Space[1]The Chinese dictionary explains that the sky is extremely high.[2]Geneva, SwitzerlandInternational Aviation FederationIt defines the boundary between the atmosphere and space: the boundary is 100 kilometers (about 62 miles) above the earth's sea level, which is called the Carmen Line.The Carmen Line is named after the American scientist Theodore von Carmen.[3]
Geophysicists divide atmospheric space (or air space) into five layers.Troposphere, sea level to 10 km.The troposphere has dense air, called dense atmosphere.As the height of the dense atmosphere increases, the air becomes thinner and thinner.Stratosphere, 10-40 km.The middle layer is 40-80 kilometers long.80-370km is the thermosphere, which belongs to the lower part of the ionosphere.The outer atmosphere, 370 kilometers above, belongs to the upper part of the ionosphere.From the earth's surface to the height of 100 kilometers, the air becomes less and less as the height increases.About 75% of the atmosphere above the earth exists in the troposphere and 97% is below the stratosphere.The density of the air in the thermosphere is 1% of the earth's surface. The air continues to exist at 16000 km in outer space, and even at 100000 km there are still air particles.Therefore, there is no clear boundary between airspace and outer space.[3]
On February 4, 2024 Moscow time,Russian astronautOleg Kononenko（Oleg Kononenko）Broke the world record for the total duration of human stay in space。[8]
earthatmosphereThe whole space beyond atmospheric space.Physicists divide the atmosphere into five layers:troposphere(sea level to 10Kilometers）、stratosphere(10~40 km)Middle layer(40~80 km)Thermogenic layer(Ionosphere, 80-370km) andOuter atmosphere(Ionosphere, more than 370km).About 3/4 of the atmosphere above the earth is in the troposphere, 97% is below the stratosphere, and the outer edge of the stratosphere isaircraftThe highest limit of flight supported by air.Some high-altitude rockets can enter the middle layer.Artificial satelliteThe lowest orbit ofAir density1% of the earth's surface.The air continues to exist at 16000 km altitude, and even at 100000 km altitude, there are still air particles.From a strict scientific point of view, there is no clear boundary between airspace and outer space, but they are gradually integrated.United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer SpaceThe Scientific and Technical Subcommittee noted that it was currently impossible to propose precise and lasting scientific criteria to classifyouter spaceandAir spaceOflimit。In recent years,The lowest limit limit of outer space tends to be the lowest altitude (100~110km) of the artificial satellite off the ground。[4]
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There have always been two opposing views on the division of airspace (airspace) and outer space.
Space theory
The idea is to divide the boundary between airspace and outer space by a certain height of space, so as to determine the scope of application of the two different legal systems.
Functionalism
Space
It is considered that the applicable law should be determined according to the function of the aircraft, if it isspacecraft, its activities are space activities, and the outer space law should be applied;If it is an aircraft, its activities are aviation activities and shall be governed by air law;The whole space is a whole, and there is no need to divide the airspace and outer space.
As far as the "space theory" is concerned, there are also the following opinions on determining the lower limit of outer space:
① It is limited to the maximum altitude of the aircraft flying upward, that is, 20~40km above the ground
② The boundary is divided according to different air composition.Since there is air from the surface of the earth to tens of thousands of kilometers high, there are different opinions with tens, hundreds and thousands of kilometers as the boundary. Some people even think that all places where air is found are air spaces and should belong to the airspace
③ The lowest altitude (105~110 km) of the artificial satellite from the ground shall be taken as the lowest limit of outer space.
In 1976,Brazil、Columbia、Congo、Ecuador、Indonesia、Kenya、UgandaandzaireWait 8equatorThe country issued the Bogota Declaration.The section above the equatorial countriesGeostationary orbit(35267 km above the ground) belongs to the sovereignty of each country.The above-mentioned sovereignty requirements further complicate the issue of delimitation of outer space.In recent years, some people who hold the "space theory" gradually tend to accept the third opinion mentioned above, that is, about 100 kilometers above the groundouter spaceThe lower limit of.In 1975, Italy proposed in the Committee on Outer Space that the highest limit of airspace (airspace) should be 90 kilometers above sea level.In 1976,Argentina、BelgiumandItalyThe boundary is 150km above sea level.In 1979, the Soviet Union proposed that outer space should be 100 to 120 kilometers above sea level. At the same time, space objects of various countries have the right to fly over the airspace (airspace) of other countries in order to reach orbit and return to the territory of the launching country.However, some other countries, such as the United States, Britain and Japan, believe that from the perspective of space science and technology, it is still impossible to specify a certain altitude as the airspace（Air space）And outer space.They stressed that the conditions and time for delimiting outer space were not yet ripe.
The definition and limits of outer space andGeostationary orbitThe issue of its legal status is still under consideration by the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space.The Committee is considering satellite direct television broadcastingsatellite remote sensingEarth and its use in outer spacenuclear powerAnd other issues in order to draft relevant legal principles.[5]
Nuclear power source
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The Scientific and Technical Subcommittee of COPUOS concluded in its 1979 study that nuclear power sources can be safely used in outer space as long as the safety standards and regulations on the use of nuclear power sources are fully implemented.At present, the Legal Subcommittee is considering whether the existingInternational lawIn terms of norms, supplement relevant provisions on the use of outer spacenuclear powerThe regulation of the source.[6]
Outer Space Law
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Space
United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space(referred to as the "Outer Space Committee") was established in 1959 as a permanent body.The Committee on Outer Space has established two subcommittees, legal and scientific, to consider and study relevant legal and scientific issues, namely, the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (1966, short for《Outer Space Treaty》）, RescueSpace navigationAgreement on the Return of Astronauts and Objects Launched into Outer Space (1967), Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects (1971)《Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space》(1974) and the Agreement on the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (1979),ChinaJoined in December 1983《Outer Space Treaty》。
Principles and rules
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Space
The above-mentioned treaties set forth some important principles and rules forOuter Space LawThe formation of space has played an important role. They include: the use of outer space should serve the interests of all mankind;Outer space and celestial bodies are available for free exploration and utilization by all countries on an equal basis;No country may take outer space and celestial bodies as its own possession;The exploration and use of outer space should comply with international law and maintain international peace and security;It is prohibited to place man-made satellites or spacecraft carrying nuclear weapons or other weapons of mass destruction onEarth satelliteOrbits and outer space;The launching State has jurisdiction and control over objects launched into outer space and the persons on board;All possible assistance shall be given to the astronauts who make an emergency landing, and every effort shall be made to rescue and return them to the launching country. The space objects found shall be returned;The launching State is absolutely liable for compensation for damage caused by its outer space objects to aircraft on the ground or in flight;The launching State shall notify the space object launched and relevant information to the extent practicableSecretary General of the United Nations；All countries should cooperate and help each other in the exploration and use of outer space;When carrying out activities in outer space, the interests of other countries should be taken into account;Activities in outer space should avoid harmful pollution of outer space andEarth environmentAdverse changes occur;The moon and other celestial bodies shall be restricted to peaceful purposes and all military uses shall be prohibited;The moon and other celestial bodies and their natural resources are the common property of mankind;Equitable distribution of the benefits brought by these resources and special care for developing countries and countries contributing to exploration, etc.
stayInternational lawAlthough some scholars once proposed the idea of unlimited airspace, due to the rotation and revolution of the earth and the movement of the entire solar systemnational sovereigntyIt is meaningless to extend into the universe without limitation.The exploration and utilization of outer space and the fact that thousands of man-made satellites are constantly operating in orbit around the earth show that outer space by its nature is difficult to become the object of national sovereignty.1963the United NationsThe Declaration on Legal Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, adopted by the General Assembly, defines the two principles that outer space is free for exploration and use by all States, and that no State may take possession of it.
In addition to the above-mentioned declaration adopted by the General Assembly in 1963, the Committee on Outer Space has drafted five international treaties on outer space, namely, the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (1966, short for《Outer Space Treaty》）Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space (1967), Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects (1971)《Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space》(1974) and the Agreement on the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (1979). China acceded to the Outer Space Treaty in December 1983.fromLiu Hongpingestablish.Countries are actively establishingSpace Command。
Scientific exploration
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space station
space stationAlso known as "space station", "orbital station" or“Space Station”It is a manned spacecraft that can be used by many astronauts to cruise, work and live for a long time.During the operation of the space station, the replacement of astronauts and the replenishment of supplies and equipment can be carried out by manned spacecraft orspace shuttleThe materials and equipment can also be transported by unmanned spacecraft.1971Former Soviet UnionThe world's first space station, Salute 1, was launched, followed by Salute 2-7 in 1983.In 1986, the former Soviet Union launched a larger space station, "Peace".The United States used "Apollo" in 1973Moon landing planThe remaining materials of“Skylab”Space station.
Space tourism
Space tourismIt is based on people's ideal of traveling in space. Traveling in space provides an unprecedented experience. The most novel and exciting thing is that you can enjoy the beautiful scenery of space and the taste of weightlessness.These two experiences can only be enjoyed in space. It can be said that this scene can only be enjoyed in the sky.The space travel program began on April 30, 2001.first placeSpace touristsFor American businessmenDanistito, the second space tourist isSouth AfricaA millionaireMark Shuttleworth, the third space tourist is an AmericanGregory Olsen 。Nie HaishengIs one of them.
space walk
space walkWalking in spaceMoonandplanetAnd other celestial bodies.It is a key technology of manned spaceflightManned Space EngineeringInstall large equipment on the trackscientific experiment, satellite deployment, inspection and maintenancespacecraftImportant means.To achieve the goal of space walk, a lot of special technical support is needed.
space exploration
On October 4, 1957, the first artificial satellite of the former Soviet Union was launched into the sky, opening the door for human beingsera of space-flightThe prologue of.Former Soviet cosmonaut, famousGagarin, on April 12, 1961, riding in the former Soviet Union“Vostok ”The spaceship flew around the earth for nearly two hours and became the first person to enter space.
Space exploration in the former Soviet Union
Detector name
particular year
achievement
Sputnik 1
one thousand nine hundred and fifty-seven
The first man-made satellite
Sputnik 2
one thousand nine hundred and fifty-seven
Animals enter space for the first time
Luna 1
one thousand nine hundred and fifty-nine
The first spaceship in the world to escape from the gravity of the earth
Luna 1
one thousand nine hundred and fifty-nine
The first man-made solar satellite
Luna 2
one thousand nine hundred and fifty-nine
The first man-made spacecraft to hit other stars
Luna 3
one thousand nine hundred and fifty-nine
Take the first picture of the back of the moon
Dongfang No.1
one thousand nine hundred and sixty-one
Man entered space for the first time
Dongfang No.1
one thousand nine hundred and sixty-one
The first human flight around the earth
Venus 1
one thousand nine hundred and sixty-one
The first ships to fly to other planets
Mars 1
one thousand nine hundred and sixty-two
Flying to Mars
Dongfang 6
one thousand nine hundred and sixty-three
Female astronauts enter space for the first time
Rise 1
one thousand nine hundred and sixty-four
The first multi person flight in space
Rising 2
one thousand nine hundred and sixty-five
First Space Walk
Venera 3
one thousand nine hundred and sixty-six
The first spacecraft to enter the atmosphere of other planets
Moon 10
one thousand nine hundred and sixty-six
The first spacecraft to orbit other stars
Moon 9
one thousand nine hundred and sixty-six
First soft landing on other stars
Moon 16
one thousand nine hundred and seventy
The first remote flight to retrieve samples from other stars
Moon 17
one thousand nine hundred and seventy
The first vehicle to travel on other planets
Mars 3
one thousand nine hundred and seventy-one
First soft landing on another planet
Venus 8
one thousand nine hundred and seventy-two
Successfully landed on another planet for the first time in science
Alliance 35
1980-1981
The first manned flight of about one year
Venus 15
one thousand nine hundred and eighty-three
First radar detection around another planet
Weijia No.1
one thousand nine hundred and eighty-five
Set up balloon station (Venus) in the atmosphere of another planet for the first time
Weijia No.1
one thousand nine hundred and eighty-six
Meet a comet at close range for the first time
mIR
one thousand nine hundred and eighty-six
The first space station to rotate astronauts
American Space Exploration
Detector name
particular year
achievement
Explorer 1
one thousand nine hundred and fifty-eight
The first space science discovery -- Van Allen radiation belt
Explorer 6
one thousand nine hundred and fifty-nine
The first time to watch terrestrial TV images from the sky
Mariner 2
one thousand nine hundred and sixty-two
The first discovery of interplanetary space: direct observation of solar wind
Mariner 2
one thousand nine hundred and sixty-two
The first scientifically successful planetary observation
Orbital Solar Observatory No.1
one thousand nine hundred and sixty-two
The first astronomical observation in space
Apollo 8
one thousand nine hundred and sixty-eight
First manned orbit around another star
Apollo 11
one thousand nine hundred and sixty-nine
Man landed on another planet for the first time
Apollo 11
one thousand nine hundred and sixty-nine
The first batch of samples were collected from another star and sent back to Earth
Apollo 15
one thousand nine hundred and seventy-one
The first vehicle driven by a person on another planet
Mariner 9
one thousand nine hundred and seventy-one
The first spacecraft orbiting other planets (Mars)
Mariner 10
one thousand nine hundred and seventy-four
The first spacecraft to detect two planets (Venus and Mercury)
Pirate 1
one thousand nine hundred and seventy-six
First successful landing on Mars, the first spacecraft to explore life on other planets
Pioneer 10
one thousand nine hundred and seventy-three
The first spacecraft to fly over Jupiter and reach the escape speed of the sun
Pioneer 11
one thousand nine hundred and seventy-four
The first batch of spacecraft reaching the escape speed of the sun
Mariner 10
one thousand nine hundred and seventy-four
First flyby of Mercury
Pioneer 11
one thousand nine hundred and seventy-seven
First flight over Saturn
Voyager 1/2
one thousand nine hundred and seventy-seven
The first ships to reach the escape speed of the sun
Space Shuttle Columbia
one thousand nine hundred and eighty-one
The first reusable manned spacecraft
Great Messenger of the Sun
1980-1984
The first satellite that can be recovered, repaired and relocated in space
International Cometary Explorer
one thousand nine hundred and eighty-five
First long-distance rendezvous with a comet (Comet Jakobinikina)
Voyager 2
one thousand nine hundred and eighty-six
First flight over Uranus
Voyager 2
one thousand nine hundred and eighty-nine
Flying over Neptune for the first time
Voyager 1/2
one thousand nine hundred and ninety-two
First exploration of solar wind layer top
Galileo spacecraft
one thousand nine hundred and ninety-two
First rendezvous with a major belt asteroid (951 asteroid Gaspla)
Galileo spacecraft
one thousand nine hundred and ninety-four
The first satellite to discover an asteroid (Asteroid 243 Ida)
Moon landing
The moon is the nearest celestial body (about 380000 km) to the earth, and it is the first station of human space exploration.Launched by the former Soviet Union in 1959Luna 2The probe landed on the moon, which is humanspacecraftThe first time to reach a celestial body outside the earth.In October of the same year,Luna 3Fly over the moon and send back the first batch of pictures of the back of the moon.Launched in 1970Moon 16It landed in the rich sea and sent 100 grams of lunar soil back to the earth.
The purpose of the ambitious "Apollo" program of the United States, which began in the 1960s, is to send humans to the moon for field investigation.Before that, from 1961 to 1967, there were nine "rovers", seven "surveyors" and five moonsTrackerWe have successively investigated the moon.They took pictures of the moon and analyzed the soil of the moon, making preparations for landing on the moon.Subsequently, the United States used the Saturn 5 carrier rocket to launch 17 Apollo spacecraft to the moon.Among them, "Apollo" 1-3 is an experimental spacecraft, 4-6 is an unmanned spacecraft, 7 spacecraft is manned to orbit the earth, 8-10 is manned to orbit the moon, and 11-17 is manned to land on the moon.
Launched on July 16, 1969Apollo 11It was the first time that man landed on the moon.This task is performed byArmstrong, Aldrin andCollins 。The spaceship arrivedLunar orbitLater, Collins flew around the moon, and two other NASA astronauts landed on the moon's surface on July 20Sea of Tranquillity。Armstrong became the first man to land on the moon.Astronauts carried out field scientific research on the surface of the moon, and put a metal plaque andFlag of the United StatesIt was put on the moon.Since then, there have been five successful moon landing flights, and the astronauts have stayed on the moon for a total of about 300 hours.
Since then, the exploration of the moon has almost stopped. Until 1994, the United States launched the Clementine unmanned spacecraft to conduct a new topographic mapping of the moon, with the purpose of establishingLunar baseandMoon based ObservatoryPrepare.The "lunar explorer" launched on January 6, 1998 carriedneutronThe spectrometer detects hydrogen atoms.It was found on the moonBipolarThere is water at the bottom of the basin.
Venus and Mercury
Space
VenusOfradius、quality、densityWhen it is close to the earth, it is the sister planet of the earth.People are very interested in it, however, the data obtained from ground observation is relatively poor, and the research on Venus is full of unknowns.Spacecraft can make people know more about it.Although the first several probe launches failed, in 1962, the United States launchedMariner 2 Flying over the planet 35000km away from Venus, the spacecraft successfully flew over the planet for the first time, and found Venus at the same timesurface temperature Up to more than 400 degrees.From 1969 to 1981, the former Soviet UnionVenus 5The No. 14 spacecraft has successfully landed on the surface of Venus and carried out a number of scientific research missions.Venus 1, the pioneer launched by the United States on May 20, 1978, arrived at Venus and flew around it on December 4 of the same year after a long-distance flight. It used radar to detect the terrain of Venus.The pioneer Venus 2 released four detectors into the atmosphere of Venus after it arrived at Venus. The detectors obtained the atmosphere, cloud layermagnetic fieldAnd other data.Launched by the United States in 1989“Magellan”The detector is used againSynthetic apertureThe radar detected the surface of Venus.These observations made us understand that Venus has a weak magnetic field, and its surface pressure is 90 times that of the Earth's sea surface pressure.Venus 12 also detected lightning.
US launched“Mariner 10 ”After exploring Venus, the spaceship flew to Venus three timesMercury。It discovered the magnetic field and magnetosphere of Mercury, and detected that the main component of the atmosphere of Mercury is helium.The two cameras on the spacecraft took multiple images, revealing that the terrain of Mercury is composed of a large number ofMeteorite craterAnd basins.
Mars mission
Mars is much like the earth, with a hard surface and four seasons alternating.At the same time, it also has a polar crown that changes with the seasons.In the era of telescope observation, people also thought that there were artificial canals on Mars.Humans have always been very interested in Mars, so now more than 20 spacecraft have carried out the mission of exploring Mars.In 1962, the former Soviet Union launched "Mars 1" and "Cosmos 21", and the United States launched "Mariner 3", but both failed.Mariner 4, launched on January 28, 1964, successfully skimmed 10000 kilometers above Mars on July 14, 1965, and obtained the first batch of photos of Mars.In 1974, the former Soviet Union launched the "Mars 5"spacecraftThe first color photograph of Mars was taken.Later, the two countries successively launched several orbiters around Mars to learn more about the planet.
In 1976, the United StatesPirate 1andPirate 2The lander landed on Mars, and during the landing, the distribution of atmospheric temperature and the atmospheric pressure of Mars were measured.There are dry river beds on Marsflowing waterThe characteristics of the impact indicate that there was a large amount of water in the past.The Viking spacecraft's analysis results show that there are no organic molecules in the Martian atmosphere and surface materials.The camera monitoring results also show that there is no sign of life activity on Mars.Therefore, we may conclude that there may be no life on the surface of Mars today, or more strictly, there is no life similar to that on Earth.People are interested not only in Mars, but also in its two satellites.On July 7 and 12, 1988, the former Soviet Union launched the Phobos spacecraft No.1 and No.2PhobosFly and land.
In recent years, with the rapid development of science and technology, people are expected to go directly to Mars for field investigation at the beginning of the next century, and thoroughly understand the problem of Martian life.Because it is the most likely planet in the solar system to have life.Before humans set foot on Mars, a series of preparations will be made.
1993 USA“Mars Observer”After entering the orbit around Mars, the probe lost contact with the Earth, resulting in the failure of the plan.In December 1996, the United States launched another“mars pathfinder ”The probe landed on Mars' Ares Plain after seven months of interstellar flight.The Mars Pathfinder carries a six wheeled car that can roam on the surface of Mars, so it is called the Mars rover, which is worth 25 million dollars.It analyzes Martian rocks and soils.The photos confirmed the Viking's conclusion that there was a great flood on Mars.
In November 1996, the United States launched“Mars Global Surveyor”To study the surface, atmosphere and magnetic field of Mars in the orbit around Mars.It also sends radio waves to the earth, and then reaches the earth after passing through the Martian atmosphere, so as to understand the temperature, gravity and chemical composition of the Martian atmosphere.On January 3, 1999“Mars Polar Lander ”Launch successful.However, after 11 months of flight and landing on Mars, we lost contact with the ground and declared the failure of this space activity.Mars launched since thenClimatic observationThe server also failed.In 2001, the United States launched the "Mars Odyssey" probe, which has successfully reached Mars and entered the orbit around Mars.
European Space AgencyIt is planned to launch the Mars Express probe to investigate Mars in 2003, which marks that the European Space AgencyPlanetary explorationThe aspect has entered a new era.It will consist of orbiter and lander.There is a lander communication package on the orbiter to support international Mars exploration activities from 2003 to 2007.
Out of band planet detection
American“Pioneer 10 ”It passed Jupiter for the first time on December 4, 1973, and sent back pictures of Jupiter and Ganymede.It finally passed in 1983NeptuneAfter orbit, it became the first one to fly out of the solar systemArtificial celestial body。Then“Pioneer 11 ”、“Voyager 1”、“Voyager 2”And fly over one after anotherJupiterAnd Ganymede.
"Pioneer" No. 10 and No. 11 each carried the same gold plated aluminum plate, on which were carved the naked figures of human men and women, as well as the sun andNine planetsPositionalSketch MapIt also indicates that it comes from the third planet in the solar system.Voyager 1 and Voyager 2, each with a set“The Voice of the Earth”There are photos, greetings in 60 languages, and 35 kinds of sounds and music on the earth.It includes pictures of the Great Wall of China and the Chinese family banquet, greetings in Cantonese, Xiamen and Hakka, and the Chinese ancient song "Water".As business cards of the earth, they hope to be received by "aliens" one day.
fromVoyagerThe image of Jupiter's night hemisphere shows that there areaurora。Interestingly,IoThere is an eruptingvolcanoThe height of the eruption reaches 30km, and the eruption speed is several hundred meters to 1km per second.The Voyager spacecraft also foundSaturnThere is radio radiation with a frequency between 3 kHz and 1.2 MHz.In January 1986, the Voyager 2 spacecraft again measuredUranusOfAutorotation shaftIt has a large intersection angle with the magnetic axis.The spaceship also filmedUranus satelliteThen it visited Neptune and sent back the photos.
Galileo's mission is to observe Jupiter's system, which has observed Jupiter'sGreat erythemaAnd released a probe into Jupiter's clouds.This probe entered Jupiter's atmosphere by parachuteatmospheric pressureMany valuable data were sent back to the earth before the destruction.GalileoEuropaandGanymedeThe observation results ofJupiter satelliteThere may be an ocean of liquid water below the surface of.The existence of liquid water means that life may exist, which is undoubtedly an exciting news.
The United States launched the“Cassini”It is the first spaceship to use nuclear power batteries.The main task of Cassini is to detectSaturnian system And will send a message to Saturn's largest and most mysterious moon——titanRelease a file named“Huygens”Detectors for.Titan is a planet surrounded by a thick atmosphere. Its environment is somewhat similar to that of the early Earth, and its surface cannot be seen clearly by ordinary observation methods.Cassini will arrive in the Saturn system in July 2004.
In addition, NASA plans to carry out more planetary exploration programs to learn more about our solar system.This includes sending a probe to Europa to detectEuropaA huge ocean of liquid water hidden under ice.If the technology is mature, it is possible to release an underwater detector to Europa's surface to search for possibleExtraterrestrial life。
Comets and Asteroids
Spacecraft are not only used forMegaplanetsAnd satellites.1985-1986 HarleycometDuring the regression process, five spaceships observed it closely, and there were many amazing discoveries.For example,Halley's CometThe nucleus of the nucleus is not spherical, but ellipsoidal, and gas and dust eject from several active areas on the surface of the nucleus.
According to the plan of the European Space Agency, 7Short period cometConduct space exploration.They are Deep Space 1 (DS1), Stardust, Contour, Rosetta, and Deep Space 4 (DS4).The DS1 and DS4 programs are in cooperation with NASA.
The "Deep Space 1" spacecraft launched in October 1998 will fly overAsteroid 3352McAuliffe, Mars, and Comet Wilson Harrington.The spacecraft and the comet will meet in June 2000.DS1 will travel at a speed of about 15 km/sCometary nucleusAbout 500 kilometers, yesCometAnd the cometary nucleus.It is the first time to adoptIon engine。The spacecraft sent the samples back to Earth in May 2010.
Stardust was launched in February 1999 and flew to Comet Wild-2, and will bring back precious comet samples for the first time.
"Rosetta" will be launched in 2003 to conduct close research on Comet Wirtanen and its environment for nearly two years.Nine years later, the spacecraft will meet the comet, and the instrument with a total weight of 20 kg will land on the surface of the comet.These instruments will collect comet surface and near surface samples for research and useacoustic waveMethod to detect the internal structure of comets and study the surroundingsPlasmaAndsolar windInteraction, etc.
The Deep Space 4 spacecraft will be launched in April 2003, enter the orbit around Comet Tempel 1 in December 2005, and put the lander on the surface of the comet for experiments in April 2006.Finally, the substances with different depths under the comet surface are packed in three seals that are not affected by the outside worldMetal cansThe upper half of the lander sends the samples back to the spacecraft.The spacecraft sent the samples back to Earth in May 2010.
Space science research
In 1946,U.S.AThe captured German V-2 rocket sent a fruit fly into space, becoming the first biological rocket.In 1957, the former Soviet Union launched the world's first man-made satellite, Sputnik I.The space station is an important place for human beings to carry out various scientific research activities in space.In 1971, the former Soviet Union launched the first space station Salute 1, and the Soyuz spacecraft was responsible for transporting astronauts and supplies.In August 1986, the last "salute" 7 stopped manned flight.On May 14, 1973, the United States launched the space station "Skylab", which was used to transport astronauts and materials by the "Apollo" spacecraft.In 1974, the Skylab was closed and shut down, and crashed in 1979.
On February 20, 1986, the former Soviet Union launchedHeping Space Station。It has a total length of more than 13 meters, a weight of 21 tons, and a design life of 10 years. It consists of three parts, namely, the working module, the transition module, and the unsealed module. It has six pairs of interfaces, which can dock with various spacecraft and space shuttles, and form a huge orbital consortium with them.Since the "Peace" went to heaven, astronauts have carried out a lot of scientific research on it.It also set a new record for long space flight."Peace" crashed into the Pacific Ocean on March 19, 2001 after many years of extended service.In 1983, the European Space Agency launched“Space laboratory”It is a space station flying with the space shuttle.
The International Space StationIt is a new generation space station under construction.Led by the United States and Russia, it is jointly built and operated by 11 member countries of the European Space Agency and 16 countries, including Japan, Canada and Brazil.The space station was constructed and installed in several steps from 1994 to 2006.When completed, the space station will be 110 meters long, 88 meters wide, and more than 400 tons in mass. It will be the largest and most advanced artificial celestial body ever built.It can be used for 6 to 7 astronauts to work in orbit at the same time.
The first one in the world in 1981Infrared astronomical satelliteLaunch.And the event of astronomical significance is that on April 25, 1990Space Shuttle DiscoverySpaceborneHubble Space Telescope（HST）。Its purpose is to explore the deep space of the universe and understandThe origin of the universeAnd the nature and evolution of various celestial bodies.HST costs US $2.1 billionAstrophysicsThe push is huge.The telescope placed in space can get rid of the interference of the atmosphereAtmospheric extinctionAt the same time, because there is no atmosphere, the designed telescope can reach the diffraction limit.Its mirror is not affected by gravity and will not deform. The telescope has a very high resolution.It is human's clairvoyance,explore universeSecret weapon.Since then, the United States andESAAnd launched one after another“Chandra”SpaceX-ray telescopeAnd XMM Space Observatory, etc.
The space shuttle of the United States is the only one currently used in the worldLow Earth orbitSpacecraft that can transport personnel and materials between and can be reused.It can also carry out various scientific experiments in space.
Air China
On July 19, 1964, China successfully launched aBiological rocket。On October 27, 1966, the missile nuclear weapon was successfully launched.On April 24, 1970JiuquanLaunched China's firstArtificial earth satellite“Dongfanghong No.1”。On November 26, 1975, a recoverable satellite was launched.In 1980, the long-range carrier rocket was successfully launched.Two years later,submarineThe underwater launch of the launch vehicle was successful.On April 8, 1984, China's firstGeostationary orbitThe test communication satellite was successfully launched.On February 1, 1986, China launched a practical communication satelliteBroadcast satellite。On September 7, 1988, China launched an experimental meteorological satellite, Fengyun 1.On November 20, 1999Jiuquan Satellite Launch CenterThe first Shenzhou experimental spaceship was successfully launched by carrier rocket.At 9:00 on October 15, 2003, China launched its first manned spacecraft“Shenzhou 5”The spacecraft flew in space for 21 hours and returned to the ground safely at 6:23 a.m. on the 16th after 14 circles around the earth.astronautYang LiweiBecome the first Chinese to enter space by taking their own spaceship.Looking ahead, before 2010, Chinese spacecraft will visitMoon。At 21:16:3 on September 29, 2011, China will build its own space stationTiangong No.1Launch.After that, China will further developLunar exploration, ConstructionLunar base, Mars explorationLanding on MarsAnd a series of space activities.
Space environment
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sinceBig BangLater, with the expansion of the universe, the temperature continues to decrease. At present, space has become a cold environment, with an average temperature of minus 270.3 ℃.
In space, various celestial bodies also radiate electromagnetic waves, and many celestial bodies also radiate outwardHigh-energy particle, formingcosmic rays。As the sun hasSolar electromagnetic radiation，Solar cosmic rayRadiation and solar wind, solar cosmic ray radiation is the high-energy particles emitted by the sun when a flare burst occurs, while the solar wind isCoronaHigh energy plasma flow blown out.
Many celestial bodies have magnetic fields, which capture these high-energy charged particles and form strong radiation belts. For example, in the sky above the earth, there are two radiation belts inside and outside.It can be seen that space is still a strong radiation environment.
Space is still onehigh vacuum, microgravity environment.Gravity is only one percent to one hundred thousandth of g (g-Gravitational acceleration）The gravity that people feel on the ground is 1g.
Space garbage hazard
Since the 1950s, mankind has launched more than 4000 space launch vehicles.According to incomplete statistics, there are more than 9000 pieces with a diameter of more than 10 cm and hundreds of thousands of pieces with a diameter of more than 1.2 cm in spacesolid propellantThere may be millions of small particles such as dust particles.
Don't underestimate thesespace trashBecause of their extremely fast flight speed (6-7 km/s), they all have great lethality. A piece of space junk weighing 10 grams crashed into the satellite, which is equivalent to two cars colliding head-on at 100 km/h——Satellite ConferenceBe punctured or destroyed in an instant!Just imagine that if we hit a manned spacecraft... and humans can't control the flight path of space junk, we can only roughly predict.The garbage is like those driverless and randomly driven cars on the highway. You don't know when it will brake or when it will change lines.They are the biggest potential "troublemakers" of space traffic accidents and pose a huge threat to astronauts and aircraft.
At present, the space around the earth is still open, and the probability of space junk colliding in space is very small, but once it collides, it is devastating.What's more troubling for aerospace experts“Avalanche effect”- Each impact does not allow the debris to annihilate each other, but generates more debris, and each new debris is a new collision hazard.If one day, when the earth is full of space junk, where should we go when we explore the universe?
Space garbage is all kinds of objects and debris abandoned in space by human beings during space activities. They fly around the earth in a certain orbit like artificial satellites, forming a dangerous garbage belt.Space garbage can be divided into three categories: first, large objects that can be monitored and tracked by modern radar, mainly satellites, satellite protective covers and various parts, etc. Currently, there are more than 8000 such garbage;Second, the number of small objects, such as engines, generated during space explosions is estimated to be at least several million;ThirdNuclear powered satelliteAnd its generatedradioactivityFragments, such satellites will be sent toEarth orbitThree tons of debris were found.
On October 4, 1957, the former Soviet Union successfully launched the firstArtificial earth satellite, opened the prelude to the era of human space, and also sent the first batch of garbage for space.At that time, astronauts completed the mission and left the satellite's loading cabin, spare cabin, instruments and equipment and other abandoned objectsSatellite orbitOn.Since then, with the great feats in the history of human space, space junk has increased day by day.Humans have sent more than 4000 satellites into space. Currently, only more than 400 satellites are still in normal operation. The rest have crashed on the earth's surface or left in space, becoming space junk.According to statistics, there are currently about 3000 tons of space junk flying around the earth, and its amount is increasing at an annual rate of 2% - 5%.Scientists predict that the increase of space debris at this rate will lead to catastrophic chain collision events. If this continues, nothing can enter by 2300 yearsSpace orbitHas.
Space garbage has brought hidden dangers to the development of space industry. They have become artificial satellites andorbital space stationThe safety of astronauts is seriously threatened.You know, space junk isCosmic velocityRunning.An oncoming metal particle with a diameter of 0.5 mm is enough to puncture the sealed flight suit;Dust that cannot be identified by the naked eye (such as paint chips and paint powder) can also kill astronauts;One piece onlyaspirinPiece sized debris canArtificial satelliteIf it becomes "disabled", the spacecraft with a cost of hundreds of millions of dollars can be put on the dead end.In the history of human space, accidents and disasters caused by space debris are not uncommon.In 1983,American Space ShuttleChallengerIt collided with a coating strip with a diameter of 0.2mm, causing damage to the porthole, and had to stop flying.In 1986, the "Ariana" rocket exploded shortly after it entered orbit, becoming 564 pieces of debris 10 cm in size and 2300 pieces of small fragmentsJapan Communications Satellite"Go to the Yellow Spring"!On September 15, 1991, the space shuttle "Discovery" launched by the United States almost collided with the rocket wreckage of the former Soviet Union. At that time, the "Discovery" was only 2.74 kilometers away from the "uninvited guest". Fortunately, the command system on Earth sent a warning signal in time, which saved it from death.According to calculation, the probability of catastrophic collision event for each flying object in space orbit is 3.7%, and the probability of non catastrophic collision event is 20%.Based on this calculation, space debris andspacecraftCollisions will occur every two years by 2020.
Related research
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Research Finds that Space Makes Humans Live Longer
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, only four of the Soyuz astronauts actually lived in space for one year (technically speaking, Vladimir Titov andMusa ManarovThese two people only stayed for 364.9 days, but we will not care about this 0.1 day).Of whichSergei KrikalevHe is the record holder of the longest life in space. He has lived in space for 2.2 years through six space flights.For space travel, this is definitely a very long time, because you can easily observe how your muscles shrink and how your bones become brittle and deteriorated.Of course, if the astronauts stay in space without gravity for such a long time, they will suffer from many other negative effects.
A new study led by Dr. Sergei Krikalev of Nottingham University did not refute the above phenomenon. Their study found that a specificgene expressionThe level is much lower than that on Earth, so in spacewormA large amount of toxic protein will be accumulated in muscles.When Dr. Szewczyk changed the expression of the gene in type c worms, the experimental worms would live longer.(due to theMuscular atrophyIt is amazingly similar to humans, so it is often used for space environment research)
Of course, we can't just talk about worms. There is still a big difference between the human response in space and the response of experimental worms.In a doctoral experimental team, we have not yet fully figured out what other factors are causing the worm to survive for a long time.But Dr. Szewczyk said that he still believed that there was the same mechanism in the human body, so that people living in space could survive longer.He said: "We have located a total of seven gene fragments, which can shorten the effective life span of organisms in the space environment... Of course, we are not sure about the specific mechanism, but we can be sure that these seven genes are related to how worms perceive changes in the external environment and change their own metabolism to adapt to this environment.For example, one of the mapped genes can be transcribed and translated to produce insulin, because it involves the control of hormone metabolism in the body to prevent diabetes.In worms, flies and mice, insulin is also related to the regulation of life length. "
When talking about the significance of this research for the physical condition of astronauts and future space travel, Dr. Szewcyzk can only speculate that:
"We all know that muscles will atrophy in space. The latest research results show that this atrophy is an instinctive adaptive response rather than a pathological response as people understand it. The age of muscles in space is also much longer than on the earth, which may be because space travel slows down muscle metabolism."
It's hard to say how much this change mechanism will be realized in the human body. Even though this technical authorization to regulate metabolism can be implemented in astronauts, real space travel will cause problems in many parts of the human body, such asimmune system, cardiovascular system, and even the most basic biological system.
If you want to travel in space, harmful radiation everywhere in the universe will make any measures to slow down aging useless.But if human beings want to travel for years to explore the outer space, then I think the time to reach the target planet is absolutely enough.
What does the strange foreign body sent to space look like?
Since the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 probes were launched into space in 1977 (they are still there), those potential life forms with auditory systems may have heard the sound from the Earth.What's the sound?These sounds include music from different cultures and regions, both from nature and human beings themselves (for example, the sound of a mother kissing her child, the sound of wind, rain and waves), which are all recorded on a 12 inch gold-plated copper disc.These sounds were made by American astronomersCarl Sagan The committee under the leadership was responsible for the selection. In addition, it also included a text message and 115 pictures of Jimmy Carter, the then President of the United States, in the form of analog code.NASA also has a compact disc player that is easy to play.[1]
Jamestown Lead Label
This is an archaeologist studying VirginiaJamestown City(The first permanent colony of the British in America) was found at the bottom of a well.This label with the words "Yames Towne" may be attached to the luggage or cargo box on the cargo ship.In March 2007, NASA placed the lead label and two Jamestown City coinsSpace Shuttle Atlantis Medium.
Professor Zong Qiugang's team from Peking University discovered a new mechanism of space trans scale energy transmission
On September 23, 2022,The research team led by Professor Zong Qiugang from the School of Earth and Space Sciences, Peking University, found thatNew mechanism of space trans scale energy transmissionPublished in the international academic journal Nature Communication[7]。
Stay in space
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On February 4, 2024 Moscow time,Russian astronautOleg Kononenko（Oleg Kononenko）Broke the world record for the total duration of human stay in space。According to the Russian Federal Space Agency, the total duration of Kononenko's space stay is expected to reach 1000 days by June 5, 2024.Previously, the record holder was Russian astronaut Gennady Padalka, who had made five space flights and spent a total of 878 days, 11 hours, 29 minutes and 48 seconds in space.[8]
