Kepler foundThree laws of planetary motion, respectively, the orbital lawArea lawAnd periodic law.These three laws can be described as: all planets are different in sizeElliptical orbitUpper operation;Planets at the same timeDiametralstayTrack planeThe area swept by the upper part is equal;planetRevolution periodThe square of is proportional to the cube of its distance from the sun.These three laws finally earned him the reputation of "the legislator of the sky".At the same time, he has a good understanding of opticsmathematicsHe is the founder of modern experimental optics.
Johannes Kepler was born on January 6, 1572, that is, Saint John's DayHoly Roman EmpireWeil der Stadt, now GermanyBaden WuerttembergPart of, located atStuttgart30 kilometers west of the center), in front of him there are two brothers and a sister.His grandfather Sebald Kepler was once the mayor of this town, but when Johannes Kepler was born, the family business of the Kepler family had begun to decline.His father Heinrich Kepler became a dangerous man in order to make a livingMercenary, Johannes left his family when he was 5 years old, and is said to have died laterNetherlandsOfEighty Years War 。Johannes' mother, Katharina Guldenmann, was the daughter of an innkeeper, a doctor andHerbsCommerce.Johannes ispremature infant, when I was a child, I was weak and sickly.However, his extraordinary mathematical ability often impressed the guests in his grandfather's hotel[3]。
At a very young age, he came into contact with and loved astronomy, and this love ran through his life.When he was six years old, he sawThe Great Comet of 1577(C/1577 V1), and wrote that he was "taken to a highland by his mothercomet。”When he was 9 years old, he observed another astronomical event - the lunar eclipse in 1580, and recorded that he remembered that he was "called outside the door" to watch the eclipse, and the moon "looked very red".However, childhood suffers fromsmallpox, which makes his eyesight weak and his hands disabled, thus limiting his ability to observe astronomy[3]。In 1589, afterGrammar schoolAfter studying at the Latin School and the Maulbronn Theological Seminary, Kepler enteredUniversity of Tuebingen OfTubingenTheological Seminary.There, he learned philosophy from Vitus M ü ller and theology from Jacob Heerbrand.Jacob isPhilipp Melanchthon (Philipp Melanchthon) A student in Wittenberg.Jacob Halbrand also had another student named Michael Maestlin, who became President of Tubingen University in 1590[4]。
The 1577 comet Kepler saw as a child attracted astronomers all over Europe
Kepler proved that he was an outstanding mathematician, and as a skilled astrologer, he made astrology for his classmates, which earned him a reputation.Under the guidance of Michael Mastlin, a professor of mathematics at Tubingen University from 1583-1631, he learned about planetary motionPtolemaic system And CopernicusHeliocentric theory。During that time, he becameCopernicusA supporter of.In a student debate, he defended the heliocentric theory from both theoretical and theological perspectives, insisting that the sun is the main source of cosmic power.Although he wanted to be a priest very much, at the end of his studies, Kepler was recommended as a Protestant school in Graz (laterUniversit?t Graz ）Math and astronomy teacher.He accepted the position in April 1594 at the age of 23[3]。
Marriage to Barbara Muller
Portrait of the Keplers' Oval Medal
In December 1595, Kepler was introduced to Barbara M ü ller, a 23-year-old widow (married twice) with her little daughter Gemma van Dvijneveldt, and began to woo her.Mueller is not only the heiress of her two previous husbands' property, but also the daughter of a successful mill owner.Despite Kepler's noble status, her father Jobst M ü ller also opposed their marriage at first.Because although Kepler inherited his grandfather's noble status, his poverty made him incompatible with Barbara.After Kepler finished The Mystery of the Universe, Jobst felt pity, but thisengagementIt almost failed because Kepler went out to focus on various issues of publishing.However, church officials who helped to lobby the media forced the Mullers to abide by their agreement.
On April 27, 1597, Barbara and Kepler got married.In the early years of their marriage, they had two children (Heinrich and Susanna), but both died in infancy.In 1602, they gave birth to a daughter (Susanna), a son (Friedrich) in 1604, and a son (Ludwig) in 1607[3]。
Studies in the Graz Period
《Mysterium Cosmographicum 》After the publication, Kepler started an ambitious plan to further develop and improve his works with the support of the supervisor of Graz Protestant School.He plans to write another four books: a still celestial body (the sun and fixed stars) about the universe;One is about planets and their movements;One is about the formation of physical attributes and geographical characteristics of planets (focusing on the Earth);One is about the influence of the sky on the earth, covering atmospheric opticsmeteorologyandastrology[3]。
Kepler and Barbara's house in Gesendorf near Graz
He also collected a lot of opinions from astronomers who had given "The Mystery of the Universe" to him, includingRudolf II Reimarus Ursus, also known as Nicolaus Reimers B ä rTycho Brahe The fierceness ofcompetitor。Ursus did not reply to him directly, but republished Kepler's flattering letter to seek his connection with TychoTycho systemAdvantages in the debate.In spite of this stain, Tycho began to communicate with Kepler and criticized Kepler's system severely but reasonably at the beginning.Among many objections, Tycho objected to his use of inaccurate Copernicus data.Through correspondence, Tycho and Kepler discussed astronomical problems in a wide range, with emphasis onphase of the moonAnd Copernicus (especially its theological vitality).But without more accurate data from Tycho Observatory, Kepler could not cover many of these issues.[3]
As a result, Kepler turned his attention to chronology and "harmony", namely music, mathematics andMaterial worldAnd their astrological results.By assuming that the earth has spirit (an attribute that he later used to explain the movement of planets caused by the sun), he established an astrological content andAstronomical distanceA speculative system associated with weather and other Earth phenomena.However, in 1599, he found that his work was notaccuracyJust as the growing religious tension is threatening his work in Graz.In December of the same year, Tycho invited Kepler to meet in Prague.January 1, 1600 (even after he receivedinvitationBefore), Kepler set out, hoping that Tycho's funding could help solve his philosophical problems and social andeconomic problem[3]。
Served in Tycho Brahe
Tycho Brahe
On February 4, 1600, Kepler saw theTycho Brahe Tycho Brahe and his assistants Franz Tengnagel and Christen S ø rensen Longomontanus.Benatki on the Izela River is the location of the new observatory in Tycho.Kepler stayed here as a guest for two months and analyzed some Mars discoveries in Tycho;Tycho closely protected his data, but was deeply impressed with Kepler's theoretical thoughts, so he gave him more space to approach later.Kepler plans to use MarsData testHis theory in The Mystery of the Universe, but he expected that this work would take two years (because Tycho did not allow him to simply copy the data for his own use).With the help of Johannes Jessenius, Kepler tried to negotiate a more formal employment arrangement with Tycho, but the negotiation broke down in a heated dispute.So Kepler went to Prague on April 6.After that, Kepler and Tycho soon reconciled, and finally reached an agreement on wages and living arrangements. In June, Kepler returned to Graz to pick up his family[3]。Graz's political and religious troubles broke his idea of returning to work at Tycho Observatory immediately. In order to continue his astronomical research, Kepler, as a mathematician, sought a job from Archduke Ferdinand.To this end, Kepler wrote a special article for Ferdinand.In his article, he proposed a moonkineticsTheory: "There is a force on the earth that causes the movement of the moon"[3]。Although this article did not get him a position in Ferdinand's court, it introduced a new method to measure the lunar eclipse in detail. He applied this method to Graz'slunar eclipseCelestial phenomena.These observations became the basis for his exploration of optical laws, and the Optical Needs of Astronomy was the peak of his optical exploration.[3]
On August 2, 1600, after refusing to convert to Catholicism, Kepler and his family were expelledGraz。A few months later, Kepler and his family cameBragg。Almost the whole year of 1601, he received direct support from Tycho. Tycho arranged him to analyze the planetary observation results and compile a pamphlet against Ulsus, although Tycho died soon.In September, Tycho helped Kepler obtain the appointment of the Rudolph Catalogue as the collaborator of the new project he had proposed to the emperor, which will replace the Prussian Catalogue written by Erasmus Reinhold.Tycho died unexpectedly on October 24, 1601. Two days later, Kepler was appointed as his successor, responsible for completing Tycho's unfinished work as a royal mathematician.The next 11 years as a royal mathematician were the most productive in Kepler's life.[3]
Advisor to Emperor Rudolph II
As a royal mathematician, Kepler's main responsibility was to provideastrologySuggestions on.Although Kepler was skeptical of the efforts of contemporary astrologers to accurately predict the future or specific theological events, when he was a student of Tubingen University, he had shown his friends, family members and sponsors a very popular level of astrology.In addition to astrology for allies and foreign leaders, the emperor also sought Kepler's advice when encountering political troubles.Rudolf II (Rudolf II) has an active interest in the work of many of his court scholars (including alchemists), and tracks Kepler's work in physical astronomy[3]。
Prague officially recognizedreligious doctrineIt is a Catholic and moderate sect, but Kepler can believe in his Lutheranism without being hindered by his position in the court.The emperor nominally provided a rich income for his family, but the royal treasury spent too much, which means that if you want to actually get enough money to cope with the economic burden, you still need to constantly strive for it.Partly because of economic difficulties, his and Barbara's family life was not satisfactory, and they were often disturbed by quarrels and diseases.However, court life brought Kepler opportunities to contact other famous scholars, including Johannes Matth ä us Wackher von Wackhenfels, Jost B ü rgi, and David·FabryDavid Fabricius, M. Bachazek, and Johannes Brenger made rapid progress in his astronomy work[3]。
Family misfortune
In 1611, the increasingly tense relationship between politics and religion in Prague reached a white hot level.emperorRudolf II (Emperor Rudolf II) is also in declineMatthias(Matthias) Forced abdication asKingdom of Bohemiaking.Both sides sought Kepler's suggestions on astrology, and he just took this opportunity to put forward a political proposal for reconciliation to them (which has little to do with the astrology, except for the general statement to discourage violent action).However, it is clear that Kepler's prospects at the Matthias court have darkened.In the same year, Barbara was infectedHungaryMacular rashThe fever then began to flare up.When Barbara was recovering, Kepler's three children sufferedsmallpoxFriedrich finally died at the age of 6.Later, Kepler wrote toNuremberg And potential sponsors of Padova.The University of Tubingen in Nuremberg is worried that Kepler has been exposed to those who violate the Augsburg Creed and the Cooperative CreedCalvinismHeresy prevented his return.andUniversity of PaduaWith the recommendation of Galileo, who was about to die, he hoped that Kepler could fill the vacancy of mathematics professor. But Kepler didn't like his family leaving Germany, so he came to AustriaLinz, determined to be a teacher and parish mathematician here.However, Barbara relapsed and died soon after Kepler returned.[3]
Re employment of Emperor Matthias
Kepler delayed movingLinzTo stay in Prague untilRudolf II He died in early 1612.At the same time, Kepler was confronted with political upheaval, religious tension and family tragedy (as well as legal disputes over his wife's property), so Kepler could not continue to do research.So he pieced together his letters and early works into a chronological manuscript, Selected Chronicles（Eclogae Chronicae）。Succession in MatthiasHoly Roman EmperorLater, Matthias reconfirmed the position (and salary) of Kepler's Royal Mathematician and allowed him to move to Linz.[3]
The Study of Linz Period
Kepler Statue of Linz
stayLinzKepler's main responsibility is toParish schoolTeach and provide astrology and astronomy services.In the first few years there, compared with his life in Prague, his economic conditions were more relaxed and his religion was more free, although in view of his theological concerns, the Lutheran Church prohibited him from attendingHoly Communion。In 1613 AD, his first work published in Linz was The DeVero Era, which further explained the year when Jesus was born.He also took part in the deliberations to determine whether the PopeGregory XIII(Pope Gregory XIII)protestantRegion.In the same year, he also wrote the influential mathematical work New Method for Calculating Barrel Volume（Nova stereometria doliorum vinariorum）。Published in 1615, this book introduces the method of measuring container volume, such as wine barrel[3]。
The second marriage
On October 30, 1613, Kepler married 24 year old Susanna Reuttinger.After the death of his first wife Barbara, Kepler had considered 11 different objects in two years (the process of making decisions later becameMarriage problems）[13]。He finally turned around and chose Roy Stringer (the fifth object).Kepler once wrote, "She captured me with love, modest loyalty, thrifty housekeeping, hard work and love for her stepsons.".The first three children of his marriage, Margareta Regina, Ketalina and Sebald, died in their childhood.The other three children survived and grew up: Cordula (born in 1621), Fridmar (born in 1623) and Hildebert (born in 1625).According to the author of Kepler's biography, Kepler's marriage was happier than the first[3]。
Economic disputes and mother's witch trial
In 1615, a man born with Kepler's brother ChristophEconomic disputesA woman named Ursula Reingold claimed that Kepler's mother Katarina made her sick with an evil drink.After that, the quarrel escalated.In 1617, Katarina was accused of witchcraft,Witch trialDuring this periodCentral EuropeVery common.From August 1620, she was imprisoned for 14 months.In October 1621, she was released, in part because of Kepler's extensive legal defense.The plaintiff has no evidence, only rumors.Katarina was subjected to verbal intimidation (image description of the torture waiting for her and given to the witch) to finally force her to confess her guilt.During this trial, Kepler postponed his other work, instead focusing on his "harmony theory", and published his work in 1619《Harmony of the world》。[3]
Unsuccessful Calendar
As "Rudolf's Catalogue" and relatedCatalogueKepler publishedAstronomical calendarThis calendar was very popular, and it offset the cost of his other works, especially when the royal treasury funding was suspended.According to his calendar, Kepler predicted the position of planets, weather andPolitical eventsThe latter is often very accurate, thanks to his keen grasp of the tension between politics and theology at that time.However, by 1624, the escalation of tensions and the inaccuracy of predictions meant that Kepler himself was in political trouble. His final calendar wasGrazIt was publicly burned.[3]
Thirty year War and Late Years
Kepler's Heavenly Palace Map for General Wallenstein
Holy Roman EmpireemperorMatthias(reigned from 1612 to 1619)Bohemian(TodayCzech Republic）Restoration of Catholicism, designationFerdinand IIHe is the king of Bohemia.Ferdinand II ordered that the Protestants in Prague be bannedreligious activities , demolish their church, and declare the protestant rally mobs.On May 23, 1618, armed thugs rushed into the palace and threw the emperor's imperial envoy into the trench from the window, which is known as“Throw out of window event”，Thirty Year WarThe official start.In 1628, with the emperorFerdinand II(Ferdinand II)WallensteinThe military victory was won under the command of the general, and Kepler became Wallenstein's official adviser.Although not in essenceShogun But Kepler provided astrologers with astronomical calculations and occasionally wrote for Wallenstein himselfHeavenly Palace Map。In the last years of his life, Kepler spent a lot of time traveling, from the Prague Palace to Linz, from Ulm to Sagan's temporary home, and finally toRegensburg。Shortly after arriving at Regensburg, Kepler became ill.He died on November 15, 1630, and was buried there. Later, the cemetery was destroyed by the Swedish army.[3]
Only Kepler created itepitaphIt has also been handed down:
"I once measured the height of the sky, but now I want to measure the depth of the earth."
"My soul comes from heaven, and the mortal body belongs here."[11]
Representative works
Announce
edit
The Mystery of the Universe
Kepler's Platonic Solid Model of the Solar System in the Mystery of the Universe
Kepler's first important astronomical work was The Mystery of the Universe（Mysterium Cosmographicum）Is the first to defend Copernican theoryPublic publicationWorks.Kepler claimed that the epiphany on July 19, 1595, when he was teaching in GrazZodiacThe figure showsJupiter and Saturn(Great conjunction)Periodic change。He realized that the regular multilateral body, according to the specified ratioInscribedCircle andCircumscribed circleHe speculated that it might be cosmicGeometric Basis。After the failure of efforts to find polyhedrons with unique arrangement that are consistent with known astronomical discoveries (even using additional planets added to the system), Kepler began to use three-dimensionalpolyhedronConduct experiments.He found fivePlatonic Solids Each of the can be inscribed andCircumscribe。First, construct these polyhedrons. Each polyhedron is installed in a sphere, and this sphere is installed in another polyhedron. Each polyhedron can generate six layers, corresponding to six known stars（Mercury, Venus, Earth, MarsJupiterAnd Saturn).For these polyhedrons（Octahedron、Icosahedron、Dodecahedron、tetrahedronandhexahedron）In the right order, Kepler found that if these planetssunlight, then the spheres can be arranged at a certain distance, which corresponds to the relative size of each planet's path (in theaccuracyRange).
Detailed internal structure of Kepler's early solar system model
Kepler also found a formula to compare the orbital size of each planet withOrbital periodAssociate fromInner planetreachouter planet, orbital periodicgrowth rateIt's a trackRadius differenceTwice as much.However, Kepler later rejected this formula because it was not accurate enough.As his title indicates, Kepler believes that he has revealed God's geometric design of the universe.Kepler's enthusiasm for Copernicus stems from his theological belief in the connection between material and spirit.The universe itself is an image of God, and the sun correspondsHoly FatherThe planet corresponds to the Son, and the space between them corresponds to the Holy Spirit.The original manuscript of "Mysteries of the Universe" contains an extended chapter to reconcile the theory of the sun center with the apparent supportGeocentric theoryAn extract from the Bible.[5]With the support of his teacher, Michael Masterlin, Kepler was allowed toUniversity of Tuebingen The Council published his manuscript, during which he deleted the Bible notes and added more simple and understandable descriptions of Copernicus and his new ideas.
The Mystery of the Universe was published at the end of 1596. Kepler received the published version at the beginning of 1597 and sent it to the famousastronomerAnd sponsors.The book was not widely read, but it established Kepler's reputation as a high-level astronomer.Passionate devotion to the sponsors and the people who offered him the position at Graz Protestant School is also the key way for him to enter the academic sponsorship system.[3]
In The Mystery of the Universe, Kepler never gave up the Platonic polyhedron sphereCosmology, although some details may need to be modified according to his later works.His later major work, by calculating theEccentricityThe discovery of more accurate inner and outer dimensions of the sphere is, in a sense, a further development of the work.
In 1621, Kepler published the expanded second edition of The Mystery of the Universe, which was half longer than the first editionfootnoteSome detailed records of his amendments and improvements in the 25 years after the first edition was published.[6]
As for its influence, The Mystery of the Universe can be regarded ascenter of the sunThe first important step of theoretical modernization.WhenNicolaus Copernicus (Nicolaus Copernicus) in his works《Celestial motion theory》He usedPtolemy The tools (i.e. turnover circle and centrifugal circle) are used to explain the changes in the orbital velocity of the planet, and continue to use the Earth's orbital center as theReference point, rather than using the sun center "to assist in the calculation so that the reader will not be confused by the deviation from Ptolemy too much." ModernastronomerHe attributed most of his achievements to The Mysteries of the Universe, although its main argument was flawed, "because it represented the first step to remove the Ptolemaic remnants from Copernicus."[5]
Optical Requirements for Astronomy
An illustration in the Optical Needs of Astronomy shows the structure of the eyes of various animals
Continue to slowly analyze the Mars in Tycho in Keplerobserved data He can use the complete information of Tycho and began the slow compilation process of Rudolph's CatalogueMoonIn the article, I picked up the research on optical laws.Whetherlunar eclipseorsolar eclipsePhenomena show unexplained phenomena, such as unexpected shadow sizelunar eclipseRed, and the legendary ringTotal solar eclipseRare light.Atmospheric refractionThe relevant topics of are applicable to all astronomical observations.For most of 1603, Kepler suspended his other work and focused on the study of optical theory;The manuscript was submitted to the emperor on January 1, 1604（Astronomiae Pars Optica）Published under the title.In this paper, Kepler controllight intensityOfInverse square law、Plane mirrorAndCurved mirrorReflectionPinhole imagingPrinciple and astronomical meaning of optics, such asparallaxAnd the visible size of celestial bodies are described.He also extended optical research to human eyes, and was widely believed by neuroscientists to be aware that images are created by eyesLensFlip Project ToretinaThe first person on the.The solution to this dilemma is not particularly important for Kepler, because he does not regard it as belonging to the category of optics, although he does show that the image is due to“Psychomotor”Corrected in "Brain Points".[7]Optical Requirements for Astronomy is generally considered as the basis of modern optics (although it obviously does not includeLaw of refraction）。[3]About ProjectionsgeometryKepler introduced the concept of continuous change of mathematical entities in his works.He argued that if the focus of a cone section can move along the line connecting the focus, then thisgeometryWill change or degenerate one focus into another.Therefore, when a focus followsInfinityWhen moving, the ellipse becomes aparabolaWhen the two focuses of an ellipse merge with each other, a circle is formed.
Nova of Ophiuchus Foot
The position of the nova is at the foot of Ophiuchus, with an N-shaped mark
In October 1604, a bright new Evening Star (known asKepler supernova, NoSN 1604）But Kepler didn't believe in rumors until he saw the evening star with his own eyes.He began to observe the new star systematically.fromAstrologyFrom the perspective of, the end of 1603 marks the beginning of the fire element Sangong group, that isJupiter and SaturnThe beginning of the new 800 year cycle;Astrologers compare the previous two periods withCharlemagneThe rise of Jesus (about 800 years ago) is linked to the birth of Jesus (about 1600 years ago), so they expect events with significant omens, especially about the emperor.It is under this circumstance that Kepler, as a royal mathematician and astrologer, wrote the novel Star at the Foot of Ophiuchus two years later（De Stella Nova in Pede Serpentarii）The new star is described in his book.In this article, Kepler, while skeptical of many other astrological explanations and circulation, focused on describing the astronomical properties of this new star.He noticed its fading brightness, speculated its origin, and demonstrated that it belongs to a fixed star according to the lack of parallax, further weakening the doctrine of celestial eternity (sinceAristotleSince then, people have always recognized the idea that celestial bodies are perfect and eternal.The appearance of a new star means the variability of the celestial body.In the appendix, Kepler also discussedpolandThe historian Laurentius Suslyga's recent work on chronology.He calculated that if Suslege was right and the chronology was four years ahead of time, then the Bible recorded in the New Testament Matthew Chapter IIStar Of Bethlehem (Similar to nova) will have just met the first grand conjunction（Jupiter and Saturn）800 year cycle.[3]
Ruins of Kepler supernova (SN 1604)
Xintian Literature
In the first chapter of New Astronomy, the geocentric orbit map of Mars during several periods of obvious retrograde movement.
Xintian Literature（Astronomia nova）It is the peak of the development of Mars orbit research (including the first two laws on planetary motion) based on Tycho's direction.Kepler used the bisection point (Copernicus put thisMathematical toolsExcluded from his theory)Approximate valueRepeat the calculation, and finally create a model that is basically consistent with Tycho's discovery within 2 minutes (average measurement error).But he still has a littleinaccurateThe results are not satisfactory.Because at some points, the difference between this model and the data is 8 minutes of arc.A series of traditional mathematicsAstronomical methodKepler was disappointed, and he began to try to set an oval orbit for these data.[3]According to Kepler's religious view of the universe, the sun (the symbol of the Father) issolar systemPower source.As the basis of physics, Kepler learned from analogyWilliam Gilbert（William.Gilbert）On Magnet（De Magnete, 1600)GeomagnetismThe theory of soul and my work on optics.He assumes the power (or power individual) of the sun's emission[8]As the distance decreases, when the planet is close to or far from the sun, the movement will speed up or slow down.[9]Perhaps the premise of this assumption requires a mathematical relationship to repair the astronomical order.According to the research on Earth and MarsApohelionandPerihelionHe created a formula for the measurement of.According to this formula, the planetaryMovement speedIt is inversely proportional to its distance from the sun.However, to confirm this relationship in the entire orbital period, a very wide range of calculations are required.To simplify the calculation task, Kepler appliedgeometryThe ratio is restated. Planets sweep the same area in the same time. This is about the movement of planetsKepler's second law（Area law）。[3]
After that, he used the geometric rate rule, assumed that the orbit was oval, and began to calculate the overall orbit of Mars.After about 40 failed attempts, at the beginning of 1605, he finally thoughtElliptical orbitThis concept, which he thought beforeresolventIt was so simple that early astronomers ignored it.After discovering that the elliptical orbit is applicable to the data of Mars, he immediately deduced that all planets move in elliptical orbits with the sun as the center, which is about the movement of planetsKepler's first law(Ellipse Law).However, he did not hire an assistant in computing, so he did notmathematical analysis Extend beyond Mars.At the end of that year, he completed the manuscript of New Astronomy, but because of TychoobservatoryThe legal dispute (the property of Tycho's descendants) was not published until 1609.[10]
Third Party Mediation
Kepler is located in the house of Karlova Street in the old city of Prague.
In the years after the completion of New Astronomy, most of Kepler's research focused on RudolphCatalogue》Compilation of and a complete set based on the catalogephemeris(For planets andStar positionBut these two tasks were not completed after many years).He also tried（Unsuccessful）AndItalyAstronomer Giovanni Antonio Magini.His other works involve chronology (especially the date record of events in Jesus' life) and astrology, especially the criticism of the sensational prediction of catastrophe, such as the prediction of Helisaeus Roeslin.[3]While Kepler and Roslin were busy publishing a series of attacks and counterattacks, Dr. P. Feselius published a work that comprehensively refuted astrology (especially Roslin's work).Kepler wrote The Third Party Mediation, on the one hand, in response to what he thought was an unnecessary response to astrology, and on the other hand, in response to excessive opposition（Tertius Interveniens）。On the surface, this article - mainly for the ordinary sponsors of Roslin and Faselius - is a neutral mediation between the disputing scholars, but it reflects Kepler's basic views on the value of astrology, and contains some hypothetical mechanisms for the interaction between planets and individual spirits.Kepler believes that most of the traditional astrological principles and methods arehen”Ragged rotten "stinky dung", but actually serious scientific astrologers "occasionally find grain, even pearls or gold nuggets".[3]
Dialogue with Starry Messenger
In the first few months of 1610,Galileo Galilei (Galileo di Vincenzo Bonaulti de Galilei) Using his powerful new telescope, he found fourJupiterA moving satellite.Published the report "Starry Night Messenger" in Galileo（Nuncio Sidereo）Kepler's opinion was consulted, to some extent, in order to increase his observationsreliability。Kepler gave a positive response and wrote and published a short reply - Dialogue with the Starry Night Messenger（Dissertatio cum Nuncio Sidereo）。He supports Galileo's observation, and his discovery of Galileo and telescope observation method are very important for astronomy, optics andcosmologyandAstrologyA series of inferences have been made about the meaning of.At the end of the same year, Kepler published his discovery of the moon by telescope in the Observation Report of Four Satellites, further supporting Galileo's discovery.But to Kepler's disappointment, Galileo never published his (any) reaction to the New Astronomy.[3]
Refractive Optics
After hearing about Galileo's discovery with a telescope, KeplerCologneDuke Ernest borrowed a telescope and began to theorize about telescope opticsexperimental study [11]。In September 1610, the manuscript was completed as a research achievement, and in 1611, the book "Refractive Optics"（Dioptrice）Published under the title.In this paper, Kepler proposed biconvexConvergent lensAnd double concavedivergent lensAnd how they can be combined to create aGalileo telescope, and truth andVirtual imageThe concept of upright and inverted image and the influence of focal length on zoom in and zoom out.He also introduced an improved telescope（Kepler telescope）, the telescope has twoConvex lens, which can produce largerMagnification。[3]
Dream
Around 1611, Kepler circulated one of his manuscripts, which was finally（Somnium）It was published (after his death).Part of the purpose of this article is to describe what the current astronomical society looks like from the perspective of another planet, so as to illustrate the feasibility of non geocentric theory.This manuscript, which was lost after several changes of hands, describes a magical journey to the moon. Part of it is a fable, part of it is an autobiography, and part of it is a monograph on the interstellar journey.This book is sometimes called the first science fiction by later generations.Years later, a distorted version of the story led to a witch trial against his mother, because the mother of the story teller learned from a devil about the way of space travel.As his mother was finally found innocent, Kepler wrote 223 footnotes for the story, which were seven times longer than the actual text, explaining the fable content hidden in the story and many scientific content (especially about lunar geography).[3]
Copernicus Astronomy Summary
The figure "M" in the Outline indicates that there are many stars similar to the solar system in the universe
Since the completion of the New Astronomy, Kepler began to plan astronomytextbook。[3]In 1615, he completed the outline of Copernicus astronomy（Epitome astronomiae Copernicanae）The first of three volumes.The first volume (volumes 1-3) was printed in 1617, the second volume (volume 4) was printed in 1620, and the third volume (volumes 5-7) was printed in 1621.Although the title simply refers toHeliocentric theoryKepler's textbook has become the pinnacle of his own ellipse law and his most influential work.It contains all threeLaws of planetary motionAnd try to explain the movement of celestial bodies with physical factors.Although it clearly extends the first two laws of planetary motion (applicable to Mars in New Astronomy) to other planetsMoonandJupiterMedici satellite（Galileo satellite）However, it does not explain how elliptical orbits are obtained from observational data.[14]
Harmony of the World
Geometric Harmony of Perfect Polyhedron in Harmony of the World (1619)
Kepler firmly believes that "the direction of geometric thingsCreatorIt provides models to decorate the whole world ".In Harmony of the World, he triedmusicExplain the proportions of the natural world, especially in astronomy and astrology.The center of "harmony" is "celestial music", andPythagoras、Ptolemy And many people before Kepler have studied "celestial music".In fact, in《Harmony of the world》（Harmonices Mundi）Just after his publication, Kepler was involved in a dispute with Robert Fludd about the order of order, because the latter had just published his theory of harmony.[3]Kepler from researchRegular polygonAnd polyhedron, including Kepler later known aspolyhedron。From there, he extended his harmony analysis tomusic、meteorologyandAstrologyHarmony arises from the tones made by celestial souls.For astrology, harmony stems from the interaction of these tones with the human soul.In the last part of this work (Book 5), Kepler introduced the planetary motion, especially the relationship between the orbital speed and the orbital distance from the sun.Other astronomers also used similar relations, but Kepler used Tycho's data and his own astronomical theory to deal with these relations more accurately, and gave them new physical significance.[3]In many other harmonies, Kepler clearly illustrates what people know as planetary motionKepler's third law(harmonic law).Later, he tried many combinations until he found (approximately) that "the square of the period is proportional to the square of the average distance".Although he gave the date of this discovery (March 8, 1618), he did not describe in detail how he came to this conclusion.[15]However, it was not until the 1760s that people realized the broader significance of this pure mechanical law for planetary dynamics.When this law is compared withChristian Huygens(Christian Huygens) Just foundcentrifugal forceWhen the laws are combinedIsaac Newton（Isaac Newton）、edmond halley （EdmundHalley）、even to the extent thatChristopher Ryan（Christopher Wren）AndRobert Hooke (Robert Hook) Independent demonstration of the hypothesis between the sun and its planetsUniversal gravitationIt decreases as the square of the distance between them decreases.This negates the traditional assumption of academic physics that gravity does not change with the distance between two celestial bodies at any time, just as Kepler's assumption and Galileo's general rule of error, that is, the acceleration of free fall motion is the same, and as Galileo's student Borrelli in his 1666Celestial mechanicsAs described in.[16]William Gilbert(William Gilbert) After doing experiments with magnets, he determined that the center of the earth is a huge magnet.His theory led Kepler to believe thatmagnetic drive Planets move in their own orbits.This is an interesting explanation of planetary motion, but unfortunately for Kepler, this explanation is wrong.Before finding the right answer, scientists need to know more about sports.
Rudolph's Catalogue
In 1623, Kepler finally completed the Rudolph Catalogue（Tabulae Rudolphinae）This was considered his main job at that time.However, due to the emperor's publishing requirements and consultations with Tycho's descendants, the catalog was not printed until 1627.At the same time,Thirty Year WarThe root of religious tension once again put Kepler and his family in a dangerous situation.In 1625, the Catholic Church opposedreformistMost of Kepler's books were seized by his agent.In 1626,LinzThe city is surrounded.Kepler moved to Ulm, where he printed the catalog at his own expense.[3]
List of works
Mysterium cosmography (1596)
De Fundamentis Astrologiae Certoribus (1601)
Astronomiae Pars Optica, 1604
De Stella Nova in Pede Serpentarii (1606)
Astronomia nova (1609)
Tertius Interveniens, 1610
Distinctio cum Nuncio Sideroe (1610)
Dioptric Optics (1611)
De Nive Sexangula (1611)
In these years, the Virgin Mary and the eternal Jesus Christ showed the nature of human beings before birth (De vero Anno,quo aeternus Dei Filius humanam naturam in Utero benedictae Virginis Mariae assumpsit，1614）[21]
Eclogae Chronicae (published together with Dialogue with Starry Night Messenger in 1615)
Nova sterometria doliorum vinariorum (1615)
Epitome astromiae Copernicanae (published in three parts in 1618-1621)
Harmonies Mundi (1618)
Mysteries of the Universe (second edition, Mysterium cosmography, 1621)
Tabulae Rudolphinae (1627)
Somnium (1634)
Academic achievements
Announce
edit
Astronomical contribution
Kepler's lawNot immediately recognized.Several important figures such as Galileo andRene Descartes(Ren é Descartes) completely ignored Kepler's New Astronomy.Many astronomers, including Kepler's teacher Michael·Masterlin, opposing Kepler's introduction of physics into astronomy.Some people took a compromise position.On ellipseVirtual focus, Ismail Brew（IsmaelBoulliau) recognized elliptical orbits, but used uniform motion instead of Kepler's area law, while Seth Ward used elliptical orbits with equal path motion.[10]
Monuments to Tycho and Kepler in Prague, Czech Republic
Several astronomers tested Kepler's theory, and his various modifications violatedAstronomical observationResults.When these two planets cannot be observed normally, Venus andMercuryTwice ofTransitA sensitive test has been made for Kepler's theory.During the transit of Mercury in 1631, Kepler was extremely uncertain about the parameters of MercuryObserverSearch the day before and the day after the forecast dateTransit phenomenon。Pierre Gassendi Observed on the forecast dateTransit phenomenon, confirming Kepler's prediction.This is the first observationMercury transit。[17]However, he tried to observe it a month laterVenus transit, but failed because of the error of Rudolph's Catalogue.Gassendi did not realize that the transit phenomenon could not be observed in most parts of Europe, includingParis。Jeremiah HoroxThe transit of Venus was observed in 1639.Before that, he modified the parameters of Kepler model with his own observation results, predicted the transit phenomenon, and then made an observation tool.He has always been a strong supporter of Kepler's model.[18]
Astronomers all over Europe have read the Copernicus Astronomical Outline.After Kepler's death, the book became the main tool to spread his ideas.From 1630 to 1650, the book became the most widely used astronomy textbook, which led many people to convert to astronomy based on ellipses.However, few people accept his viewpoint of celestial body movement based on physics.In the late 17th century, manyAstrophysicsTheory - especially Giovanni Alfonso Borrelli andRobert Hooke The theory of gravity (though not the quasi psychomotor category assumed by Kepler) and the concept of Cartesian inertia began to be included.Newton's Principles of Mathematics is the peak of these theoriesLaw of universal gravitationIt is concluded thatKepler's law of planetary motion。
Mathematics and Physics Research
A diagram in "Six Point Snowflakes" explains Kepler's conjecture
As a gift for the New Year that year, Kepler wrote a short pamphlet for his friend and patron for many years, Baron Walker Henfels, entitled "Hexagonal Snowflakes"（De nive sexangula）。In this article, Kepler published his firstSymmetryAnd expand the problem into a hypothesis of symmetryAtomismPhysical foundation, and created the Kepler conjecture later known as the most effective method of filling spheres.[12]Kepler was a pioneer in applying infinitesimal to mathematics.
Historical and cultural heritage
Announce
edit
Stamps issued by Germany in 1971 to commemorate the 400th anniversary of Kepler's birth
Kepler's philosophy andhistoriography of science Its role in astronomy andnatural philosophyThe role in the historical development.Kepler and his laws of celestial motionHistory of AstronomyVery important, such asMonticera(Jean - She tienne Montucla) The History of Mathematics in 1758 andDrambol(Jean Baptiste Delambre) History of Modern Astronomy, 1821.These and others fromenlightenment campaignThe history written from the perspective ofmetaphysicsBut in the later romantic period, natural philosophers regarded these elements as the key to his success.William Wichville's works of great influence《InductionThe History of Science (1837) found that Kepler was the prototype of the genius of inductive science;In his work Philosophy and Inductive Science (1840), Weiherville called Keplerscientific methodThe embodiment of the highest form.Similarly, Ernst Friedrich Apelt, the first person to conduct extensive research on Kepler's manuscript after Queen Catherine bought it, believes that Kepler is“scientific revolution”The key to.Abelt has read Kepler's works on mathematics, aesthetics, physics andideological systemPart of the theological point of view, Kepler's life and work for the first time carried out extensive research.[3]At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, a large number of modern translated versions of Kepler's books appeared, while the systematic publication of his complete works began in 1937 (nearly completed at the beginning of the 21st century), and Kepler's autobiography written by M. Caspar was published in 1948.However, after Abelt, Alexander·Koyre (Alexandre Koyr é) wrote about KeplercosmologyAnd its impactHistorical interpretationMilestones for.In the 1930s and 1940s, Kovalre and the first generation of professionalsscientific history Many other workers described the "scientific revolution" as a core event in the history of science, and Kepler was the core figure (one of the figures) of the revolution.Kepler'sTheoretical workIt is not the experimental work that is placed at the center of the knowledge transformation process from ancient to modern world view.Since the 1960s, the academic research on Kepler's history has been greatly developed, involving hisAstrologyAndmeteorologyGeometric method, hisreligious view of lifeHis role in his work, his literature andrhetorical devices He interacted with the broader cultural and philosophical trends of thought in the same period, even as a scientisthistorianRole of.[3]
The controversy over Kepler's position in the "scientific revolution" also produced a series of philosophical and popular works.Among them, The Sleepwalker (1959) by Arthur Kessler is one of the most influential works.In this work, Kepler is undoubtedly the hero of this revolution (whether morally, theologically or cognitively).Philosophy of scienceHomes such as Charles Sanders Pierce, Norwood R. Hanson, S. Toulmin and Karl Popper have repeatedly turned to Kepler for help,IncomparabilityInstancereasoning from analogy"Falsification" and many other philosophical concepts have appeared in Kepler's works.physical scientistWolfgang Pauli(Wolfgang E. Pauli) even used the argument between Kepler and Robert Froude to exploreAnalytical Psychologyyesscientific researchThe meaning of.In 1981, John Banville published Kepler, a very popular and even fantasy historical novel, which explored many themes in Koestler's narrative nonfiction and scientific philosophy.What is more mysterious is a non fiction work "The Plot of Heaven" in 2004, which claimed that Kepler murdered Tycho to obtain his data.
Commemoration for future generations
Announce
edit
Kepler was awarded as a scienceModernityAmerican astronomerCarl Sagan Carl Edward Sagan called him "the first celestial bodyphysical scientistAnd the last scientific astrologer ".Except for the famousKepler's law of planetary motion, astronomygeographyThere are also many landmarks named after Kepler.Giovanni Batista, 1651·Lichiori(Giovanni Battista Riccioli)Crater(8.1 ° north latitude and 38.0 ° west longitude)Kepler Crater。German astronomerMax Wolf (Max Wolf) on September 25, 1929Asteroid 1134It is named Kepler asteroid.In 1973,NASAAnother Mars crater with a diameter of 228km（South Latitude46.8 ° east longitude 140.9 °) is named after Kepler.stayNew ZealandOffjordNational Forest ParkThere is also a group of mountains named after Kepler, called "Kepler Mountain", and a "three-day walk" called "Kepler Trail" through the mountains.
German composerPaul Hindemith Wrote a book about Kepleropera——Harmony of the World, and a song from theOpera musicThe same name ofSymphony。stayAustriaKepler's historical heritage makes him one of the designs of a silver coin: the 10 euro Johannes Kepler silver coin on September 10, 2002.The reverse of the coin is a portrait of Kepler, who onceGrazAnd nearby areas.Kepler was privately acquainted with Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg, who probably had an impact on the construction of Egenberg Castle (the obverse design of this coin).On the coin, a sphere andPolyhedron model。In memory of Kepler, 1975AustriaUpper AustriacapitalLinzThe city's university is named Johannes Kepler University ä t Linz for shortUniversitat Linz The school has Kepler College.
Yingweida(Nvidia) launched Kepler in 2012MicroarchitectureGraphics Processor, is the successor of Fermi architecture.In 2013, the famousIntegrated development environmentThe 4.3 version code of the (IDE) software Eclipse is Kepler.An extensible language written in LuaWebsite developmentThe schema is named Kepler.In addition, May 23 of the Episcopal Ritual Calendar is a festival commemorating Kepler and Copernicus.[20]
