Latin

Indo European Italian languages

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Latin (Latin: Indo European Italian language family , Originated from Latium Region (today's Lazio region of Italy) Imperium Romanum use. Although Latin is often considered a dead language , but there are a few Christian religions clergy And scholars can use Latin fluently. In addition, many the West Our university offers courses in Latin.

Latin has always been used in the process of creating new words in English and other western languages. Latin is the only surviving branch of the Italian language family. Through the study of the early Italian literature, we can confirm the existence of other branches of the Italian language family The Republic of Rome The period was gradually assimilated by Latin. Latin Kinship language include Farisk 、 Oskan and Umbrian 。 But, Veneto This may be an exception. stay Roman times , as Venice The residents' language, Veneto, can be used side by side with Latin. With the evolution of Latin, it has been recognized by more and more people.

Latin is a highly inflected language. Nouns and adjectives have three grammatical categories: number, sex and case. They have two numbers, three personalities and six cases. Adjectives must remain with the noun they modify Grammatical category Is consistent with. Verbs can be divided into two categories: finite form and non finite form. The verb finite form has five grammatical categories: number, person, form voice , tenses; Verbal Present tense Stemming There are four endings Displacement method , six tenses, three persons, three forms, two voices, two numbers. In Latin, there is no such grammatical category in the case, only a few ancient forms of the case remain, so the case is not listed as another case in Latin. vocative Except the second Variable lattice The positive singular of nominative The same, so Latin generally has only five different cases. Latin None article 。

Chinese name: Latin
Foreign name: Lingua Latīna (Latin)
Latin language (English)

Pedigree: Indo European -Italian language family
Writing system: latin alphabet
Using countries and regions: The Roman Republic, the Roman Empire, the Vatican, etc
As an official language: vatican

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There were more than 40 different translations of Latin Chinese names in the documents of the Ming and Qing dynasties, such as "Daxi", "Hongmao", "Pan", "Latino", "Ladino", "Ladino", "Latinu", "Laiding", "Luodian", etc.

Development history

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Latim Place (3 sheets)

Latin of Indo European Italian language family The Latin Farehi branch was originally a dialect of Latium in central Italy (Lazio in Italian), but later it was originated here Imperium Romanum The power expanded and Latin was widely spread in the empire, and Latin was named official language 。 and Christianity After it was widely spread in Europe, Latin became more influential the medieval times By the early 20th century, Roman Catholicism took Latin as its common language, and most academic papers were written in Latin. Although only vatican Latin is still used, but some academic words or articles such as Biological taxonomy Latin is still used for the naming rules.

Roman JULIA CLAUDI DYNASTY The classical Chinese used in the period was called "Classic Latin", while the people used writings in vernacular Is called“ Vulgar Latin ”（Vulgar Latin）。

Some independent European languages that are not Latin“ Romans ”(Romance), including Central Romance: French （French）、 Italian （Italian）、 Sardinia (Sardinia) dialect Catalan （Catalonia）； Western Romanian: Spanish （Spanish）、 Portuguese （Portuguese）； And Eastern Romance: romanian （Romanian）。 After the 16th century Spain And Portugal The power expands to the whole Central America 、 Caribbean and South America Therefore, Central and South America is also called“ Latin America ”（Latin America）。 The difference between Roman and Latin is that Roman has lost many grammatical changes of words Suffix 。 Especially nominal Variable lattice The suffix has been completely lost. (Nouns change in romanian There are still some reservations in).

origin

New Edition of Latin Grammar, translated by Gu Zhiying and Yang Zhicheng^[1]

Lack of Latin to a certain extent Greek Diversity and flexibility, which may reflect the practical National character 。 Compared with the diversity and flexibility of literary creation, the Romans were more concerned with the development and expansion of the government and empire, and were not interested in speculation and poetic imagination. However, even in this case Classical period Under the masters' writing, Latin is still the language of literature and poetry comparable to any other rich language in the world.^[2]

Latin and Greek Same influence Europe and America The deepest language of learning and religion. In the Middle Ages, Latin was spoken by different European countries at that time Media language It is also a necessary language for the study of science, philosophy and theology. Until modern times, knowing Latin used to be the study of any humanities The prerequisite of education; It was not until the 20th century that the study of Latin gradually declined and the focus shifted to the study of today's languages.^[3]

Latin was originally Italian Peninsula The language of the Latin tribes on the west coast of the central part, which belongs to the ancient times as Osk Umbri Indo European Italian Croat 。 Due to the prosperity of Rome, Roman Latin gradually gained advantages in the coexistence of various dialects. It became The Republic of Rome The official language of. In the heyday of the Roman Empire, with the expansion of the Roman military and political forces, Latin spread to the West as an administrative language mediterranean sea 's islands Iberian Peninsula and Gaul (Today France ）, until the danube Darzia in the basin (today Romania ）And became the language used in the core area of the empire at that time. Latin is the official language of the church, close to folk language in the 4th century The Bible Latin The translated version is the most authoritative textbook. Therefore, from the 5th century to the 15th century, Latin was the language of religion, culture and administration under the rule of the church. It was also the language of communication among Western European nations, called medieval Latin. At the same time, the difference between written Latin and popular folk Latin is growing. Since medieval Latin has been separated from classical Latin to a certain extent, it The Renaissance The Latin writers of the period seemed not standardized and pure enough. The Latin language of the latter takes the classical Latin writers as the paradigm, called New Latin 。

Ancient Rome Latin is the ancestor of modern Roman. Latin begins with Tiber River The dialect of a small village on the bank has spread to most parts of the world in the long river of history. In the Middle Ages, Latin was the medium of international communication, as well as the language of science, philosophy and theology. Until modern times, mastering Latin was an indispensable prerequisite for any liberal arts education; Only in this century did the study of Latin decline and focus on the study of living languages. The Roman Catholic Church traditionally uses Latin as official language And the language of worship.

spread

Etruscan

Around 1000 BC, immigrants from the north brought Latin to Italian Peninsula 。 In the next few hundred years, Rome The Latin language of Rome became the new language of the Roman Empire standard speech 。 There is a colloquial dialect that coexists with classical Latin, Roman army Bring this dialect to the whole empire. It completely replaced the language and Gaulish And Spanish, and the barbarians who carved up the Roman Empire in the fifth century were also happy to accept this language. As a result of further differentiation, modern Romanian languages emerged, including Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Romanian.

Latin alphabet It was created in the seventh century B.C（ Etruscan ）Based on the alphabet, the Etruscan alphabet comes from Greek alphabet 。 Of the original twenty-six Etruscan letters, the Romans used twenty-one. The original Latin letters are: A, B, C (for/g/and/k/), D, E, F, Z (zeta in Greek), H, I (for I and J), K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R (although it was written as P for a long time), S, T, V (for U, V and W), X. Later, the Greek letter x was abandoned and replaced by a new letter G. After the conquest of Greece in the first century BC, the popular Greek letters Y and Z were adopted and placed at the end of the alphabet. Thus, the new Latin alphabet contains twenty-three letters. It was not until the Middle Ages that J (different from I) and the letters U and W (different from V) were added.

development

Europe The Renaissance After the period national language It has replaced Latin, but Latin still has its place in the academic field. modern Catholic Church Latin was the first official language and was used in church ceremonies until 1963. ancient Latin Culture Is direct inheritance Greek culture Of. Through Latin, Greek is rich in European, Portuguese, Spanish, French, Italian romanian Etc.

pronunciation

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Caesar (2 sheets)

Latin is a kind of western classical language whose daily spoken language has disappeared. Today, it is only used as a literature language for research, or borrowed some words from other languages Latin pronunciation Actually, it refers to Latin pronunciation, that is, according to Latin written material Pronunciation when reading. By individual Phoneme Due to the difference of actual pronunciation, Latin pronunciation can be roughly divided into two styles: general style and archaize style. No matter which way is used, it can basically be spelled according to "one letter, one sound", so most Latin dictionaries will not mark international phonetic alphabet 。 In addition, native English speakers like to spell Latin according to English rules, such as reading Caesar as SEE zar（ NATO Pinyin). This English style pronunciation style is right vowel Our spelling is quite absurd, and serious learners will not use it under normal circumstances. There are long and short vowels in Latin. Same in the same position with the same pronunciation before and after phoneme Of long vowel and Short vowel Be able to distinguish meanings. Most vowels are short vowels. The appearance and position of long vowels sometimes have certain rules, but most of them still need to be memorized individually when learning. Modern Latin dictionaries use two Diacritical mark Marked, i.e Macron And short sound symbols - the latter is only used on vowels that need to be specially marked. In ancient documents and modern ordinary books, diacritical marks are generally not used.

Latin word stress does not distinguish between meanings, but the position is fixed. There is no light stress in monosyllabic words. The stress position of a polysyllabic word is usually no more than the penultimate or third syllable, and it is related to the length of the syllable. The length of syllables is not only related to the length of vowels - syllables containing long vowels must be long syllables, but also related to the composition of syllables—— Closed syllable Both vowels are long syllables. In a word containing three or more syllables, if the penultimate syllable is a long syllable, the stress will move to the penultimate syllable if it is a short syllable.

There are still a lot of Latin Flow sound change However, most of the literature available today Sound change It has been reflected in the spelling of words, with only a few exceptions. such Orthography Although it is convenient to read, it also makes it difficult to master Latin grammar.

letter

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latin alphabet , also known as the Roman alphabet Western Europe The alphabet system adopted by languages (including English) is the most popular alphabet in the world. Because of early Europe Colonialism And the influence of Western culture, some languages using other languages such as Vietnamese and Turkish The Latin alphabet was also used. Many languages without their own characters before such as Malay 、 Indonesian And many aborigines Language also uses the Latin alphabet to record its own language. The Latin alphabet mainly includes the following 26 letters:

Uppercase

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

a lowercase letter

a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z

Classical Latin has only 23 letters (J, U and W are not included).

The letter K can only be seen before A in a few words, and can be replaced by C.

Evolution history of letters

The Latin alphabet was developed from the Etruria alphabet in the sixth century BC. Its origin can be found through Greek alphabet 、 Phoenicia Alphabet Dating back to 1100 BC Syria 、 Palestine One Belt North semitic letter.

Etruscan

There is no dispute that these letters are mainly derived from the Etruscan alphabet. The pronunciation of the letter "C" fully proves this point.

In countries where the Latin alphabet is used, dark green indicates that the official letter "F" originates from（ digamma ）The original Etruscan and Latin letters were used to represent the/w/sound, while "FH" was originally used to represent the/f/sound. Later, the Romans simplified "FH" to "F", and this letter was used to represent the/f/sound.

Semivowel /W/and/u/,/u:/,/j/and vowels/i/,/i:/are all represented by the same letter, "V" and "I" respectively.

There were only 20 initial Latin letters (ABCDEFHIKLMNOPQRSTVX), without "G", "J", "U", "W", "Y", and "Z". The letter G was added in the middle of the third century BC in the form of C plus a horizontal. There were no letters "U" and "J", only one and a half vowel "V" and "I"; In the 11th century, "J" was differentiated from "I", "U" from "V", and "W" from "V" (the form of letter W is double V); In the 16th century, it was clearly divided into I and U for vowels/i/and/u/, and J and V (or W) for consonants/j/and/w/(or/v/) before vowels. "Y" and "Z" were added specifically for spelling Greek and borrowed words in the later period of the Republic Greek Y Read the height of the round lip Prevowel /Y/, read after/i/.

grammar

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Latin can be roughly divided into the following five periods: standard speech Pre literary Latin (before 250 BC), Archaic Latin (250-90 BC), Classical Latin (80-1st century BC), Classical Post Latin (14-200 AD), Late Latin (200-600 AD) and Vulgar Latin 。 Classical Latin is Ancient Rome Of official language , in GaiusIULIUS Caesar and Cicero (Marcus Tullius Cicer ō). Latin was gradually divided into French, Spanish Portuguese , Italian romanian But at the same time, it also has a considerable impact on the unconnected English. Popular Latin and descendants of Latin have made many modifications and simplifications to classical Latin, such as Neuter Among the descendant languages of Latin, only Romanian is reserved. This page introduces classical Latin Grammar 。

noun

Latin noun adjectives have six cases: subject, genus, and, object, grab, call

Nominative Predicative ）

“ Genitive ”(genitivus, indicating all relationships, the same as English possessive case ）

“ dative ”(dativus, representing Indirect object Or other indirect grammatical meaning ）

"Accusativus" means Direct object , also called acceptance or antithesis)

Ablativus preposition Used together or solely to indicate tools and means)

“ vocative ”(vocativus, used to address someone)

locative case (Iocativus) Not available in Latin Grammatical category However, there are still a few ancient square case forms, which are dominated by place names and some commonly used places, so the position case is not listed as one of the Latin cases.

Duge is also translated as deviance instrumental case And azimuth grid.

Because the case change has expressed the relationship between nouns and verbs in Latin Grammatical relation , so Latin word order It is highly free and does not follow the subject predicate object format. For example, a father loves his son. In Chinese, English French There can only be one word order , that is, subject predicate object. But in Latin There are six word orders:

Pater amat fīlium.

Pater fīlium amat.

Fīlium amat pater.

Fīlium pater amat.

Amat pater fīlium.

Amat fīlium pater.

The above six sentences have the same meaning. If you want to express "son loves father", you need to make a case change. There are also six word orders to express this sentence: "Filius patrem amat." Other word orders are omitted.

There are five variants of Latin nouns and two variants of adjectives. Each variant uses different variants to distinguish the six cases mentioned above. Nouns in singular case Suffix Determine the lattice change method.

The following list lists the five variants of Latin nouns:

First lattice change method (- ):

Puella, - ae (girl)	singular	complex
nominative	puella	puellae
Genitive	puellae	puellārum
dative	puellae	puellīs
Binge	puellam	puellās
ablative case	puellā	puellīs
vocative	puella	puellae

Second variation method (- ǒ):

nature	positive		neutral
illustrative word	Servus, - ī (slave)		Bellum, - ī (war)
Grid Number	singular	complex	singular	complex
nominative	servus	servī	bellum	bellǎ
Genitive	servī	servōrum	bellī	bellōrum
dative	servō	servīs	bellō	bellīs
Binge	servum	servōs	bellum	bellǎ
ablative case	servō	servīs	bellō	bellīs
vocative	serve	servī	bellum	bellǎ

The third variant (divided into two categories, consonant Stemming And - stem):

nature	negative		positive		neutral
illustrative word	Urbs, urbis (city)		Pater, patris (father)		Fl Lumen, fl Luminis (river)
Grid Number	singular	complex	singular	complex	singular	complex
nominative	urbs	urbēs	pater	patrēs	flūmen	flūmina
Genitive	urbis	urbium	patris	patrum	flūminis	flūminum
dative	urbī	urbibus	patrī	patribus	flūminī	flūminibus
Binge	urbem	urbēs	patrem	patrēs	flūmen	flūmina
ablative case	urbe	urbibus	patre	patribus	flūmine	flūminibus
vocative	urbs	urbēs	pater	patrēs	flūmen	flūmina

The fourth variation (- ǔ):

nature	negative		neutral
illustrative word	Manus, - lu s (hand)		Cornu, - lu s (jiao)
Grid Number	singular	complex	singular	complex
nominative	manus	manūs	cornū	cornua
Genitive	manūs	manuum	cornūs	cornuum
dative	manuī	manibus	cornū	cornibus
Binge	manum	manūs	cornū	cornua
ablative case	manū	manibus	cornū	cornibus
vocative	manus	manūs	cornū	cornua

Fifth lattice change method (- e):

illustrative word	Di ī s, - ī (days)
Grid Number	singular	complex
nominative	diēs	diēs
Genitive	diēī	diērum
dative	diēī	diēbus
Binge	diem	diēs
ablative case	diē	diebus
vocative	diēs	diēs

verb

Latin verbs can be divided into two categories: finite form and non finite form. Non finite (non personal) forms of verbs include: infinitive 、 participle 、 Gerund Verbal, objective participle. The limited form (that is, the form of personal transformation) has five grammatical categories: number, person, form voice , tenses; Verbal Present tense There are four basic types of stem endings (four Displacement method ）, six tenses: present tense, unfinished tense Future tense , completion pluperfect 、 future perfect , there are first, second and third person, three types of language: direct, virtual Imperative , two voices: active voice 、 Be dynamic (Only transitive verb Only then has been dynamic; Abnormal verbs: verbs with passive form but active meaning), two numbers: singular and plural.

Here is the first transformational verb am ō (love), whose stem ends with -  -:

amō, -āre, -āvī, -ātum				Present tense	perfect tense	When not completed	pluperfect	Future tense	future perfect
main move state	Chen Description language gas	single number	One scale	amō	amāvī	amābam	amāveram	amābō	amāverō
			Dichotomous	amās	amāvistī	amābas	amāverās	amābis	amāveris
			Three scales	amat	amāvit	amābat	amāverat	amābit	amāverit
		complex number	One scale	amāmus	amāvimus	amābāmus	amāverāmus	amābimus	amāverimus
			Dichotomous	amātis	amāvistis	amābātis	amāverātis	amābitis	amāveritis
			Three scales	amant	amāvērunt	amābant	amāverant	amābunt	amāverint
	empty Proposed language gas	single number	One scale	amem	amāverim	amārem	amāvissem	-	-
			Dichotomous	amēs	amāveris	amārēs	amāvissēs	-	-
			Three scales	amet	amāverit	amāret	amāvisset	-	-
		complex number	One scale	amēmus	amāverimus	amārēmus	amāvissēmus	-	-
			Dichotomous	amētis	amāveritis	amārētis	amāvissētis	-	-
			Three scales	ament	amāverint	amārent	amāvissent	-	-
cover move state	Chen Description language gas	single number	One scale	amor	amātus sum	amābar	amātus eram	amābor	amātus erō
			Dichotomous	amāris	~ es	amābāris	~ erās	amāberis	~ eris
			Three scales	amātur	~ est	amābātur	~ erat	amābitur	~ erit
		complex number	One scale	amāmur	~ sumus	amābāmur	~ erāmus	amābimur	~ erimus
			Dichotomous	amāminī	~ estis	amābāminī	~ erātis	amābinimī	~ eritis
			Three scales	amantur	~ sunt	amābantur	~ erant	amābuntur	~ erunt
	empty Proposed language gas	single number	One scale	amer	amātus sim	amārer	amātus essem	-	-
			Dichotomous	amēris	~ sīs	amārēris	~ essēs	-	-
			Three scales	amētur	~ sit	amārētur	~ esset	-	-
		complex number	One scale	amēmur	~ sīmus	amārēmur	~ essēmus	-	-
			Dichotomous	amēminī	~ sītis	amārēminī	~ essētis	-	-
			Three scales	amentur	~ sint	amārentur	~ essent	-	-

Imperative		I	II
single number	Dichotomous	amā	amāto
single number	Three scales	-	amāto
complex number	Dichotomous	amāte	amātōte
complex number	Three scales	-	amanto

infinitive	active	passive
commonly	amāre	amārī
complete	amāvisse	amāminī

participle	active	passive
Now?	amāns	-
complete	-	amātus
future	amātūrus	amandus

Gerund: amandum

Language characteristics

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Latin

Latin And Latin vocabulary are common language resources of human beings. linguist Latin in Indo European language family is classified as K language. Latin stress There are certain rules: if the penultimate syllable is a long syllable, the stress falls on this syllable, otherwise it falls on the penultimate syllable. Not syntactically article , nouns have rich morphological changes and retain Indo European Of vocative , but the real Indo European Digression 、 instrumental case And most locative case Merge into an anomaly. Verbs have complex morphological changes, but they are simpler than Greek. Because the verb has a personal change Personal pronoun The subject is often omitted. There are also disjunctive verbs, such as loquor (I say), which is in the form of passive In the sense of initiative; There are unique verbs that can be used as participle And adjectives. Sentential word order It is free and flexible. In terms of vocabulary, they are directly inherited from Indo European, but there are also many words from other languages loan 。

Latin is a Comprehensive language , complex Inflectional change The system constitutes Latin Grammar The main part of. These changes are usually formed by adding suffixes at the end of words（ external inflection ）Or change Stemming Consonants or vowels of（ Internal inflection ）。 For nouns, adjectives and pronouns, this change is called“ Variable lattice ”(declination), for verbs, is called "conjugatio".

Relationship with English

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Latin Bible

English and Latin belong to the same language family（ Indo European ）Different language families (English belongs to Germanic languages , while Latin belongs to Italian language family ）, so the grammar is different. Modern English writers tried to apply Latin grammar to English, such as imposing a ban on the use of adverbs between "to" and "verb", which could not be successfully applied to everyday language. Even so, more than half English vocabulary From Latin. Many English words have evolved from Roman languages, such as French or Italian. These Romanian languages evolved from Latin (for example, Latin: merc e s → French: merci → English: mercy), some directly evolved from Latin (for example, Latin: ser, nus → English: serine), and some were directly adopted without change (for example, Latin: l ø rva → English: larva). It can be seen that a considerable number of English words have evolved from Latin. In addition, some Latin languages are written by Greek Evolved (e.g. Greek: sch ǒ l e → Latin: sch ǒ la → Old English: sc ō l → Modern English ：school）。 So many English Loanwords Later, it really enriched the original monotonous English vocabulary.

Many people are used to calling A-Z“ English letter ”In fact, it should be called“ latin alphabet ”Or "Roman alphabet". Because the 26 letters A - Z in English are taken from the Latin letters in Latin.

The following is a comparative list of some special nouns in Latin and English, showing the impact of Latin on English:

english	English translation	Latin	Latin translation
January	January	Iānus	The god that symbolizes the end and the beginning
February	February	febris	Feverish, (February is the season easy to catch a cold)
March	March	Mars	mars , God of War
May	May	Māia	God of Spring
June	June	Iūnō	Queen of God Juno ； God of fertility and women
July	July	Iūlius	Cesar G. IULIUS Caesar
August	August	Augustus	Adj. Great, augustus Augustus , King of Ancient Rome
September	September	septem	Seven
October	October	octō	Eight
November	November	novem	Nine
December	December	decem	Ten

english	English translation	Latin	Latin translation
Saturday	Saturday	Sāturnus	Saturn , God of Agriculture
Mercury	Mercury	Mercurius	Mochuli , Messenger (Mercury orbits the sun fastest)
Venus	Venus	Venus	Venus , the god of love and beauty (gold symbolizes beauty)
Mars	Mars	Mars	mars , God of War (red symbolizes blood, blood symbolizes war)
Jupiter	Jupiter	Iuppiter	Jupiter , King of Gods (Jupiter is the largest)
Saturn	Saturn	Sāturnus	Satune, father of Jupiter (Jupiter defeated Satune; Jupiter is bigger than Saturn)
Uranus	Uranus	Uranum	The god of the sky in ancient Greek mythology Ulanos ， Jupiter 's grandfather
Neptune	Neptune	Neptūnus	Nipton , Poseidon (blue symbolizes the sea)
Pluto	Pluto	Plūtō	Pluto , Pluto

english	English translation	Latin	Latin translation
Aries	Aries	Ariēs	Ram
Taurus	Taurus	Taurus	bull
Gemini	Gemini	Geminī	Horse hooves
Cancer	Cancer	Cancer	Crab
Leo	leo	Leō	lion
Virgo	Virgo	Virgō	virgin
Libra	libra	Lībra	balance
Scorpio	scorpio	Scorpiō	scorpion
Sagittarius	sagittarius	Sagittārius	Archer
Capricorn	Capricornus	Capricornus	Monster with upper body sheep and lower body fish
Aquarius	aquarius	Aquārius	Water container
Pisces	Pisces	Piscēs	Fish

Note: April and Uranus "Uranus" from MYTHOS 。

status

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In English, "I" (I[ nominative ]), "me" (me[ Binge ]), "is", "mother", "brother" and "ten" are actually words that have been spoken by Europeans and Asians for thousands of years in some way. So far, it is not clear how old these words are. Although their spelling and pronunciation are different due to the difference of time and space, these basic elements of human thought symbols can cross such a time and space span and remain until today. This can be seen from the following brief table.

Sanskrit	Greek	Latin	Anglo- Saxon	Old Irish	Lithuanian	Russian	English	Chinese
aham	egō	ego	ic	-	aš	я (ja)	I	I (main case)
mā	me	mē	mē	mé	manè	меня (menja)	me	Me (Binge)
asti	esti	est	is	is	esti	есть (jest')	Is (third person singular)	yes
mātar-	mētēr	māter	mōdor	máthir	motė	мать (mat')	mother	mother
bhrātar-	phrātēr	frāter	brōðor	bráthir	broterėlis	брат (brat)	brother	brother
daśam	deka	decem	tīen	deich	dešimitis	десять (desjat')	ten	ten

These "cognates" in the table are related to each other. However, among them, except English Anglo Saxon No language is directly derived from another language except for those derived from it. All other languages can trace back to a common ancestor. This language has now died out, but its existence can be inferred from the remaining linguistic evidence. The source language (now extinct) of all these "kinship languages" or cognates is generally called Proto-Indo-European , because its derivatives appear in the vicinity of today's India（ Sanskrit 、 Iranian ）, also appeared in modern Europe (Greek, Latin Germanic languages 、 Celtic 、 Slavic Baltic). According to textual research, the oldest of these languages are Sanskrit, Iranian, Greek and Latin, which can be traced back to BC.

English is derived from Anglo Saxon, which is cognate with Latin. Anglo Saxon English borrowed some words from Latin earlier. In the 7th century AD, more Latin words were absorbed, mainly due to the influence of the works of Saint Augustine of Canterbury (not the famous Saint Augustine of Hippo), who was sent by Pope Gregory to convert the Angles to Christianity. stay William the Conqueror Ruled in 1066 England After that, Norman French became the upper class language, and Anglo Saxon was regarded as the inferior language spoken by the defeated and serfs. Anglo Saxon is no longer literary language , but become a part of daily life Vernacular 。 However, about two centuries later, as the descendants of Normans finally merged with the local British, Anglo Saxon language was again recognized. But because of its own poverty, it had to borrow hundreds of French words in literature, thought and culture before it became a literary language. In the 13th and 14th centuries, with the continuous increase of such borrowing, Middle English Slowly developed, its representative died in 1400 Geoffrey Chaucer 。 In addition to these French words with Latin roots being absorbed, some words are borrowed directly from Latin. In the 16th and 17th centuries, The Renaissance This process has been strengthened by reviving people's interest in classical works. Since then, Latin has been the source of many new words, especially scientific vocabulary.

Examples of words derived from Latin in English
English	Chinese	Latin cognates	English derivatives	Chinese
mother	mother	māter	maternal	Maternal; Maternal
two	two	duo	dual,duel	Double; Double; Doublet
tooth	tooth	dēns, Stem dent-	dental	Dental; Dental
foot	Feet (odd number)	pēs， Stemmed-	pedal	pedal
heart	heart	cor, Stemmed-	cordial	Heartfelt; Sincere
bear	Burden and bear (children)	ferō	fertile	Fertile

Since English has passed Anglo Saxon And Latin Cognate Moreover, English has borrowed many words directly or indirectly from Latin, so it is easy to use English words to explain homology and derivation. For example, the word "brother" is cognate with the Latin word "fr ä ter", while“ fraternal ”(Brother) is obviously derived from "fr  ter".^[4]

Common Words and Quotes

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Common Words

Salvēte! Hello!
Valēte! bye!
Bonum vesperum! good afternoon!
Bonam noctem! good night!
Quis es tū? who are you?
Loquerisne linguam Latīnam? Do you speak Latin?
Quid est nōmen tibi? What's your name?
Nōmen mihi est "Mark". My name is Mark. (Mark generally corresponds to M ō rcus in Latin, that is, N ō men mihi est "M ō rcus".)
Quaesō Please.
Amābō tē please
Quid agis hodiē? How are you today?
Bene valeō! Good!
Libenter feci! you are welcome!
Optimē! very nice!
Pessimus! Very bad!
Pessimē! Very bad!
Bene! Not bad!
Satis bene. Just so so.
Nōn bene. just so so.
Et tū? what about you?
Veniō ex terra xxx. I'm from xxx.
Beneficiō tuō! thank you!
Certē.（Sīc est） Such is the case.
Nōn est. no, it isn't.
Nunc. Now?
Hodiē. today.
Herī. yesterday.
Crās. tomorrow.
Semper. Always.
Hīc. here.
Mox tē vidēbō. See you next time.
Bene tibi ēveniat. Good luck.
Si valetis gaudeō, ego valeō. If you are good, I will be happy. I am good. (This is a common question and answer formula used by ancient Romans when they wrote letters, and only used the abbreviation "S.V.G.E.V"^[5] ）

well-known saying

Jus est ars boni et aequi "Law is the art of kindness and justice."
Nec hostium timete, nec amicum reusate "Don't be afraid of enemies, and don't refuse friends."
VENI VIDI VICI "I come, I see, I conquer."—— Julius Caesar
Fortiter in rē, suāviter in modō "Be firm in action and moderate in attitude."
Sī vīs pācem, parā bellum. "If you want peace, prepare for war."—— Wegtius （Flavius Vegetius Renatus）
Nil desperandum "Never despair."
Nemo mē impune lacessit "No one can deceive me with impunity."
Tempus fugit : "Time flies like an arrow."—— Virgil
Vox populi, vox Dei "Public opinion is God's will."
Salus populi suprema lex esto The interests of the people are the supreme law
Non sibi, sed omnibus : "Not for yourself, but for everyone."
cōgitō ergō sum ：“ I think, so I am 。”—— Descartes
annus mirabilis "A year of miracles" or "an amazing year." -- From the poem by the British poet Dryden commemorating the fire of London in 1666
annus horribilis : "A terrible year" or "a year full of disasters."—— The Queen of England Elizabeth II In 1992
E pluribus unum ：“ Unite as one 。”—— National Emblem of the United States One of the maxims on
Qui tacet consentit : "Silence is the default."
Carpe diem : "Enjoy yourself while you are." -- From Horace The Book of Songs
Unus pro omnibus, omnes pro uno "Everyone is for me, everyone is for me.", all for one）—— Switzerland National motto Alexandre Dumas 's motto
Veritas : "Truth."—— Harvard University School motto
Mens et Manus : "Use both hands and brain."—— Massachusetts Institute of Technology School motto
Sidere mens eadem mutato "Stars change, wisdom is eternal."—— University of Sydney School motto
Dei sub numine viget "Let her prosper in the name of God."—— Princeton University School motto
Lux et veritas "Light and true knowledge."—— Yale University School motto
Novus ordo seclorum "The new order of the times." -- The motto of Yale Business School
Tempus omnia revelat "Time will reveal everything."
Hinc lucem et pocula sacra "This is the place of enlightenment and the source of wisdom."—— University of Cambridge School motto
Dominus Illuminatio Mea "The Lord illuminates me."—— Oxford School motto
Sapientia Et Virtus "Wisdom and Morality (literally translated)"《 university 》）—— University of Hong Kong School motto
Via Veritas Vita : "Method, truth, life." - It is said that Jesus Christ ， University of Glasgow School motto
Draco dormiens nunquam titillandus : "Don't disturb sleeping dragons"—— Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry School motto

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