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The Golden Age of the Aegean Thracian Civilization Circle

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Ancient Greece Western Civilization One of the sources of Balkan Peninsula South Aegean Islands and Asia Minor The general name of the coast. Ancient Greece is the most important and direct source of Western civilization.

Western recorded literature, science, technology and art all started from ancient Greece. Ancient Greece was not a country, but a region. Ancient Greece is located in Europe Southeast of mediterranean sea The northeastern part of, including the Greek Peninsula aegean sea and Ionian Sea Islands and islands on the turkey Southwest coast Italy East and sicily East coastal area.

The 5th and 6th centuries BC, especially Greco-Persian Wars Later, the economic life in ancient Greece was highly prosperous and the science and technology was highly developed, resulting in a brilliant Greek culture And has a profound impact on later generations. Ancient Greeks In philosophy, thought, poetry, architecture, science, literature Theatre , mythology, etc. After the destruction of ancient Greece, this cultural heritage was Ancient Romans Continue to become the whole Western Civilization The spiritual source of.^[1]

3000-2000BC Aegean Civilization It is the forerunner of its history. From 12th to 8th century BC Homer era 。 8 – 4 BC Classical times 。 After 338 BC Macedonia Under rule. The second half of the fourth century BC Alexander's Eastern Expedition After hellenistic age 。 Incorporated in 146 BC Rome territory. Ancient Greek culture constitutes the main part of classical culture, and literature, art, history, philosophy and science in the classical era, especially in Athens, have been preserved for hundreds of generations, exerting great influence on Roman, later European and world culture.

Chinese name: ancient Greek
Foreign name: Ancient Greece
Abbreviation: Greece
State: Europe
Capital: Without capital, ancient Greece was not a country
major city: Athens 、 Sparta 、 Mycenae 、 Thebes 、 Collins , Thrace, Macedonia, etc
official language: Ancient Greek

Time zone: UTC+2
Political system: noble republic system
Major ethnic groups: Ancient Greeks
Major religions: Greece Polytheism
National Year: About 800 BC
Year of extinction: 146 BC
representative figure: Dionysius , Pisitrato, Periande, Perikri, etc

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▪ biology
seven Sociology
eight city-state
▪ Athens
▪ Sparta

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beginning

2000 BC (also in other books Aegean civilization About 3000 BC), the Aegean civilization originated from Crete (There is also a saying that the Greek mainland and Aegean Islands ）Later, the center of civilization moved to the Greek Peninsula Mycenaean civilization 。 Crete civilization and Mycenaean civilization are collectively called Aegean civilization, which lasted for 800 years and is the beginning of ancient Aegean civilization.

Ancient Greece is close to mediterranean sea and aegean sea , Yes Marine civilization (Western civilization), so the ancient Greek civilization is also called the marine civilization.

Ancient Greek Parthenon

Ancient Greece is located in the east of the Mediterranean Sea, and its geographical scope is larger than that of today Hellenic Republic The territory is larger, roughly including the Greek Peninsula Aegean Islands 、 Ionian Islands and asia minor peninsula The western coastal zone. The Aegean civilization is the earliest civilization in Greece. It is the general name of the bronze civilization in the Aegean Sea and surrounding areas. Its center is in Crete and Mycenae successively. Around 2000 BC, the earliest country appeared in Crete.

The Aegean Sea region in Greece has long had human activities. Early human skulls were found in the area of Calcidis in northern Greece. Some scholars believe that they belong to Neanderthal 。

Paleolithic Age Cultural relics scattered on the Greek Peninsula Knossos 。 In the Neolithic Age, people everywhere lived in the same way. They grew barley, wheat, beans and other crops, domesticated sheep, goats and other livestock, and worshipped the clay sculpture goddess symbolizing fertility. Agricultural technology probably comes from both land and sea in West Asia through the Xiaoya Peninsula, possibly accompanied by agricultural migration. It is worth noting that Greece lacks hard flint, Neolithic cultures Most residents here Obsidian The stone tools with sharp edges are made, while obsidian is only produced in Miluo Valley of Chiclades Islands. This means that at least between 6000 and 7000 BC, aegean sea We began to trade with each other.

ancient Greek

As early as 800 years before the rise of ancient Greek civilization, the Aegean Sea region was pregnant with brilliant Cretan civilization and Mycenaean civilization.

From 1100 BC to 1000 BC, Dorian The invasion of the Great Wall destroyed the Mycenaean civilization, and the Greek history entered the so-called "Dark Age".

Because the understanding of Mycenaean period mainly comes from《 Homer Epic 》Bronze ware and maritime trade flourished again, and new city-state countries were established one after another. For the first time in the first 776 years Olympic Games The holding of the conference marked that the ancient Greek civilization entered a prosperous period. About 750 years ago, as the population grew, the Greeks in Athens began to colonize. In the 250 years since then, new Greek city-state has spread all over, including Asia Minor and North Africa Inside mediterranean sea coast. Among the city states, the most influential one is Sparta and Athens 。

Greco-Persian Wars

While the Greek city-state expanded to the Mediterranean coast Persian Empire Also expanding, the powerful Persian Empire conquered the Ionian and Greek states on the peninsula of Asia Minor.

Athena

In 499 BC miletus When the Greek city-state launched an uprising, it was supported by Athens. King of Persia Darius I After suppressing the uprising, they were ready to attack Athens. In 490 BC, the Persian army crossed the sea to invade the west, but Marathon Campaign Was defeated by the outnumbered Athenian heavy infantry. The Greeks won the first Greco-Persian Wars The victory of.

In 480 BC, the king of Persia Xerxes I Led 500000 troops to attack Greece again. The city states of Greece also formed an alliance to fight against strong enemies. The army of the Greek Allied Army Spartan The main force is the Athenian fleet. The Greek Army thermopylae Although the Persian army was defeated, it won time for the Greek navy to assemble. The Persians attacked Athens and burned the whole city, but the Greek navy defeated the Persian navy at one stroke in the battle of Salami. The Persians were in danger of being cut off from supplies and had to retreat. The Greeks pursued the victory and liberated the Greek states in Asia Minor. The second war between Greece and Poland ended with the victory of Greece.

The decline and fall of Greece

After the war between Greece and Poland, Athens became the overlord of Greece. The Athenian navy is the most powerful military force in the Greek city-state, and the Athenian democracy is also in the Pericles The governing period reached a golden age. During the war between Greece and Poland, the Greek city states established Delian League After the war, it gradually became a tool for Athens to realize its hegemony.

Greek mythological figures

with Sparta Leaded Peloponnesian League dissatisfaction Athens The two sides have repeatedly clashed over their hegemony. In 431 BC, Thebes, the ally of Sparta, attacked Pilates, the ally of Athens peloponnesian war 。 Athens was blockaded by its powerful navy, while Sparta attacked Athens and tried to force it to fight a decisive battle. Both sides had their own victories and defeats, but neither had a decisive victory, so they concluded a peace treaty in 421 BC. Peace could not be maintained for a long time. In 415 BC, Athens was an ally of Sparta, Sicily Syracuse A large-scale expedition ended in a fiasco. Sicily Expedition It greatly damaged Athens and was unable to resist the attack of Sparta. In 405 BC, the Athenian navy was completely annihilated. The next year, Athens surrendered to Sparta, which became the new overlord of Greece. Sparta's hegemony did not last long, and the Greek city states fell into a melee. The decline of Greece is inevitable. The corruption of the political power and the degeneration of people's thoughts are the fundamental reasons for its demise.

Imperial division

Ancient Greek sculpture

ancient Macedonia It is located in the north of Greece, on the edge of Greek civilization, and is regarded as a barbarian by the Greeks. However, from the 4th century BC, Macedonia gradually became an important country in northern Greece. In 359 BC, Felipe II Enthronement. Under Philip's rule, Macedonia became Balkans A leading military power. Faced with the rise of Macedonia, Greece established an anti Macedonia alliance led by Athens. In 338 BC, Macedonia Caledonia Defeated the Greek coalition forces and gained control of the whole Greece. In 336 BC, Philip was assassinated and his son died Alexander Enthronement. Alexander soon put an end to the uprising of the Greek city states and consolidated the political power after he ascended the throne. In 334 years ago, Alexander led a large army to cross the sea, which marked the beginning of his conquest of the world. Alexander's greatest enemy is powerful Persian Empire 。 Alexander defeated the Persian army at Granicas River and Issus, and captured the Syria and Egypt 。 King of Persia Darius III He tried to make peace, but was rejected by the ambitious Alexander. In 331 BC, the decisive Battle of Gaugamela Burst. Alexander won again and took advantage of it Babylon , the Persian Empire perished. Alexander continued eastward until Indus River Basin Just now, we turned back. In 323 BC, Alexander died of illness, his huge empire was also split, and the history of ancient Greece ended, hellenistic age Start.

Aegean civilization

Aegean civilization It refers to the civilizations distributed in the Aegean Islands and surrounding areas, including Minoan civilization And Mycenaean civilization 。 Between 2000 BC and 1700 BC, Greek Crete The monarchy, the palace buildings and Hieroglyphics The appearance of is its mark.

Around 1600 BC, the Minoan civilization entered a period of prosperity, when words bronzeware , pottery, gold and silver production technology has made significant progress, and the king's palace is large-scale.

In about 1400 BC, the Minoan civilization disappeared.

hellenistic age

Macedonian Alexander the Great He conquered the whole Greece and spread the Greek civilization to the East in the process of imperial expansion, which is known as the Hellenistic Age in history. At this time, the ancient Greek literature was nearing the end, and the center of Greek civilization was gradually moved from Athens to Egypt Of Alexandria 。 The characteristics of Greek literature in this period are that it is divorced from reality, stresses rhetoric, and pursues sentimentality. The more successful areas are New Comedy and Pastoral poetry 。

The so-called new comedy is relative to Aristophane Epochal“ Old Comedy ”For example, it is characterized by not talking about politics, avoiding serious topics, but more expressing social customs, and pleasing the audience with twists and turns of plot and elegant style. menander (342~292 BC) is the pioneer and representative figure of the ancient Greek new comedy, and has written 105 comedies in total. Many of his works have been handed down completely, including《 Hater 》Samos Woman, etc. Menander's comedies often have complex love backgrounds, and pay special attention to the characterization of the characters in the plays, which deeply influenced the British playwrights in the 17th century.

Theocritos (310-250 BC) is the first creator of pastoral poetry in the Hellenistic era. His poetic style is lively and beautiful, and there are 30 complete poems. Ancient Rome Of Virgil He once imitated his style and created the famous《 Pastoral 》。 The famous poets of this period also included Apollonius and so on.

Politics

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Ancient Greece was an area with many city states, so many different political systems were practiced and developed in this area. Some ancient Greek city states, such as Sparta Follow the same principles oligarchy , centralizing the power in the hands of the king; Some city states are like Athens Same practice democracy ； Others are ruled by nobles or controlled by a few people parliament (councils). Although ancient Greece was located in a narrow area, its political system had a rich and colorful development over a wide period of time. As far as the regime is concerned, ancient Greece has experienced Aristocracy 、 democracy , oligarchy and Tyranny The evolution of. Especially, the democratic political system of ancient Greece was one of the earliest attempts of ancient human beings to direct democracy, which had a profound impact on later generations.

In the Hellenistic era, the political ideology was replaced by the autocratic regime, and the monarch usually called for theocracy or semi theocracy. Alexander the Great He ruled as the son of God in Egypt and was glorified as a god to worship in Greece. After his death, all Hellenistic countries followed his example. In this case, the Seleucid Kingdom and Ptolemaic dynasty More obviously, the Seleucid monarch Antiochus IV Epiphanes rule Syria Use the title "Epiphanes"; The Ptolemaic monarch used the name of "Theos" when signing the imperial edict, but Macedonia The situation is not as obvious as the above two.

military

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The ancient Greek military traditionally included the use of a large number of infantry operations. The most typical infantry in Greece is the militia composed of Greek heavy infantry (Hoplite), assisted by light shield soldiers, archers and cavalry. Square infantry usually march in a tapered or rectangular phalanx, while spearmen harass the enemy on both sides. Generally, a square array is a human wall formed by square infantry close to it and the shield in front. It can have great advantages in defense, but it lacks mobility. The name of the Greek heavy infantry comes from the round shield (Hoplon) they used. Since all soldiers' equipment is purchased by themselves, they lack uniforms and are more likely to be injured by mistake in the battlefield.

Economics

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Industry and commerce

In ancient Greece, the economy was quite developed. Although the scale of industry and commerce was small, there was still a certain degree of development. except Sparta take Regulated economy In addition to the system of, most other city-state are loose and free. However, there is a great disparity between rich and poor in each city-state.

hellenistic age Countries, especially Egypt And west Asia Strictly control industry, commerce and foreign trade. Ptolemaic dynasty In almost every village in Egypt, government run factories or shops are set up to enrich finance, and private industry and commerce are also strictly managed; Western Asian governments have similar means, but on a smaller scale. However, the disparity between the rich and the poor, as well as the decline in wages and the rise in prices, are quite common. These phenomena make people's lives very hard. In addition, the rise of metropolises is also a feature of the Hellenistic world. Syria In one hundred years, the population of Antioch quadrupled, Tigris River Upper Seleucia grew from a desolate place to hundreds of thousands of people Alexandria It was the largest city at that time, with a population of about one million.

Reasons for rise

Geographical reasons

Ancient Greece is located in mediterranean sea In the east, it is the key point of Europe, Asia and Africa. Its geographical scope is roughly centered on the Greek Peninsula, including Aegean Islands 、 Asia Minor The western coast, Ionian Islands as well as Italy South and sicily The colony of. There are no fertile river basins and open plains in Greece. The land is divided into small pieces by continuous mountains and rivers. However, the vast sea area has given Greek ancestors a broad space for development. Here, the coast is winding, green islands are connected, and there are many harbors, Mediterranean climate It is mild and pleasant, and has unique marine resources. Mountains and ravines, lack of arable land and barren land have restricted the production of food, and the contradiction between people and land is prominent. It forced Greece to engage in overseas trade, overseas colonization and economic and cultural exchanges. The zigzag coastline and many excellent harbors provide conditions for these activities. The special Mediterranean climate makes Greece rich Wine and Olive oil , providing goods for overseas trade. It is precisely these reasons that contributed to the loose and free social environment of ancient Greece, the idea of mutual benefit, and the national spirit of open exploration.

In the ancient Greek world in 431 BC, the red part is the city states of Athens

Humanistic reasons

Egypt Religion, Persia The philosophy of, Phoenicia 's text, Babylon Through these roots, countless ancient civilizations and cultural achievements of thousands of years spread rapidly to Peloponnese Rolling hills, spreading to Attica Harvest orchards spread to the barren mountains of Beatia. The Francotti Cave in the Agolis region of southern Greece has about 7000 BC Mesolithic Age Site, for residents Obsidian The stone tools are made to catch sea fish. Neolithic settlements are distributed in the mainland of Greece and the Aegean islands, which can be dated back to 6000 BC at the earliest. Knossos Neolithic Age The life style of residents everywhere is roughly the same. In 3000 BC, the Aegean Sea area entered Bronze Age , appears Slave state 。 The use of bronze made great buildings appear in the Crete civilization at that time. The ruins of Knossos Palace unearthed in the 19th century were typical buildings at that time. The Cretan script is generally called Eteocretan ("original Cretan"), which may not have been deciphered Linear Text A Writing. In later culture, due to Mycenaean civilization They switched to Linear Text B , an early Greek letter to remember things.

About 1200 BC, another group of Greeks（ Dorian ）Its invasion destroyed the Mycenaean civilization. Over the next 300 years, Greece fell into a state of complete silence, closed and poor, and its history entered the so-called "Dark Age". Because the understanding of this period mainly comes from《 Homer Epic 》, bronze ware; The maritime trade also developed again. With the population growth, Athens.^[2]

Culture

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Philosophy

Classical Greek philosophy is the wisdom of ancient Greek philosophers, which has a profound impact on the development of western philosophy, science and religion.^[1]

Classical Greek philosophy is the summary and reflection of ancient Greek philosophers on the wisdom of life. In the eyes of Greeks, philosophy and science are the same category. The task of mainly focusing on debate and inquiry is an important part of philosophy. Classical Greek philosophy has a profound impact on the development of western philosophy, science and religion.^[4]

The history of western philosophy starts from ancient Greece, especially a group of philosophers commonly known as pre Socrates. This is not to deny that others Ancient Egypt 、 Semitic as well as Babylon A rumor written by an early philosopher who appeared in culture. Admittedly, there are great thinkers and writers in every culture, and we have evidence that some of the earliest Greek philosophers may have at least been exposed to some works of Egyptian and Babylonian thought. However, compared with their predecessors, early Greek thinkers added at least one element to distinguish them from their predecessors' thoughts. For the first time in history, we found in their works that their views on the laws of the world were not dogmatic, but included their various arguments on these theories.

Facts have proved that almost all kinds of cosmology proposed by early Greek philosophers are extreme and definite fallacies, but this will not reduce their importance. Because even later philosophers immediately abandoned the answers of their predecessors' assumptions, but they could not escape the questions raised by their predecessors:

Where does everything come from?

What on earth is it made of?

How can we explain the nature of the composition of a large number of things?

Why can we describe them with single mathematics?

The form followed by Greek philosophers and the way to convey their answers became as important as the questions they asked. The philosophers of pre Socrates rejected the traditional myth's explanation of the phenomena they saw around them, and favoured a more rational explanation. In other words, they rely on inference and observation to clarify the real nature around them, and they use reasonable arguments to highlight their views to tell others. Although philosophers have argued about the scale of the importance of reason and observation, they have basically consistently used the method first invented by the Pre Socrates School for 2500 years.

Controversy often arises in determining the thoughts of pre Socrates philosophers and the way they use arguments to support their unique views. This problem does not come from their own or some defects in thought, but simply because their history is too far away from us. Although most of the former Socrates philosophers have created landmark works, we do not have a complete version of any of them, only later generations of philosophers and historians quote their works, and occasionally find original fragments.

Thales (Greek: θ≤ λ η∨; English: Thales)

Anaximander (Greek: αναξν μ ανδ ρο; English: Animander)

Pythagoras (In Greek: Πνθα γ ≤ ρα ∨; in English: Pythagoras)

Ephesian Heraclitus (In Greek: ηρ≤ κ λ ε τ ο τ η∨ φ έ σ ο υ; in English: Heraclitus of Ephesus)

Xenophanil (Greek: ώών; English: Xenophanes)

Socrates

Parmenides (In Greek: Πα ρ με ν joint δη; in English: Parmenides) and others Elijah School Eleatic philosopher

leucippus （Leucippus）、 Democritus (Greek: Δη μ ό κ ρ τ ό English: Democritus) and other atomists

Protagoras (Greek: Πρωτ α γ ό ρα∨; English: Protegoras) and Sophists

Socrates (Greek: ∑ω κ ρ ≤ τ η; English: Socrates, 469~399 BC) is an Athenian philosopher who created "ethical philosophy", turning ancient Greek philosophy from purely studying nature to studying mankind itself, and becoming the most important idol in the western philosophy tradition. His "heckling" education method has made a great contribution to the western way of thinking. See his article for more information.

Plato (Greek: Πλ ≤ των; English: Plato, 427-347 BC), a very influential classical Greek philosopher, who was educated by Socrates and taught Aristotle 。 His most famous works《 The Republic 》(In Greek: Π \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\. He also wrote the Law and many dialogues with Socrates. Plato became a student of Socrates when he was young, and (according to his own account) participated in the interrogation of his teacher, although not by him. Unlike Socrates, Plato wrote down his philosophical views and left behind a considerable number of manuscripts. See his article for more information.

Plato

Aristotle (Greek: A ρ I ττ o ττ έ λ η∨; English: Aristotle, known as Aristotiles in most other non English languages Italian Is called Aristotele (384 BC - March 7, 322 BC), together with Plato, is known as one of the two people who have an important influence on the Western way of thinking. Their works, although related in many basic aspects, are quite different in style and theme. Plato wrote dozens of philosophical dialogues (debates in the form of conversation, usually by Socrates as a participant) and a few letters. Although the early dialogues are mainly about the methods of acquiring knowledge, and most of them are about the ethics of justice and practice at the end, his most famous works state a ethics 、 metaphysics , inference, knowledge and the outline of human life. His outstanding ideas include that knowledge acquired through intuition (perception) always leaves a confused and impure view, and he is tired of the so-called "meditative mind can obtain 'real' knowledge from the world". Only the soul can grasp the structure of knowledge and the true essence of things. The world we see is just a copy full of flaws. Such knowledge is not only of ethical importance, but also of scientific importance. We can regard Plato as a idealism And Rationalism The.

Aristotle

In contrast, Aristotle paid more attention to acquiring knowledge from perception, and would acquire more knowledge relatively empiricism The modern label. Therefore, Aristotle was ready for the century when scientific methods were finally developed. Aristotle's works that still exist today appear in the form of papers, most of which have not been published by the author. The most important works include physics, metaphysics, (Nicomacho) ethics, politics, the theory of soul (above the soul), poetics and many other works.

Cicero (Greek:

Chitinonic Zeno （Zeno of Citium）

Epictetus （Epictetus）

Epicurus (Greek: ε π  English: Epicurus) and Lucretio （Lucretius）

Empedochle （Empedocles）

literature

Heroic Age · Myth

From the 12th century BC to the 8th century BC, the ancient Greek world clan commune Steering Slavery The period of social transition, known as“ Heroic era ”, also known as“ Homer era ”The main achievements of literature in this period were myths and epics.

Ancient Greek mythology It is the spiritual product of primitive clan society, the oral creation created by the ancient Greeks collectively, and the earliest literary form in the western world, which was produced about before the 8th century BC. It formed a basic scale on the basis of long-term word of mouth transmission among the original Greek people. Later Homer 、 Hesiod They are fully reflected in their works. Its geographical location is from the Greek Peninsula in the west to the east asia minor peninsula , South to Crete The vast Aegean Sea region. The content of Greek mythology is a vast and numerous system, with numerous branches and factions and numerous legends, which are not completely consistent. But it has obvious family color, including a blood tie, and has a basic context, which can be roughly divided into two parts: the story of God and the legend of heroes.

The gods in Greek mythology, like human beings, have lust, good and evil, plot, and blood relationship with each other. They are all personified images, which is "the theory that gods and people are alike". Like the Heavenly Father Zeus He often chased and seduced mortal women, while his wife Hera She persecutes her rivals like a jealous woman. But the difference between gods and people is also obvious: they are immortal, can be deformed at will, each has special skills and great power, and their likes and dislikes play a decisive role in the life and death of human beings in the lower world. Among them, the most prominent god lives in Olympus The twelve main gods of God.

The heroes in the legend of heroes are the descendants of gods and people. They are half gods and half people. They have extraordinary talent and extraordinary perseverance. They have achieved amazing achievements under the protection of a certain god, reflecting the collective wisdom and strength, and demonstrating the Greek people's commitment to hard work, courage and heroism Spiritual praise and longing. Hero legends form many systems centering on different families, mainly including Heraclitus The legend of, Theseus The legend of, jason Legends, etc.

Greek mythology was gradually formed in a long historical period, and the character and responsibility of the gods as well as the story plot have developed and changed. It can be said that the ancient Greek mythology is the source of the whole western literature, and almost all the writers of later generations have drawn nutrients from the ancient mythology.

《 Homer Epic 》It is the earliest formal written literary work in the history of western literature. The epic consists of two parts, namely《 Iliad 》(The first translation of the Ilion) and《 Odyssey 》(The first translation of Odysseus) It is said that the author was a blind poet who lived roughly between the 10th and 8th centuries BC Homer 。

Homer's Praise

The Iliad has 24 volumes and 15693 lines, based on the "discord" in Greek mythology Golden apple ”The legend of. Legend has it that Achilles 's parents forgot to invite the goddess of dispute when they held their wedding Eris , the angry Vengeance threw a golden apple at the banquet and wrote "To the most beautiful woman" on it, triggering the Queen Hera , Goddess of Wisdom Athena And Eros Aphrodite And finally lead to Troy War The explosion of. In the epic, the Greek coalition led the Trojan War Agamemnon Take away the female prisoners favored by the brave general Achilles, and the plot that Achilles stopped fighting because of his anger is a wedge, describing Achilles' anger and what happened in the next 51 days.

The story of Odyssey took place in the 10 years immediately after the Trojan War. Tribute to the Greek Allied Forces in the Trojan War trojan horse Of Odysseus For offending Poseidon Poseidon And he was stranded at sea. Later, he overcame all kinds of difficulties with unparalleled heroism and finally returned home to reunite with his wife and children.

The theme of Homer's Epic is to eulogize the glorious historical sites of the Greek nation, praise the good qualities of courage, justice, selflessness, hard work, etc., eulogize the optimistic spirit of overcoming all difficulties, and affirm the value of people and life. But the epic also has a strong Fatalism Color, the struggle between people is often the epitome of the struggle between God and God. But the epic seldom makes a value judgment on whether the war itself is just or not, which goes beyond the narrow nationalism 。

In terms of language, Homer's Epic has reached a high level, its rhetoric skills are quite mature, and its narrative structure is also very reasonable. Homer is good at using metaphors to describe characters and describe broad social and historical scenes. Although there are many redundant rhetoric, this is the characteristic of all ancient literature.

The poets of this period, except Homer, Hesiod It is also very famous. He lived roughly from the end of the 8th century BC to the beginning of the 7th century BC. His representative works include the didactic poem "Farming and Time" and《 Divine Scripture 》。 His writing style is very similar to Homer, and there are traces of imitating Homer's Epic in his language.

Great Immigrant · Lyric Poetry

The period from the 8th century BC to the 6th century BC is known as the "era of great immigration" in the history of ancient Greece. The main literary achievements of this period include lyric poetry and fables.

Ancient Greek lyric poetry includes a variety of themes, mainly including double line poetry, satirical poetry play stringed instruments and sing And pastoral songs. Among them, there are many ancient Greek poets writing double line poems. The earliest poet is said to be Kalinos in the first half of the 7th century BC, but Simonides is the best at writing this poem (556-466 BC). The founder of Athenian democracy Solon He also wrote many poems.

However, in ancient Greek lyric poetry, the highest achievement is the zither song, which is a kind of song poetry accompanied by music. Zither songs can be divided into two types, one is the solo style, the other is the chorus style.

The representative figures of solo piano songs are poetess Sappho (612 BC~?). She was forced into exile in the political struggle between the democrats and aristocrats in Athens, and later in her hometown Lesbos Island Create a music school. She has composed 9 volumes of poems, but only two of them are complete, and the rest are incomplete. Her language is gorgeous, sentimental, sincere, and her subject matter mostly describes the sentimental love. For example, her masterpiece "To Anactoria" is deeply sad and touching. It is said that Sappho is a homosexual. Many of her poems were written in 1703 Rome and Constantinople Was publicly burned. However, in the ancient Greek world, Sappho had a very high position and was once Plato It's called "the tenth Muse ”。

Sappho

Except Sappho, Alcaeus and Anacreon He is also very good at writing solo music. Alcaeus and Sappho are closely related, but their reputation is slightly inferior to Sappho. Most of his works are about politics and war, which reflects the fierceness of Qin songs. Later critics believe that it was he and Sappho who brought the ancient Greek lyric poetry to the peak. Anacreon, on the other hand, has a bad reputation for joining the royal family and acting as a royal poet. His works were popular and fluent, which had a profound impact on European poetry after the 16th century.

As for choral music, the poets who have achieved the highest are Pindar (518-442 BC). He was educated by some famous musicians in Athens. The theme of his poems is mostly to praise God and the Olympic Movement. He wrote 17 volumes of poems in his life, and now there are 4 complete volumes of Ode to the Winner of Competition (45 poems in total). Pinda's poems have a great influence on later generations, Milton 、 Goethe He has deliberately imitated his style.

Legend has it that Aesop He was a freed slave in the first half of the century BC. He was extremely clever and wrote many fables in his life.

Aesop's Fables It is mainly through the words and deeds of some animals to send moral instructions. Famous stories include "lion and mouse", "fox and crane"“ Wolf in sheep's clothing ”And "Fox and Grape", etc. Aesop's fables are usually short, pithy and ideological, which reflect the wisdom of the ancient Greeks and have had an impact on the world's literature in later generations.

Democratic Era · Drama

The so-called "democratic era" refers to the period from the 6th century BC to the 4th century BC. This era was the heyday of the ancient Greek world. All the city states were prosperous and developed. Athens, located in the bay and with convenient transportation, was increasingly developed in industry and commerce, and established the slave owner democracy. In Athens, the state does not have a king, and the highest authority is the general assembly of citizens, which is drawn by citizens to discuss state affairs together.

In addition, the victory of the foreign war also strengthened this prosperity to a certain extent. At the beginning of the 5th century BC, Greece and Persia Caused by economic and political conflicts between Greco-Persian Wars The Greeks Marathon Campaign After the war, many Greek city states formed a maritime alliance to defend against Persian aggression, and Athens became the leader of the alliance. Since then, the economy and politics of Athens have become increasingly prosperous and ushered in the golden age of ancient Greek literature.

Athenian democracy is not only the model of ancient Greece, but also the model of the whole ancient world. The democratic politics in Athens is not only the first creation in human history, but also has a direct impact on the political system in the West. In modern western languages, such as English 、 French 、 German 、 Spanish 、 Russian The word "democracy" in other languages is derived from Ancient Greek The word "demokratia" has evolved. The word "demokratia" in ancient Greek consists of "demos" and "kratos". "demos" means "people" and "region", and "kratos" means "rule" and "management". Therefore, the so-called "democracy" refers to "people's rule" or "people's management".

Athens has the highest degree of democratization“ Direct democracy ”。 stay Pericles In the era, all official positions in Athens were open to all citizens, and anyone could hold official positions at all levels of the government (except for the ten generals) by lottery. In Athens, all government officials have a term of office, usually one year, and most of the official positions cannot be re elected, so as to avoid forming cliques for selfish ends. Athens also adopted a committee system, in which all important matters were decided and taken charge of collectively. It is not up to one person to decide, thus avoiding autocracy and bureaucracy. In order to ensure that democracy is not violated Christini At the beginning of the era, Athens also formulated Pottery piece banishment method Vote with pottery chips to elect people who may pose a threat to the democracy of Athens. If a person wins more than 6000 votes, he or she will be exiled abroad and will not return until 10 years later, thus making it impossible for political careerists to take advantage of him or her.

In this period, the greatest achievement of ancient Greek literature was drama.

comedy

Ancient Greek Comedy Originated from Sacrifice Bacchus Carnival singing and dancing and folk farce. In 487 BC, Athens officially decided to add comedy competitions to the spring Dionysus Festival.

Most of the ancient Greek comedies were political satirical dramas and social satirical dramas, which came into being in the flourishing period of democratic politics when speech was relatively free. Comedy in this period was highly critical, especially good at satirizing people in power. This comedy is called“ Old Comedy ”。 In the 5th century BC, there were three great comedy poets in Athens, namely, Kratinos, Opolis and Aristophane Only Aristophane's works have been handed down.

Aristophanes (446~358 BC) lived in peloponnesian war During the period, the city-state civilization of Athens was in decline, and the Athenian society appeared Polarization between rich and poor , political factions and other phenomena, which have become the material for playwrights to create. Aristophane wrote 44 comedy plays in his life, but only 11 of them have been handed down in full, including The Babylonians《 cloud 》《 bird 》Knight《 The Acharnians 》Etc. Among them, "Bird" is the best work, and it is also the most complete fable comedy existing in ancient Greece. It is the origin of Utopian comedy. Aristophane is the father of comedy in Europe. It is he who established the tradition of comedy in western literature to show serious themes in a funny form.

Theatre

It originated from folk songs and dances and religious ceremonies. Most of its themes come from ancient Greek myths and heroic legends, as well as well-known《 Homer Epic 》。 Poetic language and legendary stories make ancient Greek dramas have infinite charm. Its strong vitality and profound and rich philosophy still enlighten people today. In the fifth century BC, the development of ancient Greek drama reached its peak and was born Aeschylus 、 Sophocles and Euripides Three great tragic writers, their classic works are still unfailing on the stage of the world today. The themes of ancient Greek tragedies generally come from fairy tales; In addition, there are some legends of heroes from ancient Greece; Another part is based on Homer's Epic. Homer's Epic not only affects the tragedy in content, but also the writing skill of Homer's epic itself is directly in the chorus of Greek tragedy, that is Song team It is embodied in the chorus song of Homer, including its syllables and melody.

Architecture

Overview

In terms of architecture, the heritage of the ancient Greeks can be considered as having two themes. One is the image model included in Greek architecture. These models first include a series of decorative terms, sculptures and styles, which are more or less accepted in an overall way, or used and abandoned intermittently. Even if they fall out of favor, we can't conclude that they have completely disappeared from the database of western architects. The second aspect of Greek architecture that remains in the world is the Greek's view of the nature of architecture. The architectural form is always passively accepted, but the view on the essence of architecture can only be understood in the heart, while instinct is often found in some obvious places. People know that to properly design the dimensions of a building, they must follow a certain mathematical proportion. This view is Greek, no matter in essence, or in choosing the appropriate proportion. This view Renaissance Appear again, sometimes the perfection of the architectural form is tirelessly repeating some preferred shapes.

A corner of the Acropolis in Athens

The existing building sites are mainly temple 、 theatre 、 arena Among other public buildings, the temple is an important activity center of a city-state, which can best represent the architectural style of that period. The life of ancient Greeks was controlled by religion, so of course, the largest and most beautiful buildings in ancient Greece were Greek temples. The ancient Greeks believed that God was also a human being, but God was more perfect than ordinary people. They believed that the place where God lived was only a higher house than ordinary people. Therefore, the earliest temple building in Greece was a rectangular building with a porch where nobles lived. Later, the column style was added, and gradually developed from the early "end column porch style" to the "front porch style", that is, the front porch of the temple was composed of four columns, and later developed to the "front porch style". By the 6th century BC, the front porch style had evolved into the standard form of Greek temple architecture - the "surrounded column style", that is, the rectangular temple was surrounded by colonnades. The general style of Greek temple architecture is solemn and elegant, with harmonious, magnificent and lofty beauty. These style characteristics have distinctive performance in all aspects.

characteristic

According to the Greek architecture left behind, we can conclude several characteristics of ancient Greek architecture.

The first feature is that the plane structure is a rectangle of 1:1.618 or 1:2, with a hall in the center, a hall, and columns around, which can be collectively referred to as ring column architecture. Such modeling structure makes ancient Greek architecture more artistic. Because under the sunshine, various buildings produce rich light and shadow effects and virtual and real changes. Compared with other closed buildings, the sunshine eliminates the dreariness of closed walls and strengthens the characteristics of Greek architectural sculpture.

The second feature is the finalization of the column type. There are four types of columns: 1. Doric columns, 2 Ionic Column type, 3 Collins Style column, 4. girl statue column. These four types of orders were gradually formed through people's exploration. There is always a certain connection between the latter orders and the front orders, which has certain progressive significance. What runs through the four pillars is the eternal harmony of human beauty and number. The development of columns played a decisive role in the structure of ancient Greek architecture, and had a significant impact on the architectural style of later ancient Rome and Europe.

The third feature is that the double-sided pitched roof of the building forms a specific way of decorating the gable wall before and after the building. In ancient Greek architecture, there are such decorative techniques as round sculpture, high relief sculpture and low relief sculpture, creating a unique decorative art.

The fourth characteristic is: the harmony between human beauty and number, which is produced by the progressive artistic interest of civilians. The ancient Greeks advocated the beauty of the human body. They believed that the proportion of the human body was the most perfect, whether it was sculpture or architecture. Great architect Vitruvius To paraphrase the theory of the ancient Greeks: "Buildings... must be strictly proportional according to the patterns of various parts of the human body." Therefore, the proportion and norms of ancient Greek architecture, the style of the external form of its columns, are completely consistent, with the human scale, and the beauty of the human body as the fundamental basis of its style. Their shape can be said to be the artistic manifestation of the beauty of human style, shape, appearance, and behavior, Their proportions and norms can be said to be the image embodiment of human body proportions and structural laws. Therefore, these orders all have a kind of vigorous sublime beauty, because they show the pride and nobility of people as the spirit of all things.

The fifth feature is that both architecture and decoration are carved. Greek architecture and Greek sculpture are closely combined. It can be said that Greek architecture is a work of art carved out of stone. From the swirls on the Ionic capitals Lonicera japonica The flower basket composed of leaves, the girl with a free look on the statue column, and the reliefs on the cornices of the temple walls are all exquisite sculptures. It can be seen that sculpture is an important part of ancient Greek architecture. It is sculpture that creates the art of ancient Greek architecture. It is also because sculpture makes Greek architecture more mysterious and perfect.

influence

The need for public activities is an important reason for the massive construction of public buildings. The existing ruins of buildings, such as temples, theaters, and arenas, deeply reflect the artistic interests of the ancient Greeks. Its most prominent architectural vocabulary - the four types of columns in architecture, the Tauric, Ionic, Corinthian, and the girl statue columns, left a unique and immortal appearance in ancient Greek architecture. The beauty of the human body that it advocates makes Greek architecture produce a kind of vigorous sublime beauty in terms of proportion and appearance. The reliefs on the buildings are more vibrant and full of artistic sense. Therefore, if you want to study the art history of ancient Greece, Greek architecture is the starting point of all art research, because it contains not only how to build a building that will astonish future generations, but also the aesthetic concepts of ancient Greeks and sculpture art. The ancient Greek architecture is one of the great achievements in the history of human development, leaving immortal art classics to mankind. Its architectural vocabulary has deeply influenced the architectural style of later generations. It has almost run through the construction activities of the whole Europe for 2000 years Renaissance ， Baroque period ， Rococo period Even in the collectivism period, we can see the reappearance of Greek vocabulary. Ancient Rome The architecture of was most influenced by the ancient Greek architecture, and the Roman period also developed its own kind of mixed columns, which are derived from the Greek columns.

Ancient Greek architecture

The architectural style of ancient Greece is characterized by harmony, simplicity, solemnity and clear layout. The temple building is the concentrated embodiment of these style characteristics, and it is also the most influential building in ancient Greece, even in Europe. In the history of ancient Greek architecture, there were art classics such as Parthenon Temple and Zeus Altar (Pagama), which left precious artistic heritage to the world and had a significant and far-reaching impact on the world's architectural art. If the culture of ancient Greece is the source and treasure house of European culture, then the architectural art of ancient Greece is the source and treasure house of European architectural art.

The ancient Greek architecture gives people a huge and strong shock through its sense of scale, volume, texture of materials, modeling colors and the painting and sculpture art contained in the architecture itself. Its strong artistic vitality makes it enduring. Its beam column structure, its specific combination of building components and artistic decoration techniques have deeply influenced European architecture for 2000 years. Therefore, it can be said that ancient Greek architecture was the pioneer of Western European architecture.

Architectural chronology

▲ 2000 BC

Middle Bronze Age and Middle Minoan, Minoan Civilization: Large palaces of Crete

▲ 1800 BC

The Hittite Kingdom of Asia Minor: the earliest architectural site of Troy

▲ 1600 BC

Hegemony of Late Bronze Age and Late Minos, Knossos: Getty Castle, Palace Castle of Tirins and Mycenae, Royal Mausoleum of Mycenae, Treasure House of Atreus of Mycenae

▲ 1400 BC

Troy de Mecalon

▲ 1300 BC

Troy War, the decline of Knossos

▲ 1100 BC

The Decline of Mycenae, the Beginning of the Dark Age and the Origin of Greece

▲ 1000 BC

Greece established the earliest colony in Ionia: the worship of gods, the earliest brick and wooden structure of Mecalon

▲ 776 BC

The earliest Olympic Games and the beginning of the Greek Chronicle: the earliest architectural relics of the Holy Land of Olympia

▲ 753 BC

The establishment of Rome, the poets Homer and Hesiod, the widespread colonization of Greece in Sicily, Italy and Spain: the earliest colonnade of a wooden temple

▲ 600 BC

The political power of the city-state, the beginning of Greek democracy, Pythagoras on the Samos Island: the beginning of the ancient art period, the first gable decorated with carvings, the ancient Dorian Selitunon and the temple of Bosnia, the first large temple of Ionia, the Artemis Temple of Ephesus, and the Hera Temple on the Samos Island

▲ 500 BC

The beginning of drama: tragedy and comedy, the beginning of the war against the Persian invasion Marathon Campaign (490 BC), the beginning of Greek urbanization, the Tyro Alliance, and Pericles' plan to rebuild Athens: the beginning of the classical art period, the Temple of Zeus in Olympia, the Temple of Poseidon in Bosnia, the Parthenon and the reconstruction of the Acropolis in Athens, and the earliest theater in Attica

▲ 400 BC

Plato, Aristotle, the beginning of Macedonian hegemony, the Alexander Dynasty, the biggest expansion of Greece: the original Corinthian (circular architecture)

▲ 323 BC

Alexander's death and the beginning of the Hellenistic era: Epidauro Theater

▲ 300 BC

Macedonian Wars : Alexandria Library, the large Apollo oracle in Diduma, the Holy Land of Asclepiaus in Kos Island, and the Holy Land of Athena in Lindos on Rhodes Island

▲ 200 BC

The Roman provinces of Macedonia, Akia, Pagama and Egypt: the large Zeus altar in Pagama

▲ 100 BC

Architect Hermohnes

▲ The first year of A.D

The Beginning of the Roman Empire: The Ten Books of Architecture by Vitruvius

▲ AD 100

Bossanias: a trip to Greece

Terminology of ancient Greek architecture

▲ Concave pattern: vertical cutting decoration on the column surface.

▲ Lepidopteris: a common plant in the Mediterranean climate. Its leaf shape can be used for decorative patterns of Corinthian capitals.

▲ Acropolis: It is usually the higher part of the city, with some sacred buildings such as temples, and usually with city walls.

▲ Adiron: The room behind the inner temple of a Greek temple is usually closed, sometimes the same as the inner temple.

▲ Central square: the central square or central open space for holding conferences in ancient Greek cities. It is also used to open markets, hold judicial conferences, and set boundaries for major civil buildings in the city.

▲ Lintel at the top of the column: the main beam passing through the entire colonnade is directly fixed on the column head, and the lintel is equipped with ribbons. In Dorian architecture, the beam body is smooth, while in Ionian architecture, the lintel is in three belts.

▲ Column base: a building with columns on it.

▲ Column base: part of the platform like building on which the building is placed.

▲ Column head: the end part at the top of the column, above which is the beam or top cover.

▲ Female statue column: statue column. The most famous is the statue of a young woman supporting a porch in the Temple of Erikton on the Acropolis in Athens.

▲ Inner hall: a sacred and closed place, only members of the monk class can enter, which is the core part of the Greek temple.

▲ Round hoop line: a small parallel cut line used to decorate the column body below the column head in Dorian style.

▲ Lintel: a short beam placed on the wall opening to support the weight of the wall built on it.

▲ Tooth shaped decoration: small right angled tooth shaped decoration arranged in a string, which is the feature of Ionic frieze.

▲ Dorian style: the traditional architectural and decorative style of Dorians has spread throughout Greece since the 6th century BC.

▲ Column roof: the horizontal structure on which the column column is supported on the column head, including column top lintel, frieze and cornice.

▲ Cylindrical micro curve: determine the curvature of the Greek cylinder body contour, which is formed due to the gradual reduction of the cylinder diameter from bottom to top.

▲ Bell shaped round decoration: the component on the base of Dorian middle column head, whose shape is like a disk.

▲ Pedestal: the boundary of the last step of the Greek temple base.

▲ Column body: the part between the column head and the column base.

music

The music culture is nothing better than the ancient Greek music.

Since the myth age, Greece has attached great importance to music and art. From 3200 BC to 1200 BC“ Aegean Civilization ”During the period, people learned from the tomb paintings at that time that the music life of people at that time was mostly singing, dancing or dancing accompanied by singing and playing musical instruments. Human self Egypt After Mesopotamia entered the Greek era, music began to have scientific research; Then, in 776 BC, when the first Olympic Congress was held, it was Greece and its subordinates Asia Minor (Today turkey ）Along the coast, music was particularly developed.

In the heyday of ancient Greek culture, according to Keizo Horuchi The Western Music History records from 650 BC to 338 BC, which is later than the heyday of Mesopotamia in Egypt. At that time, there were songs, dances and musicals. In terms of musical instruments, most of them also inherited the ancient musical instruments of this earlier period. At that time, the most widely used in Greece was Lyre (LYRA), a famous blind poet Homer (HOMEROS) once sang his two narrative poems accompanied by a lyre《 Eliat 》And《 Odyssey 》。 During this period, poets Sappho (SAPPHO, a passionate poetess in the 10th century BC) became active, and then entered the heyday of narrative poetry.

At this time, the music genre of ancient Greece was extremely rich, including sacrificial songs, drinking songs, wedding songs, love songs, celebration songs, hymns to gods and heroes. Many are singing and dancing. People have such a concept: "By holding competitions and sacrifices year after year, we make it possible for the soul to rest. Just as in the routine of the family environment, we have daily entertainment to dispel depression and tiredness."

Musicals in ancient Greece flourished, and famous tragic writers and works such as Aeschylus (525-456 BC) Prometheus 》Oedipus by Sophocles (496-406 BC) and Euripides (480 BC - 406 BC); Famous comedy writers and works, such as Aristophane (450-388 BC)《 The Acharnians 》。

With the prosperity of narrative poems and musicals, the status of music has been increasingly improved, and people began to pay attention to the study of music theory. In the 4th century BC Plato On the state and Aristotle Of《 poetics 》All of them talked about the important role of music in the country and society and some issues related to art Confucius The thought of etiquette and music advocated is the same. In almost the same era, it is really interesting to have such similar ideas in two regions separated by oceans.^[2]

Olympic

More than 300 kilometers away from the southwest corner of Athens in ancient Greece, there is a beautiful hill called Olympia Village, which is close to mountains and rivers, covered with green trees. It is Olympic Games The birthplace of.

Ancient Greece is a mythological kingdom. Beautiful and moving mythical stories and bizarre folklores cast a layer of mystery on the origin of the ancient Olympic Games. of Ancient Olympic Games There are many legends about the origin of the Olympic Games. The main ones are as follows: First, the ancient Olympic Games were for sacrifice Zeus And regular sports activities. Another legend relates to the son of Zeus Heracles of Hercules won the laudatory title of "Hercules" because of his great strength. He completed a task that ordinary people could not complete in the city of Elis. Less than half a day later, he cleaned the king's cowshed full of cow dung. But the king did not want to fulfill his promise to give 300 cows. Heracles was angry and drove the king away. To celebrate his victory, he held a sports meeting in Olympia.

The most popular story about the origin of the ancient Olympic Games is Pelops The story of getting married. Ancient Greek Republic Eris In order to choose a civil and military son-in-law for his daughter, the king proposed that the candidate must compete with his chariot. In the competition, 13 young people were killed by the king's spear, and the 14th youth was the grandson of Zeus and the princess's sweetheart Pelops. Inspired by love, he bravely accepted the challenge of the king and finally won with wisdom. To celebrate this victory, Pelops and the princess held a grand wedding ceremony in front of the Zeus Temple in Olympia, at which chariots, gladiators and other competitions were arranged. This was the original ancient Olympic Games. Pelops became the founder of the legend of the ancient Olympic Games.

In fact, the origin of the Olympic Games is closely related to the social conditions of the ancient Greek Republic. From the 9th to the 8th century BC, the Greek Republic Gentile society Gradually disintegrating, city-state slave society Gradually formed, and established more than 200 city-state. The city-state is independent and there is no unified monarch, and the war between the city-state is endless. In order to cope with the war, the city-state actively trained its soldiers. Sparta City state children have been raised by the state since they were 7 years old, and they are engaged in sports, military training and military life. War needs soldiers, and soldiers need to be strong. Sports is a powerful means to cultivate good soldiers. The war promoted the development of sports in the Hellenic Republic, and the events of the ancient Olympic Games also had a clear military imprint. The people are disgusted by the continuous war, and generally yearn for a peaceful environment for recuperation. Later, King Sparta and King Elis signed the "Holy Armistice Month" treaty. As a result, the military training and sports competition in preparation for the army gradually turned into a sports meeting for peace and friendship.

In ancient Greece, there were four major sacrificial competitions, among which the one dedicated to the king of gods, Zeus Olympic Games It has the largest scale, longest duration and highest reputation. Among all the sports games in ancient Greece, no one was more valued by the Greeks than the Olympic Games, and no one participated more widely than the Olympic Games. The Olympic Games in the eyes of the ancient Greeks were the symbol of the whole Greek national spirit. Its long duration and profound influence were rare in human history.^[5]

science and technology

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mathematics

Developed Ancient Greek Mathematics

Ancient Greek mathematics is divided into three periods

1. From Ionian school reach Platonism From the middle of the seventh century BC to the third century BC;

2. Early Alexandria, from Euclid From 146 BC, Greece fell into Rome;

3. Alexander's later period, the period under the Roman rule, ended in 641 when Alexander was arab Occupation.

The most famous mathematician and contribution of ancient Greece

Difantu , known as Algebra Ancestor;

Apollonius ， Conic curve Research;

Euclid , who wrote The Elements of Geometry, laying the foundation for later European mathematics;

Pythagorean school , found several theorems, including Pythagorean theorem , and found that Irrational number ；

Archimedes , driving the development of geometry and making good use of it Exhaustion method Approaching the concept (very close to modern Calculus ）。

biology

The ancient Greeks put forward their own hypothesis that life originated from nature. Thales The original representative of this hypothesis is that everything comes from water, and modern science has proved that life was bred from the earth's original hydrosphere. reach Aristotle Aristotle and his students conducted a very in-depth study of biology in the era. They anatomized and classified animals, accurately described the morphology of animals and plants, put forward the idea of biological hierarchy, and believed that there are differences between high and low organisms, which can be arranged in a ladder from low to high. Man is the most advanced animal in nature, and is a "natural flower" that other life all look up to. Therefore, Biology is really born from their research.

Sociology

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The ancient Greeks believed that love only occurred between men, men and women only had sex, marriage and reproduction.

early stage Mare Nostrum At the beginning, there was a distinct culture of male beauty worship. The ancient Greeks believed that the male body was extremely beautiful, which resulted in a large number of works of art showing the male body. Male lovers are divided into "lovers" and "loved ones".

As "loved ones", men will marry women and have children when they grow up, but they will still stay in love with men, because men in ancient Greece believed that women were just reproductive tools and not worthy of paying attention to them. At this time, they have changed from "loved ones" to "lovers", and went to pursue and educate those beautiful teenagers. In the ancient Greek society, which worshiped the masculine beauty of men, the love between two adult men was not respected, which meant that one side was always in a passive position. Inactive and weak adult men will be laughed at by the outside world.

After the fall of ancient Greece, The Republic of Rome and Imperium Romanum Inherited the masculine culture of ancient Greece, and carried forward the lust among men to the extent of profligacy. This development also led to the restriction of masculinity culture in the later Roman Empire. Conversion of Roman emperors Christianity After Christianity began to become the mainstream religion in Europe, the golden age of masculinity culture finally came to an end.^[3]

city-state

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In the 8th and 6th centuries BC, ancient Greece city-state Gradually formed. The city-state refers to a state form in ancient Greece, which generally centers on a city, including the surrounding village community. The main body of city-state residents is the collective male citizens who have the right to participate in politics. The largest city-state is Sparta and Athens 。 Fighting with each other consumed a lot. After the late 5th century BC, ancient Greece weakened.

Sparta covers an area of 8400 square kilometers, about half of Beijing, with a population of about 400000, and 90000 male citizens at most. Athens covers an area of 2550 square kilometers, about one seventh of Beijing, with a population of 200000 to 300000, and 30000 to 40000 male citizens at most. Ancient Greece was more of a small country, with a population of no more than 10000 or 20000, which was only the size of a town in China.

Therefore, its main feature is a small country with few people, and the states are independent and autonomous for a long time. Each of its city-state is an independent sovereign state, and each state is generally an equal neighbor. The autonomy rights of the city-state more or less belong to the citizens of each state. According to the size of citizens' right to participate in politics in the citizens' assembly of each state, the city-state government can be divided into several types, of which the aristocracy and democracy are the most popular in the ancient Greek city-state. The so-called city-state citizens do not mean all adult citizens, but male members with citizenship who have the right to participate in the civic assembly. except Aristocracy and democracy In addition, ancient Greek city states still exist monarchy ， oligarchy and Tyranny 。 The civil politics practiced by the ancient Greek city-state made the citizens of the city-state enjoy full political rights. In particular, the democracy of Athens has provided valuable experience for future generations.

Athens

The sea transportation is convenient, and commercial trade makes the city prosperous.

The democracy in Athens: ① All male citizen assembly ②“ Five hundred people meeting ”③ Official draw ④ Jury draw ⑤ Pottery piece banishment method Ensure democracy.

The evaluation of democracy (essence): ① making citizens actively participate in politics; ② based on slavery, slaves, women and foreigners who account for the majority of the population have no political rights.

Athens Education and Sparta There is a big difference. The handicraft industry and commerce in Athens were relatively developed, and the slave owner democratic republic was practiced. The purpose of education in Athens is not only to train the noble children of slave owners into strong warriors, but also to make them become businessmen with certain cultural knowledge and eloquent social activists and politicians. Therefore, in addition to attaching importance to sports, military training and moral education, the education in Athens also paid attention to the harmonious development of intellectual and aesthetic education. The educational system in Athens included both public and private education. Children receive family education before the age of 7. After the age of 7, boys enter grammar schools and chord schools to learn reading, writing, arithmetic, music, singing and recitation. After the age of 13, while continuing to study in the Culture School and the Chord School, he also entered the gymnastics school for physical training. Most young people can finish their studies after 2 to 3 years, and the children of a few dignitaries go to the National Stadium to continue their studies. At the age of 18, after graduating from the gym, they can be promoted to the NCO for further education and trained as military leaders. At the age of 20, he was awarded the title of citizen and became an official official of the country. The education in Athens and Sparta influenced the development of western education in the future according to their different characteristics.

Sparta

Spartan military: ① obey military needs all his life; ② boys start military training at the age of 7; ③ girls also practice running and spear throwing.

Among many slave city states in ancient Greece, Sparta and Athens were the most powerful and famous. Therefore, when we talk about ancient Greek education, we always take their education as the representative.

Sparta is an agricultural country, which practices the autocratic rule of a few slave owners and nobles. In the 8th century BC, about 9000 Spartans ruled more than 250000 slaves and civilians. In order to safeguard the stability of the regime, Spartan education has a strong military color. Its educational purpose is to cultivate and train the noble children of slave owners to become strong warriors who have received severe military physical training. Sparta regards education as a national affair, and education is organized, managed and controlled by the state. Children are owned by the state and raised by their parents in place of the state before the age of 7. From the age of 7, they were sent to national educational institutions until the age of 18. They received harsh military training and moral indoctrination, so that they could develop healthy physique, strong will, courage, obedience, patriotism and other qualities. The main contents of education are running, jumping, discus throwing, bidding gun and wrestling. In addition, it also includes hand to hand combat, horseback riding, swimming, music and dance, etc. The 18 year old youth were sent to the NCO for special military training until the age of 20, and the 30 year old formally obtained citizenship. It is worth noting that Sparta attaches great importance to women's education, and girls also need to receive gymnastics and military training.

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