priest, and no clergy is needed as an intermediary between God and man.In addition, believers can pray for each other. Each believer has the right and obligation to take care of and help each other in religious life, and has the duty to spread the gospel.This diluted or even eliminated the difference between clergy and ordinary believers.Although most sects of Protestantism still retain the reference and sealing ceremony of full-time academic staff (pastors, etc.), this is mainly a sign of office, and does not mean that they have the privilege of bestowing grace.
Creed
protestantism
Protestantism retains and follows the four major faiths inherited from the early church, including the Apostle's Creed, the Nicene Creed, the Gaxton Creed and the Athanasian Creed.
In addition, Protestantism has also established various sects in the process of religious reform in various regions, and each sect has also formed a series of self-contained and complete doctrinal systems.Among them, the more famous ones include: Heidelberg catechism Q&A and Answers, Belgium Creed, Duote Creed, Westminster Creed and Westminster catechism Q&A.[25]
During the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, when Catholicism tried to spread its religion in China, some Protestants in Britain also began to spread their religion to China.Until 1807, the British missionary Morrison was sent to China by the London Missionary Society to preach.As the East India Company refused to ship, Morrison had to take the Remittance Ship to New York on January 31, 1807. On May 12, the same year, he took the Trident Ship to bypass the Cape of Good Hope and enter the Indian Ocean, passing through the Strait of Malacca, and arrived on September 4Macao, sneak in three days laterGuangzhou, secretly staying in an American merchant warehouse, learningchineseAnd became the first Protestant missionary to China.On the ninth day of the ninth lunar month in 1814, Morrison helped him with his printing workCai GaoBaptism became the first Protestant in China.Morrison has worked in the East India Company for 25 years, and is committed to text preaching, translation and printingThe Bible。He published the New Testament in 1813 and the Old Testament in 1823, most of which were translated by him.In 1823, Morrison went to Malacca and Singapore to inspect and temporarily served as the pastor of the Anglo Chinese Academy in Malacca;Returning to Guangzhou in the autumn of that yearLiang FaAs a preacher and the son of Liang FaLiang JindeWashing.[26]Since Morrison and other pioneer missionaries came to China to preach, some Protestant missions in Europe, America and other countries also began to pay attention to China.[27]Elijah Coleman Bridgman (1801 – 1861) was appointed by the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions and came to China to preach in 1830U.S.AThe pioneering missionary of the church in China also had a certain influence in the early history of Sino US relations.In 1830, Pei Zhiwen arrived in Macao, took a boat to Guangzhou on the 25th, and stayed in the American Commercial Museum.Later, he participated in the early Christian publishing, education, medicine and other activities in China, and participated in the establishment of some early Christian groups.He founded China Repository, the first English monthly magazine of Chinese Christianity, and served as editor, aiming to investigate and publish China's weather, geography, production, business and other information, and introduce China's politics, history, law, customs, literature, religion and humanities to the West."China Series" was the main material for westerners to understand China at that time.In November 1834, he served as the Chinese secretary of The Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge in China.In January 1836, the Morrison Education Association was established with the purpose of opening and funding schools in China to teach Chinese teenagers to read Chinese and English, and to transmit various western knowledge to them through the media, with Pei Zhiwen serving as the communication secretary.[28]
Before the Opium War, Protestantism had been introduced into China through the efforts of Morrison and others, but foreigners could not enter China as missionaries, let alone the mainland of China. Therefore,Protestant ChristianityThe number of missionaries is not large, the impact is not big, and the dissemination is not wide.After the Opium WarUnequal treatiesUnder the protection of the "Missionary Clause", foreign missionaries poured into China one after another.Moreover, Protestant missionaries have also been sent into China by foreign missionaries. In a short time, more than 130 foreign missionaries have come to China.These MissionariesnationalitySaid above, it mainly belongs to Britain, the United States, Germany, Canada and other countries;In terms of sects, they mainly belong to the Anglican Church, the Baptist Church, the Congregational Church, the Lutheran Church, the Presbyterian Church, the Supervisory Council and the Mainland Association.[29]For the development of Protestantism in China, we have to mention 1865 in particularDai DeshengThe Mainland China Association established by the Company is called the Mainland China Association for short.This special missionary organization, which transcends nationality and sects, has become a milestone in the expansion of Protestantism in China and even the whole Christianity in China.
Republic of China
When the Qing government was overthrown, China entered a new period, and Chinese society experienced profound social changes, the most fundamental of which was the Revolution of 1911 and the founding of the Republic of China.[30]After the establishment of the Republic of China, many people who held important positions in the National Government believed in Christianity.According to Wang Zhixin's statistics, Christians account for more than 65% of the people in the Guangdong Provincial Government.This historical background provides another excellent opportunity for the development of Christian missionary cause.[31]In addition to the large-scale and regularization of churches around the country and the rapid development of the number of churches, preaching and missionary work were also widely carried out in every corner of the society at that time, Protestantism also flourished in education, medical care, text publishing, charity and other fields.
In the 20th century, there was a church primary school near almost every church.According to incomplete statistics, there were 5637 primary schools with 151582 students by 1920;962 senior primary schools with 32899 students;There are 291 middle schools with 15213 students.In addition, there are an objective number of normal schools.At the same time, the church is also committed to the construction of colleges and universities.Missionary universities have been established in succession, some of which were jointly established by missionary associations of several different sects.In October 1919, the President Conference of Chinese Christian Universities held in Shanghai established the China Christian University Federation.Members:Yenching University、Qilu University、Jinling University、Ginling College 、Suzhou UniversityZhejiang Shanghai UniversitySt. John's University、Zhijiang University、Fujian Union UniversityWenhua UniversityBowen College 、West China Union University、Lingnan University、Yali University。The number of students in these 14 universities has reached 2017, and 10 of these 14 universities have secondary schools attached to their own campuses, which have higher teachers and equipment than ordinary secondary schools.[32]
Protestant medical care in China is an important part of the missionary cause in China.Since the 20th century, with the rise of social gospel, many missions have paid more attention to the development of church medical cause.More importantly, the demand for new medical care in Chinese society is growing.In less than 20 years, foreign doctors have increased by 54%, and hospitals and pharmacies have increased by 165%.[33]After entering the Republic of China, various Protestant missions set up many church hospitals throughout the country, such as Fujian Tong'an Hospital, Changle Holy Church Hospital, Hebei Hejian Chinese Holy Church Hospital, Jiangsu Taizhou Gospel Hospital, Changzhou Wujin Hospital, etc;The newly established church hospitals in inland provinces mainly include Chengdu Renji Hospital in Sichuan, Suining Boji Hospital, Ziliujing Renji Hospital for Men and Women, Xufu Mingde Women's Hospital, Hengyang Renji Hospital in Hunan, Xinhua Xinyi Hospital, Taoyuan Wenjin Hospital, Jiujiang Life Living Water Hospital in Jiangxi, Guling Zhonghua Puren Hospital, Xiangyang Tongji Hospital in Hubei,Kunming Huidian Hospital in Yunnan, Xi'an Guangren Hospital in Shaanxi, etc.According to statistics, in the five years from 1919 to 1924, there were 38 church hospitals newly built by the mission.[34]There are 326 church hospitals and 244 pharmacies in all provinces and autonomous regions.
New China
After the founding of the People's Republic of China, how to face this new society, which is different from any other society in the past, and how to survive and adapt to the new China under the leadership of the Communist Party, is a serious issue for Christianity.In the social background at that time, the victory of the Chinese revolution also broke the relationship between China and the western countries led by the United States.At that time, the Chinese church, which mainly relied on the support of foreign missions, was faced with great difficulties, economic and ideological challenges.Many Christian leaders estimated that the Christian Church would encounter certain difficulties in the future, and hoped to continue to receive sympathy and support from overseas missions. In the autumn of 1949, 19 Chinese church elites jointly issued an Open Letter to the Foreign Ministry of Propaganda,It reminds "foreign friends that they have noticed the difficulties in our Christian work in the current situation, their responsibilities, the change of policies and the adjustment of foreign relations".[35]
protestantism
On July 28, 1950, the Three Self Patriotic Movement of China was officially launched after the publication of the "Ways for Chinese Christianity to Make Efforts in the Construction of New China" (referred to as the "Three Self Declaration").At the beginning of the development of New China, Protestantism in China is facing another major challenge, that is, the situation of China's anti rightist expansion.In the historical background of the Cultural Revolution, Protestant Christianity in China faced such important problems as shrinking teaching staff, sharp reduction of meeting places, sharp decline in the number of believers, and economic difficulties of churches.Under the situation at that time, in the first half of 1958, Christian joint worship began to appear. By the end of 1958, churches across the country had basically realized joint worship.The united worship came into being under the special political situation, but its development is relatively stable and has continued to this day, making the Chinese church enter the "post sectarian" period.[36]
In 1966, the "Cultural Revolution" swept across China, and Chinese Protestantism went through this serious disaster with the whole country.At this time, family gatherings became the only form of Christian activities, and rural areas became the main place for Christian activities and development. At the same time, this special history also deepened the distrust of believers in the government and the Three Self Patriotic Association.
In December 1978, the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee of China was held. China ushered in reform and opening up, and the development of Christianity in China also ushered in spring again.In order to meet the needs of Christians for religious life, Christian churches and churches have been restored and established one after another in various places. All efforts have been made to recover churches and restore worship.By the 1980s, major churches around the country had been restored, and a large number of churches had sprung up. One or two churches were built every two or three days nationwide.[37]The Jinling Theological Seminary was closed during the Cultural Revolution, and it has been restored one after another. At the same time, with the increase of believers, the demand for the construction of theological teams has become more and more urgent. At the same time of restoring the original theological schools, 22 theological schools from two to four years have been established.
Today, the development of Chinese Protestantism in China is more and more vigorous. With the deepening of theological thought construction, the quality of clergy and believers has been comprehensively improved.Protestantism in China has become an important page of China's multi-cultural.With the further development of China and its own prosperity, the rise and self-confidence of the Chinese nation have also made Chinese Christianity an important link for China to open up and communicate closely with the world.
Ceremonial Ritual
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aboutProtestant ChristianityOne of the biggest characteristics is the absolute worship of the authority of the Bible. Therefore, the preaching of the biblical mythical language becomes a major content in the worship process.Therefore, for the vast majority of Protestant worship, preaching is more concerned and valued.
In addition, Protestantism believes that everyone is a priest and has the right to participate in the worship and praise of God.Therefore, in the process of worship, all believers who participate in worship sing hymns together, which has also become a major feature of Protestant Christian worship.
There are also great differences in the understanding of worship within Protestantism.Some Protestant churches still follow the tradition of the public church in the worship etiquette, and still have complicated worship procedures and rituals.The other part of Protestant churches simplified their worship procedures and rituals, and did not set up any framed images in the worship process and places, only hanging the cross as a sign of faith.
Principal sacrament
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ChristianitySacrament, or“sacrament”It is an important ritual of Christianity.Christianity believes that the sacrament isJesus ChristStanding in person and having a certain formreligious observancesIt endows the recipient with the invisible "favor" and "blessing" of Christ in a certain visible form, which can be obtained by those who sincerely receive.CatholicismandOrthodoxIt is believed that there are seven "sacraments", namely, holy baptism (baptism), firmness, confession, holy body (the orthodox church calls it "holy blood"), final blessing, sacred objects (also called "ordained or consecrated priests and bishops") and weddings.Protestantism generally only recognizesbaptismandHoly CommunionIt is a sacrament.
baptism
Baptism is regarded by the universal church as an important religious ceremony of Christianity. It is a Christian initiation ceremony, which can be divided into "water baptism" and "baptism". Christianity believes that this is the holy thing set by Jesus, which can forgive the "original sin" and "original sin" of the believers, and give them "grace" and "seal", so that they can become believers, and later have the right to receive other "holy things".
Holy Communion
Or translation“Lord's Supper”It is another important sacrament recognized by the universal church.It refers to the last dinner with the disciples before Jesus was arrested.At that time, he represented his body with bread and his blood with grape juice, and distributed them to his disciples to eat, which became a ritual observed by churches in all ages.The Eucharist is a holy thing, which was set up by the Savior Jesus Christ himself as a memorial of his suffering for the world, and as a proof of his eternal love for the world.The main materials of the Eucharist are grape juice and unleavened cakes.
representative figure
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John Wycliffe
John Wycliffe
John Wycliffe (1330-1384)Reformation Movement in EuropeA pioneer of.Born in EnglandYorkshire 。OxfordDoctor of Philosophy and Theology,professor。Served as the servant of the King of England since 1396priest。In 1374, he was appointed by the King of England to negotiate with the Pope's representative on the right of appointment and removal of the Church of England, but no agreement was reached.From then on, he attacked the Pope and opposed the supremacy of papal power.The church of each country should belong to its own king;The Pope has no right to collect tribute from the king.The king was advised to confiscate the church land.Deny the right of the priest to pardon.It is required to simplify church ceremonies, hold religious ceremonies in national languages, and establish a national church free from the control of the Holy See.He was condemned by Pope Gregorius XI (1370 – 1378) for five consecutive times andCanterbury UniversitybishopHe is wanted by the King of England, but has won the support of the citizens of London and the teachers and students of Oxford University and the protection of the King of England.In 1381, when the King of England and the Church jointly suppressed the peasant uprising, he was forced to live in seclusion and write, translated the Bible into English, and completed the important theological work The Dialogue of Three People.The authority of the Bible is higher than that of the church;The church should obey Christ, not the Pope.die fromLeicestershire。Thirty years later, the book was destroyed by the church, and the remains were burned to raise ash.[38]
Hus
Hus
Jan Hus (about 1372 – 1415)Czech RepublicPatriots and religious reformers.Born in a farmer.BornBohemia（Bohemia）。University of Prague He graduated with a degree in literature and theology. He has successively served as a professor of literature, director and president of the Department of Philosophy and Theology.1400 literspriest。From March 1402, he served as a priest of Bethlehem Church in Prague.Deeply influenced by British Wycliffe thought.Oppose the oppression and exploitation of the Czech Republic by the German feudal lords and the Catholic Church;Oppose the church's occupation of land and criticize the clergy's extravagant and decadent behavior;It advocates holding religious ceremonies in the Czech languagemassZhongtong receives bread ("Holy Communion") and wine ("Holy Blood") (Catholics stipulate that believers only receive bread in mass).In 1412, people were called on to hold a demonstration against the Pope's peddling of atonement roll, which was suppressed. They were forced to leave Prague and flee to the southern countryside in the suburbs to continue to advocate their own ideas and oppose German aristocratic rule.In 1414, the German emperor cheated him to attend the Konstanz conference jointly convened by the Pope and the German emperor with the promise of "ensuring its safety".But soon after the meeting, he was arrested and put into a dark prison.Finally, on July 6, 1415, he was sentenced to death at stake for heresy in Constance Square;In the fire, he made speeches to the masses, sang poems and died a martyr's death.The death of Hu Si aroused great indignation of the Czech people and accelerated the outbreak of the Hu Si war.His main works are On the Church, and he also translated the Czech Bible.[39]
Martin Luther
Martin Luther
Martin Luther (1483 – 1546) 16th centuryReformation Movement in EuropeThe founder of Lutheran Protestantism.He was born in Eisleben, Germany.In 1501Elford UniversityStudied law and was influenced by humanism. He joined in 1505Augustinian Order Study theology.In 1507, he became a priest.In 1512, he received a doctor's degree in theology.In 1515, he was professor of theology at Wittenberg University.The following year, he got "Germanic Theology" and claimed to be inspired by it.On October 31, 1517WittenbergPosted on the church door95 Outlines, opposing Taichel to sell the Holy See's atonement roll, etc.In the case that all sectors of German society were strongly dissatisfied with the Holy See, the prelude to the religious reform was unveiled. In the theological debate between Leipzig and John Ike in the summer of 1519, it was shown that the Roman Church could not coordinate.On June 15, 1520, Pope Leo X (1513 – 1521) issued a circular reprimanding Luther's 41 arguments.Luther wrote several articles to break with the pope, burned the pope's circular in public on December 10, and supported the German princes to confiscate church property.On January 3, 1521, the Pope finally imposed absolute punishment.The Holy Roman Emperor ordered Luther to be arrested at the will of the PopeElectors of Saxony Take refuge in Wartburg.In 1522, when the masses of the anti feudal church were about to revolt, Luther was instructed by the Saxony election candidate to return to Wittenberg next time, and advocated that only peaceful means could be used for reform.The next year, it was proposed that the church and the government should use the sword to force the masses to obey.When Minzel led the peasant uprising, he openly advocated the suppression by force.His theological thought emphasizes that people should be justified by faith, and that the salvation of God does not lie in abiding by the rules of the church, but in personal belief.Advocate the use of national languages instead of Latin in religious ceremonies;And translated the Bible into German.He died in his hometown and was buried in Wittenberg.His posthumous works include "Meal Talk", "Collection of Letters", "Collection of Sermons", etc.[40]
Zwingli
Zwingli
Huldreich Zwingli (1484 – 1531), leader of the Swiss Reformation Movement.BornSaint Gallen(St. Gallen).Born in a peasant family.Study atBasel 。Served in 1506Glarus(Glarus) Church priest.In 1516, when he was the priest of Einsiedeln church, he proposed to abolish it“pilgrimage”Activities.Since 1518Zurich CathedralFather, supported by the city council and the citizen class, led theReformation。Deny the authority of the Holy See, oppose the sale of atonement roll, and advocate that priests can marry and disbandCloisterAnd confiscate their property.Abolish complicated religious ceremonies and prohibit worshipHoly image, Cancel“mass”Change careers“Holy Communion”Etiquette is called the commemoration of Jesus, not the sacrifice.Church pastors are elected by believers.The Protestant states were urged to form an alliance against the Pope and the Emperor, but were opposed by the states that continued to believe in Catholicism.RadicalAnabaptismThen they will carry out cruel persecution.In 1531, he was killed in the Battle of Kapil when fighting with the Catholic states, and his body was split and burned.His works include True and False Religious Records, etc.[41]
John Calvin
John Calvin
Jean Calvin (1509 – 1564) was a European religious reformer in the 16th century and the founder of Christian Protestant Calvinism.Born in a lawyer's family in Noyon, France.Influenced by the religious reform when studying in Paris, he has participated in the activities of Protestants in Paris since 1531.Because the French government persecuted Protestants, he fled to Switzerland in 1535Basel 。In 1536, he published the main theological work "The Essence of Christianity", denying the authority of the Roman Church.Arrive in the same yearGeneva, took part in the free city regime that had been freed from the control of the Duke of Savoy under the leadership of Farrell, and soon became the actual leader of the regime.Presided over the drafting of an outline of Protestant beliefs that emphasized strict ethics.In 1538, the liberals with lower level citizens as the main body had a riot, and they were expelled together with Farrell and moved to Strasburg, committed to the study of the Bible.Soon married the widow of a former Anabaptist.In 1540, the upper class citizens gained power again and asked them to return to Geneva to settle in the city.He knew that a republican regime integrating politics and religion would be established. The Parliament was composed of priests and wealthy citizens, and Calvinism was the only legitimate religion.Abolish the bishopric system and replace it with a republican presbyterian system.Declaring to be an official, to be in power, to own private property, to do business for profits, to borrow money and to earn interest can be regarded as being under the command of God, just like being a priest.In 1553, Sylvit was executed at stake for "heresy".In 1558, he founded the Geneva College (the predecessor of the University of Geneva).He died in Geneva.Later generations compiled 52 volumes of Calvin's Complete Works.[42]
management system
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episcopal
Episcopy A type of Christian church system.To manage the church with the bishop as the main body.It began to form in the first half of the second century, and then gradually became complete.Bishops generally have the right to ordain priests (or send priests), perform all sacraments, and govern all churches belonging to the diocese;The priest (or priest) is subordinate to the bishop, assists the bishop in performing certain sacraments, and manages certain parishes entrusted by the bishop.Mainly inCatholicism、The Orthodox Church, ProtestantEpiscopal ChurchAnd sectionthe Lutheran ChurchAnd the smaller ancient churches in the East.[43]
Presbyterian system
Presbyterianism is a kind of Christian church system.It is mainly implemented by the Calvin Church.Some non Calvinist churches also practice presbyterianism, and the specific rules and regulations vary slightly from sect to sect.To accept elders as religious leaders engaged in secular occupations through church election“Sacrament”It is the backbone of the church management.Full time priests are authorized by all believerseldersWe employ the pastor to manage the teaching affairs of the church under the entrustment of the elders.[44]
Congregational system.A Protestant church system.That is, the congregation of each parish is the independent unit of the church, and there is no head office at all levels of educational administration.Each independentchurchThe congregation of (all believers) directly selects pastors to manage the church in a democratic way. The word "justice" takes the meaning of "public governance".The specific system and etiquette of each church are also decided by the congregation of each church.Mainly implemented by the Congregation and the Baptist Church.[45]
Proportion of population
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The country names in this table are sorted by English letters
Compilation parameter of this table: Rafael La Porta,Florencio Lopez-de-Silanes, Andrei Shleifer and Robert Vishny.Journal of Law, Economics, & Organization. Oxford University Press. Vol. 15, No. 1, JLEO Bureaucracy.[46]
