The classical era (5 BC – mid 4th century AD) wasancient GreekAn important historical era in history.There are two periods. The early period is the era of prosperity of democratic city-state, and the later period is the era of prosperity and decline of city-state system.
The starting point of this important historical stage is Greece andPersiaAfter the victory over Persia, the Greek states fought against each other for hegemony.In the first 431 years,Sparta and AthensBurstpeloponnesian war , greatly weakened, and since then the Ionian War,SpartaDecline, andMacedoniaIt rose in the north.338 BCBattle of Chaeronea Later, the Greek states were officially controlled by Macedonia, and the classical era ended.
Since 500 BCmiletus LeadedIoniaThe city states launched an uprising.City of Shouyimiletus towardsSpartaandAthensAnd other states to ask for help,AthensAnd Elitria agreed to send troops,SpartaBut he refused the request of Miletus.Athens didn't knowPersian Empire The situation ofwest AsiaLittle is known about the changes in the situation, but Miletus was lured by the fact that he talked about the prosperity of Persia and the vulnerability of Persians in Athens. In addition, the Athenians and Miletus had the same feelings, so they sent 20 three row paddle boats to Asia for assistance.Elitria sent troops because Miletus had once supported it. This time, in return, she sent five warships symbolically.
In 499 BC,Insurgent armyWhen defeated by the Persian army, the reinforcements in Athens and other places were in a bad situation. They quickly left the battlefield and returned to their own country, leaving the insurgents to fight alone.Faced with the heavy Persian troops, the states and groups of the Minor Asia Uprising built a combined fleet of 353 three row oar ships, which lasted for five years and was finally defeated by the Persian army.
In 494 BC, Persia re ruled the states of Asia Minor, but Persia hated the intervention of Athens.
Therefore,Greco-Persian Wars The direct reason is that Persia oppressed the lesser Asian Greeks and the resistance andAthensThe deeper reason for the intervention of other states lies in the ambition of the Persian rulers to expand their territory.
course
Greco-Persian Wars From 492 BC to 449 BCTwo stages: The early stage (to 479 BC) was the stage of Persian attack, and the later stage (after 479 BC) was the stage of Greek counterattack and stalemate.
In 492 BC,Darius IThe army was sent to Greece by land and water, and was hit by a storm halfway.After the conquest of Macedonia, the army was hit by Thracians and suffered heavy losses, so it withdrew.
In 490 BC, the Persian armyAthensExiled tyrantHippiasUnder the guidance of the general Alftanes as the commander, he took 600 ships to invade Greece twice by sea.He broke through Elitria first and carried all the residents to Persia. In September of the same year, he was in the northeast of Attica across the seaMarathon Plainland.
Athens learned that after the Persian army landed, it poured allHeavy infantry10000 people and a small number of light infantry marched to Marathon to fight.At the same time, send envoys tomilitary powerSparta asks for help.Although Sparta agreed to help, because of its rigid habit, it must send troops when the moon is full.Athens was the first to attack with the help of 1000 heavy infantry from nearby Pratia.The commander in chief Miltitte thickened the thickness of the two wings of the square array in order to focus on attacking the two wings of the enemy and overcome the disadvantage in the number of people with local advantages.The two sides fought hand to hand for a long time. The Polish army broke through the center of the other side, but the two wings were defeated by the enemy.The Athenians and the Pilates quickly returned to attack the enemy in the middle and forced them to flee.192 people were killed in Athens and 6400 in Poland.Darius IThe second invasion failed again.
AthensThe victory of the war greatly encouraged the struggle of the Greeks, and many city states that had previously submitted to Persia mustered the courage to fight against it.When Persia invaded Greece for the third time in 480 BC, 31 city states that refused to yield were united under the leadership of Sparta to form more than 100000 soldiers and 400 warshipsmultinational force, be prepared.
The Persian army was led by the kingXerxesLed personally, with a total of about 500000.The first battle took place in the entranceCentral GreeceTiermopelai (also translated asthermopylae ）。The Greek garrison was only 7200, and was commanded by King Leonidas of Sparta. After two days of bloody battle, the enemy was not allowed to move forward.However, the Polish army had to be led by a Biotian peasant and detoured back to the rear of the Greek garrison, forcing most of the coalition troops to retreat.Only Leonidas and 300 Spartan soldiers, as well as 1100 Thebes and Tespians, insisted on holding the position, and almost all Spartan King Leonidas died in battle.
After breaking through the Hot Springs Pass, the Persians drove straight into Central Greece.AthensGeneral Timistokri persuaded the Athenians to withdraw from the city, 30000 Ding Zhuang boarded the warship, and his family members fled to the neighboring country.Allied army retreats toCorinth Isthmus, trying to guard the passage to southern Greece;The navy is massing near AtticaSalamisThe Gulf was forced to wage an unprecedented decisive battle with the Persian navy in ancient world history.
The battle lasted a whole timedayThe commander of the Persian navy was killed in battle. In addition, the soldiers came from different nationalities with different languages and irregular orders. A large number of ships were difficult to move in the narrow bay. Gradually, they were at a disadvantage under repeated attacks of the multinational fleet dominated by the Athenian navy, and finally withdrew from the bay.The Greeks got the battle record of destroying 200 enemy ships at the cost of losing 40 ships.Xerxes, who watched the battle nearby, saw that the situation was over, and was afraid that the Greeks might take advantage of the victory to attack Helenspan and cut off its retreat, so he left someMilitary horse, return in a panicAsia。
In August 479 BC, 110000 allied troops and 150000 Polish troops fought on land in Pratia, Central Greece. Spartan heavy infantry killed the enemy commander, resulting in the collapse of the Polish army, with 100000 casualties and being driven out of Europe.stayLand warAt the beginning,Greek NavyA long journeyaegean sea, launched an attack on the remnants of the Persian navy anchored in Xiaoya, and annihilated the enemy fleet near the Cape Mikale.Since then, the Greek army has shifted from defense to attack, and the war has entered the second stage.
In 478 BC, Sparta was far away from its home due to the war, and had no close relationship with Asia Minor in history. At the same time, it was afraid that the generals would be exposed to Sparta for a long timeCode of EthicsThey withdrew from the war and turnedLeadershipYield toAthens。
In the winter of the same year, Xiao Yaaegean seaIslandsThraceRepresentatives of coastal states meet with representatives of AthensTyro, formal alliance, known in historyDelian League 。All states joining the league are equal in principle, and each has one vote at the league meetingright to vote。But because Athens has absolutemilitary superiority, take command of the Allied forces,Actual controlThe alliance.For the common interests, the AllianceTemple of Apollo Establish a common treasury, and each state joining the alliance will pay the alliance fund according to its own revenue and the size of its obligations.The city states unwilling to give warships should pay additional donations.The total amount of league funds paid by each state is 460Tarant, by the Treasurer（AthensPeople).The use of League funds shall be approved by the League Assembly.
In 476 BC,Delian League Admiral of the fleet in AthensKemengLed the removal of PersiaThraceFor the first time since the establishment of the new alliancemilitary action。Then the two sides competed for the hegemony of the Aegean Sea.In 454 BC, the Allied Navythe NileMore than 200 warships were lost,TyroExposed to the threat of Polish army.Athens moved the Alliance treasury from Tirol to its own countryAcropolis。During this period, some city states tried to withdraw from the alliance;It was suppressed by Athens.So far, the Alliance became a tool for Athens to control foreign countries, and the Alliance Fund was transformed into an Athenianrevenue。
In 449 BC, both Athens and Persia had to make peace and sign an agreement because they were hard to defeat each other completely.Persia gave up Yesaegean seaThe hegemony of, allowing Xiao YaGreek city-stateIndependence means recognitionAthensOfSphere of influence。In return, Athens did not interfere with the Persian rule over its territories and did not interfere in Egyptian affairs.Since the negotiator in Athens is Kalias, this peace agreement is also called "Kalias Peace".The war between Greece and Poland ended with the victory of Greece, especially Athens.
reason
The reason why Greece won the war was that in the early stage of the war, the Greeks fought for their freedom and independence,Dare to fight, dare to win;The majority of Persian troops are conquered and oppressed nations, who participate in the war because of coercion or employment, so they fight passively.The Greek army outdid the Persian army in morale.In addition, in several general battles, Greek generals had advantages in command and formation. The heavy armed Greek soldiers were more suitable for group hand to hand combat than the light armed Persian soldiers.The Persian army went on expeditions, and the weather was not favorable for many times,Logistics supplyDifficulties.In short, the failure of Persia was inevitable and accidental.
significance
The Persian Persian War was a turning point of decline for the Persian Empire, which lost its ability to expand.However, the war created a large number of capital, labor sources andSocial needsSo that the economy and politics of Greece tend to flourish.The war also greatly changed the Greek statePolitical relations。The dominance of the Spartans was broken,AthensFrom a second-class country repeatedly interfered by Sparta to a competitive regional hegemonAffiliated countryEverywhereaegean seaAnd the mainland of Greece, up to more than 200.The war also promotedGreek city-statePolitical Development, AthensLevel 4Citizens have widely served in the navy and made great contributions to the war, thus improvingpolitical statusAnd further improve democratic politics.With the determination of the Athenian hegemony, the Athenian style democracy was widely spread in its affiliated countriesoligarchy andAristocracy With a heavy blow.
socioeconomic
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The prominent feature of Greek social economy in the classical era is the pole of developmentout-off-balance。
The city-state maintained its agricultural characteristics, and agriculture was still economic in the classical eraLeading department，Land ownershipandCitizenshipWe continue to maintain the necessary links. Most citizens live in the countryside, which is theNorthern GreeceIt is most obvious in most parts of the country.In some city-state with highly developed handicrafts and commerce, such asAthens, Collins, etc., the situation is the same, but the degree is different.
stayLand relationsSmall and mediumLand ownershipIt was still dominant, so most of the period of the classical era was the rising and stable period of the city-state.Take Athens as an example. Thanks to the victory of the Greek Polish War, the opening of overseas military colonies andNational economyWith the improvement of conditions, the number of citizens of the third level living a well-off life increased from about 10000 at the beginning of the war to 20000 in 430 BC,Private ownership of landIt also develops relatively, thus forming some relatively large real estates, such asAthensFamous politicianKemengAnd Berkeley are relatively large landsowner。In economically backward areas, the situation of land ownership is different.Some city states ruled by Dorians in Sparta and Crete maintained a basically average state of real estate, while in Thessaly, Northern Greece, aristocratic real estate was popular.In addition to private land of different sizes, many Greek city states also have a certain amount of public land.Such as Athensdirect controlLanding woodland and grassland.Each village also has its own small piece of public land.
Implement different policies on citizens' land with different scalesOperation mode。On the great estate of Thessaly, it is similar to SpartaHelots Style dependent farmer (Pinestay)By familyCultivate.They are the vanquished, who have to pay part of their income to the landlord every year and have the obligation to go out with the landlord.In Athens, most of the citizens who owned large estates were descendants of old nobles.Their way of doing business is unknown.According to the existing historical data, some owners live on their own properties,Direct managementEconomic activities on the property, such asKemeng。Some were also handed over to slave housekeepers. For example, the property of Pericles was managed by its slave Ewanger, whose products were shipped to cities for sale, but the output and income were not much, even not enough for the political activities of Pericles.As for the nature of the direct producer on its property, it is not clear.At that time, the agricultural field in Athens used both slaves and hired workers as well as the labor of tenants, so these three forms may exist.
The operation mode of independent citizens' small estates varies with the specific conditions of the country.In Sparta, Crete and other places, small landlords are still small slave owners, who ruthlessly exploit the labor of farm slaves.In Athens and most city states, independent small producers and their family members are hard workers.
State owned landUsually used for rent.For example, the public land in Athens is one of the regular sources of national financial revenue.The lease term is generally 10 years, and the lesseeFive hundred people meetingRent shall be paid during the term of office of the presidium.Land owned by village level units can also be leased for a long or short term.The long-term lease term can be 40 years without change.There is a certain procedure for signing the lease, and the lessee needs to paydepositOr somepersonal propertyAs a mortgage, the tenant's obligations shall at least include paying the rent on time, not cutting down the trees on the leased land, and taking care of the buildings on the leased land.For those who cannot deliver the lease on time, the landowner has the right to revoke the lease, confiscate the products in the land, and even deprive the lessee of his citizenship.The national ranch is also used for rent, and the lessee can be a collective or individual, or even a foreigner.
The private ownership of land has developed in the classical era, but there is no modern concept of private ownership in any city-state that can be arbitrarily controlled, bought, sold or transferred.In the state with slow development of private ownership, the prohibition of non transfer of citizens' land has been kept for a long timeland systemIt is typical.In Athens,private ownershipRapid development, as early asSolon Reform Previously, the transfer of land had already taken place.
In terms of crop varieties andfarming techniqueIn terms of classical times andArchaic eraBasically there is no difference.Only in the city-state with relatively developed industry and commerceurban populationThe increase in the demand for commercial agricultural products has prompted farmers to change theseeded areaAs well as the treatment of products, more planting can bring more incomeolive、Grape、Figetc.cash cropAnd commercialize the remaining products toUrban marketOn sale.In Aristophane's comedy, small farmers who sell their products directly are often encountered.
development
The industry and commerce in the classical era made great progress, and the division of labor within the handicraft industry was increasingly deepenedcountry fair tradeThe market has formed.In some city states with rapid economic development, the transformation of cities from political, religious and cultural centers to handicraft and commercial centers has been completed.
The pottery industry was a handicraft sector that developed rapidly in the classical era.Pottery has always been the most popular among ancient peoplenecessityIt is not only indispensable to people's daily life, but also used for preservation and long-distanceTransport products。In the classical era, with the prosperity of the city and the active trade, the demand for pottery increased, leading to the prosperity of the pottery industry.Athens, Corinth, Thessalyaegean seaIslandsBlack SeaCoastalSicily, SouthItalyOfGreek city-stateChina has its own pottery manufacturing industry to meet the needs of local residents.Ceramic industryhandicraftsmanSelf-employedMainly.However, in some cities, large-scale workshops also appeared, using dozens of slave craftsmen.In the pottery workshop, there has been a quite detailed internal division of labor, including molding, painting and firing processes.Slaves usually finished some standardized products, and the painted pottery that required a higher level of craftsmanship was mostly made by craftsmen from foreign countries.The most popular decorative form on pottery in the 5th century BC is the red image on a black background. Athens is the leader in pottery production technology in this regard. The so-called "red line style" pottery produced by its craftsmen can be called the best of classical painted pottery.
The deepening of the division of labor in the handicraft industry is not only reflected in the pottery industry, but also in the similar progress of various handicraft sectors related to residents' lives, with a tendency of specialization.In Aristophane's comedy, you can see a variety of craftsmen, such as blacksmiths, stonemasons, shoemakers, tanners, jewelers, weavers, carpet makers, and cobblersCombingCarpenter, carpenter, bricklayercheeseA baker, a baker, a grinder, etc.Some blacksmiths specialize in making weapons, and some specialize in making farm tools.In addition to pottery workshops, there are also weapons workshops, furniture workshops, etc.
The development of cities in the classical era has led to the construction industry, and Athens has developed significantly in this regard.In order to create employment opportunities for poor citizens and beautify the city, the state allocated huge funds to engage in a large number ofPublic buildings, such as the grand gate of the Acropolis, the Parthenon Temple, the music hall and many other buildings.Construction methodContract systemThat is, the relevant national responsible department willArchitectural designIt is divided into several blocks and handed over to each contracted citizen for construction.The Contractor may employ craftsmen, rent other slaves to directly construct, or sublet them to other contractors for construction.On a large construction site, citizens, foreigners and slaves can be seen working together.
Mining industryIt was the handicraft industry sector with the largest labor force in ancient times.Lorraine of AthensSilver oreIt was widely exploited in the classical era.The state divides the mines into zero and leases them to individual citizens.The lessee uses its own slaves or hires others' slaves, and employs poor citizens to carry out stripping, screening, and smelting.mineIn pitThe work on the pit does not exclude the work of civil servants.When the silver mine was in its heyday, there were as many as 20000 to 30000 people mining it.
The development of handicraft industry and commerce are synchronized.The concentration of population in cities and the accumulation of wealth in cities lead tocommodity exchangeThe frequency of.In addition to grain, fruit, honey, wine, eggs, poultry and textiles, there are also fish, oil, vinegar, onions, charcoal, wood, shoes, clothing, knives, spears, shields, carpets, lockscheeseAnd so on.As the daily life of the city was increasingly combined with exchange, smaller bronze coins for change appeared in Greece at the turn of the 5th – 4th century BC.At the same time as the commercial development of cities in various regions, a few city states with more surplus have carried out activeforeign trade。butGreek city-stateOur foreign trade is a private affair, and the state only provides encouraging policies.Athens, Corinth, Caius, Megara, OjinaSyracuse The foreign trade of other countries is very prosperous.Some shrewd businessmen were scattered from various states to purchase, transship and sell profitable goods.In international business dealings, AthensGreco-Persian Wars Later, it established maritime hegemony and had obvious advantages. It controlledaegean seaThe trade route of.For some rare items that it needs, such as those in CaiosRed leadAnd monopoly, which stipulates that operators can only export their products to Athens.
The development of commodity exchange relations has resulted inCurrency ExchangeDifficulties.The complex exchange value is difficult for businessmen to grasp.So a number of cities with frequent transactions came into beingMoney changer, known as "the person sitting at the table".Because they always set a table in the market and do business there.In Athens, Siju AungThebesSpecialbank, engaged in currency exchange and deposit and mail business.These earliest financial personnel were familiar with the currencies and trading conditions of various countries, and charged a certain amount when exchanging currencies with customersRemuneration, and concurrentlyUsurycause.The borrower needs to use his own property as collateral.The highest benefit law is used foroverseas tradeBecause the risk is high.
Due to the active business and market, the state has set up special market managers to be responsible for maintaining the normal transaction.In Athens, there are market supervisors, weighing instrument supervisors, grain trade supervisors and port supervisors.
city-stateIndustrialists and businessmenThe composition of is diverse.Take Athens with the most abundant historical data as an example. Most of the practitioners are foreign immigrants without citizenship,GreekIt is called "metics".In terms of identity, Metic does not refer to people who temporarily live and do business in non home countries, but refers to foreigners who have lived in Athens or Perieus, another city in Athens, for a long time, especially foreign immigrants who have settled down.For example, the largest handicraft workshop owner in Athens is Maitik. Those original financiers are Maitik, and most professional businessmen are Maitik.They are in Athenssocial positionLower.Persons with Matic status must be approved by the Athens government, registered on the relevant register, and have special obligations, such as payingPoll taxBusiness tax and military service.Rich Matike still needs to pay special fees like rich citizensproperty tax——Social donation, used to build warships, hold festivals, etc.Mytik's rights and interests are only limited protected by the government.For example, if a citizen kills Mitik, he is only sentenced to unintentional killing, and the sentence is unintentionalHomicideShall prevail.On the contrary, if Matic violates the laws of Athens, he will be sold as a slave and his property confiscated.In addition, Metik must have a citizen guarantor in Athens to deal with itPossibleLegal disputes.yesAthensMetik, who has made great contributions to the countryCivic AssemblyAfter discussion, citizenship can be granted.The number of foreign immigrants in Athens in the classical era is not clear, but there was a figure of 10000 at the end of the fourth century BC.It is speculated that the number of city-state prosperity in the classical era may be larger than this number.
Generally speaking, the economy of Greece at this time is a kind ofAgriculture, industry and commerceMixed symbiotic economy, in which agriculture has overwhelming advantages.Each state has its own handicraft industry and commerce, but depending on the historical conditions, the proportion of the two in the economy is different.Sparta, the largest country in Greece, is the most backward in industry and commerce.This country onlyPireasiOf the villages and towns, there are industrial and commercial enterprises only for domestic consumption.andAthensOur industry and commerce are the most developed.But it also did not break away from the agricultural oriented road of the ancient economy.
The prosperity of slavery
During the war between Greece and Poland and after the war, due to the war's demand for weapons and equipment, the urban population increased andPersonal wealthIn particular, the rapid accumulation of monetary property stimulated the development of handicrafts and commerce. Some city states took advantage of the victory of the war and began to widely apply slave labor to the field of commodity production. GreeceSlaveryIt has entered the flourishing stage, which is shown in the following aspects:
1. The number of slaves soared and their sources were extensive.After the middle of the 5th century BC, the number of slaves increased significantly in a few city states with prominent industrial and commercial development, such as Athens, Corinth, and Caius.Although there is no exact demographic data left in ancient times, there are moreAthensLook, the total number of slaves is at least 70000-90000, which is almost equal to the total number of citizens and their families.No country in the ancient world had such a high population ratio of slaves and free people.And the sources of slaves are obviously diversified,Regularization。Debt slaves have been banned in Greece, and prisoners of war slaves are popularslave tradeAnd the natural reproduction of slaves.The Greeks believed in the principle that the winner was the master and the loser was the slave.In peacetime, the slave trade was more frequent.Greece bought a large number of slaves from surrounding areas, especially fromBlack SeaCoastalThraceAnd Illyria, where tribal leaders often sold their clan members as slaves.In addition,Asia MinorpopularDebt slavery, which is another stable supply place for Greek slaves.Greek slave owners also attached great importance to the natural reproduction of slaves, and they did not prohibit slaves from marrying and having children.Many domestic slaves can bring rich income to their masters through skill and cultivation training.
With the development of slaveryAthens, CaiusTyroLarge slave markets have emerged in places such as.The way of slave trade is the same as othersCommodity tradingIn the same way, the slave traders displayed the slaves naked, introduced the temperament and age of the slaves to the buyers, let the buyers look at them and bargain with them.Male slave price 70 – 100drachma, female slaves 135 – 220 drachmas.The price of a slave is equivalent to that of an adult for a year's meal.Owning slaves is not only a symbol of dignity, but also a source of income.
2. The widespread use of slave labour.During this period, slave labor was widely used in various parts of some city-stateProduction department。The most concentrated sector of using slaves is the mining industry. At most, there are about 20000 to 30000 slaves working in the mines of the Laurowen Silver Mine in Athens.Athens, Corinth, MegaraSyracuse The largest slave handicraft workshop in cities such as Chengdu uses as many as 120 slave craftsmen.As for the construction industry, navigation industry and other handicraft and commercial sectors, there are also many slaves.Slave labor has also increasingly infiltrated into the field of agriculture.In addition to Sparta, Thessaly and Crete, which had always been dominated by slave labor, slave farms also appeared in the agriculture of Athens and other states where citizen labor was dominant.Due to the in-depth development of slavery, a few slave owners began to give part of their property to slaves to mobilize the enthusiasm of slave labor and collect the income created by slaves.Such slaves could have a family and a relatively independent life, which was better than slaves in agriculture and mines.Similar to their situation is a large number ofDomestic slave。They serve as gatekeepers, cleaners, cooks, hairdressers, kabuki, maids, etc. in the host's home.Higher level slaves were knowledge slaves such as housekeepers, clerks, teachers and doctors of slave owners.In a country like Athens, where slavery is obvious, there are also some special slaves, namelyNational machinerySlaves in China, such as lower level civil servants, prison guards, street cleaners, coin minters and policemen.shoulderpublic affairsAbout 700 slaves.
3. The social status of slaves.Greek thinkers defined slaves as "a living property" and "the most perfect tool of all tools".Because slaves are goods and tools, the Greeks generally excluded them from the scope of legal protection and did not treat slaves as human beings.If disobedient slaves can be punished: wearing shackles, torture, twisting joints, pouring vinegar, burning, until killed.However, in some regions, such as Crete's Gorkin's Law, slaves are allowed to intermarry with free people,legitimate childrenCan become a free person.Athenian slaves could walk in the streets like citizens without making way for free people. Slave owners had no right to kill slaves at will.Although there are some differences in the status of slaves in different city-state, the fact that slaves are the lowest, most oppressed and exploited class in society cannot be changed.As slavery infiltrated into all areas of city-state life, it left a deep imprint on the entire Greek society.
Athenian democracy
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democratic reform
After the first stage of the war between Greece and PolandDelian League The members of the city states of the Non Tyro Alliance have broken away from the aristocratic rule of their own countries and established democratic governments, such as those with greater influenceThebesArgosSyracuse Etc.As a result, Greek democracy entered a period of prosperity.In many countries that practice democracy, the most typical, the most material left to future generationsworld historyWhat has had a profound impact onAthens。Christiniestablishdemocracy Later, the political life in Athens was further democratized.In 487 BC, Athens reformed the electoral law. The method of pre election of consuls was changed from voting to drawing lots, and the qualification of being elected consul was moved down to second class citizens.In 461 BC, civilian leadersErfaertThe Democratic Reform Act ofCivic AssemblyPassed, deprivedAristocratic meetingThe function of participation in politics only reserved individual judicial power for the institution that once had power over Athens.So far, the three democratic institutions in Athens, namely, the Civic Assembly, the 500 member Council and theCivil courtCompletely get rid of the constraints of the aristocratic meeting and the consul meeting, and independently assume the responsibility of managing the country.In 457 BC, civilian politiciansPericlesUnder the initiative, the qualification of consul was further moved down toLevel 3Citizens.In 443 BC, Pericles became the chief general and was re elected for many years.Under his leadership, the democratic system was more perfect.Although the property qualification restriction for being elected to senior public office has not been formally abolished, it has actually lost its meaning.In history, this period of Athens is called“Pericles”。
democracy
The famous Athenian politician Pericles once tolddemocratic systemHe has made a classic statement: "Our system is called democratic system... because the political power is not in the hands of a few people. As far as the law is concerned, all people are equal in resolving their private disputesHuman valueAs far as we are concerned, no matter who shows up in any way and abandons some glorious public office, it is not because he belongs to a special class, but because of his personal talent. "The "everyone" in this paragraph, of course, only refers to the members of the collective citizens, not other members of the community. Democracy always oppresses the latter.But in ancient timesAbsolute monarchyUnder prevailing conditions,Athensetc.Greek city-stateThe management of the country has been handed over to a considerable number of members of the society, regardless of their origin, family background andProperty ownershipAll public offices are open to all citizens. They are elected by lot (generals are elected by a show of hands), realizing the ancient Greeks' idea of "taking turns to govern" and being both the ruler and the ruled. This is a great initiative of the ancient Greeks.
stayAthenian democracy In the organization, the overriding thing isCivic Assembly。It has multiple functions of legislation, administration and judicature. It is held 40 times a year and presided over by the presidium of the 500 member council.The council is divided into 10 presidium according to tribes. Usually, each presidium presides over four citizen conferences a year. The order of presiding is determined by drawing lots, and the agenda and basic topics of the four citizen conferences are fixed.For example, the first item on the agenda of the first meeting must bePublic officialsTo carry out public opinion surveys and vote on their fate.This means that public officials in Athens will be subject to 10 tenure reviews during their one-year term of office, and may be dismissed during each term of office of the presidium.Civic AssemblyIt is held after the sun rises.All law-abiding citizens over the age of 20 can participate.When encountering a topic difficult to decide, a debate will be held in the General Assembly. All participants without serious moral defects can speak on the stage.The presidium finally submitted the proposal to the General Assembly for voting according to the debate.
The 500 member meeting is the meeting'sPermanent establishmentIn addition to preparing proposals for the General Assembly, the 10 presidium also took turns on duty to handle major daily affairs.The presidium also draws lots to elect a chairman, who will serve for one day and be responsible for convening meetings and keepingbroad sealThe key to the national treasury and archives is actually the supreme leader of this democratic country.
Civil courtIt is the third important democratic institution, whose members are elected by lottery by citizens over the age of 30, responsible for hearing most criminal cases and allcivil case。In order to avoid abusing power for personal gain, 10 people's courts will draw lots to decide, and the judgments will be passed by 500 judges in each courtSecret ballotThis ensures thatEveryone is equal before the lawEven the most powerful people cannot interfere in the trial of the court.For example, when Pericles was chief general, his friendsFIDIASHe was tried by a people's court.Belikeri appeared in court as a witness for his friend, and even cried when appealing, but the court still found Fidias guilty.
Athens also has specific competent departments at all levels with hundreds of people, each unit is composed of 10 people, usually from 10 tribes, such astreasurerOfficials, public officials, city supervisorsMarket supervision, port supervision, etc.Among them, the General's Conference is the most important institution. In the second half of the 5th century BC, this institution not only had military functions, but alsoAdministrative functions。The consul lost his authority in the past and became just a participantCivil courtOfficials who hear activities and organize various religious, festival and competition activities.
Athenian democracyThe positive significance of and limitations on democratic politicsAthenscivilSubjective initiativeAnd intelligence provided the possibility to give full play to it, making Athens a school and model for all Greece in politics, economy, ideology and culture, and producing a large number of politicians, philosophersdramatist, historians, artists, rhetoricianshuman civilizationHas made outstanding contributions.
However, although Athenian democracy is more autocratic and aristocratic than monarchyoligarchy The foundation ofConsanguinityBetween our compatriots.Its purpose is to gather citizens into one who enjoys privileges at home and controls abroadAffiliated countryOfruling class。Therefore, while giving full play to its great historical role and contributing to the political, economic and cultural prosperity of Athens, it brutally suffocated another part of the society, that is, slaves andForeign countriesThe ability of people to develop freely.It also deprived women of their right to participate in politics.Therefore, it is not only the catalyst of human civilization, but also the source of slavery and evil.It brings priceless treasures to the treasure house of world civilization and incursDependent countryThe resentment of the people.This is the biggest limitation of Athenian democracy.In addition, Athenian democracy is a kind ofDirect democracy, the same as modernrepresentative systemDemocracy is different. It can only be implemented in a small state, andDirect democracyIt is easy to slip into the mud of extreme democracy.
peloponnesian war
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cause
Causes of wartoAthensAnd Sparta to dominate Greece, leading toDelian League AndPeloponnesian League The fierce confrontation of.As early as during the war between Greece and Poland, the two countries have been involved in joint anti wave activitiesConflict of Interest。In the later period of the war between Greece and Poland, the sharp expansion of the Athenian forces caused more anxiety in Sparta.In 457 BC, there was an open armed conflict between the two countries in China and Greece. Although a 30 year peace treaty was concluded, the conflict was not fundamentally resolved.Athens, the rising hegemon, reached out everywhere to seize the hegemony over all Greece.In 435 BC, Corinth, a member of the Peloponnesian League, had a dispute with Corsilla in western Greece.Athens believed that this was an opportunity to step into the west, so it helped Corsilla, defeated Corinth, and made the former colonial city of Corinth join the Tirol League.In 432 BC, Athens sent troops to an important stronghold along the coast of ThraceBotidia, asking for the expulsion of Corinth's personnel stationed there, and forbidding Botticea to withdrawDelian League 。In the same year,AthensDisputes with the neighboring city-state of Megara and blockade of the port of Megara.Megara is an ally of Corinth, and Corinth cannot stand by.At the meeting of the Peloponnesian League held in the autumn of the same year, Collins strongly advocated declaring war on Athens.As the leader of the alliance, Sparta decided to wage war after weighing the advantages and disadvantages.In 431 BC, Sparta issued an ultimatum to Athens: exile the leader of the main battle, Pericles, allow the Athenian allies to become independent, cancel the ban on Mecala, and lift the siege of Botticea.Athens certainly cannot accept it.The war soon began.
After 27 years of intermittent war, the flames of war almost spread all over the Greek world.The war was divided into three stages: the first stage was from 431 to 421 BC, known as“Ten-year war”This is the stalemate of the war.415-413 BC was the turning point of the war,AthensTends to be inferior.In 413 – 404 BC, Sparta's attack and overall victory stage.
process
At the beginning of the war, Athens was in power when Pericles was in power,Political clarity。At his suggestion, Athens adopted the strategy of land defense and sea attack.Therefore, the Spartan army successfully marched into Athens.In Athens, the peasants were forced to stick to the wall and clear the countryside, and the residents moved to the city.The Athenian navy frequently attacked and plunderedpeloponnesian peninsulacoast.In the summer of 430 B.C., the health condition in Athens deteriorated due to the dense populationplague, about 1/4 of the residentsDeath from illness, Pericles also died of illness.After suffering from the nightmare of plague, the Athenians captured Botticea in the winter of 429 BC and won the first significant victory since the beginning of the war.But Sparta later destroyed the faithful ally of Athens, Pratia, and returned to Athens.In 425 BC, Athens occupied a place calledSpyros The fortress was built at the cape of Sparta, and became a sharp blade inserted into Sparta's abdomen.MesenianHelots So the unrest shook the rule of Sparta.Sparta hastily mobilized troops and generals to drive away the Athenian garrison, but failed. 292 citizens were captured and forced to seek peace from Athens.But Athens did not agree, and the war continued.Sparta drove its troops northward, and carried out a series of successful attacks on the origin of shipbuilding and timber in Athens and on the coast of Thrace, where grain ships must pass.Both sides suffered great losses in the war and needed to take a break to conclude the fifty year armistice treaty in 421 BC.The representative of Athens participating in the peace talks is Nicias, so the peace treaty is also called“Peace of Nesias”。
In 415 BC, the AtheniansSicilyAttracted by the wealth of political demagoguesAsibidUnder the instigation of,Civic AssemblyWe rashly decided to go on an expedition to Sicily.The expeditionary force was composed of 136 warships and more than 30000 people, with Asibid, Nisias and other three men in command.But the expeditionary force was just inSicily LandingThe political enemies of Azibid accused him of "blasphemy" at home and sent a communication ship to summon him back for trial.Knowing that it would be unlucky to go there, Asibid defected from Sparta and encouraged Sparta to take the opportunity to send troops and kill Athens.The Athenian Expeditionary Force fought hard in Sicily for two years. Although it repeatedly received ships and personnel from domestic reinforcements, under the joint attack of the Spartan Army and Syracuse Army and the wrong command of the commander, Nicias, the whole army was destroyed, and almost 50000 soldiers (including the Allied forces) never survived.
Since then, Athens has been in a passive position, and the betrayal of its affiliated countries has followed, resulting in the tension of Athens' military and financial resources.Sparta changed its tactics and sent a military commander to Attica, causing 20000 slaves in Athens to flee.Under difficult circumstances, the domestic situation in Athens was turbulent, and the aristocratic oligarchs took the opportunity to launch a coup and seize power.Isaegean seaThe Athenian navy, which competed with Sparta, refused to recognize the oligarch government and welcomed backAsibidServe as commander in chief to regain the initiative in the eastern battlefield.The domestic democrats were encouraged to overthrow the oligarch regime at one fell swoop, and the lost democracy recovered
In 405 BC, the Spartan fleet funded by PersiaYanghe CampaignThe destruction of the Athenian fleet in theAffiliated countryAlmost all independent.In 404 BC,Peloponnesian League Fromsea and landAthens was blockaded on two fronts.Athens was forced to surrender under the circumstances of internal and external difficulties and lack of supplies.Sparta rejected Corinth's request to destroy Athens and preserved the city and its splendid culture for mankind.But Sparta forced Athens to agree to dissolveDelian League , hand over the remaining fleet, only 12 remainPatrol boat。At the same time, Athens needs to tear down the city wall, join the Peloponnesian League, and let the exiled anti democratic nobles return home.peloponnesian war So it ends.
nature
The nature of this war is quite different from that of the war between Greece and Poland, and it is unjust for both warring parties.AthensOn the one hand, the reason for the failure was that the contradictions within the Tiros Union were more acute and complex than those in the Peloponnesian Union;On the other hand, the Athenian army misdirected in several major battles.
consequence
As far as the consequences of the war are concerned, there is no real winner in this war.Each state aggravated its ownsocial contradictions , which has destroyed the unity of citizens, especially the war disastersmall-scale peasant economyA heavy blow resulted in a large number of bankruptcies of small farmers, and the independent small farmer economy is the city state'seconomic base。Since then, some of the major city states of Greece, including Athens and Sparta, have fallen into a prolonged crisis, which has created conditions for the later countries to unify Greece.Therefore, the Peloponnesian War wasGreek city-stateA turning point in history.[1]
City-state crisis
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peloponnesian war After the end of the war, the Greek city states involved in the war fell into crisis one after another.The crisis is manifested in the frequent wars between states, the rotation of hegemony, the loss of full self-defense ability of states, and the increasingly obvious loss of civil soldiersMercenaryReplaced by.In the war of one after another, the manpower and material resources of the city-state are rapidly consumed,small-scale peasant economyUnable to withstand the pressure of war and the rich, a large number of bankruptcies.A small number of people became very rich by fighting and sacrificing the interests of small farmers.As a result, the contradiction between the poor and the rich has sharpened, social conflicts have intensified, and land and property have been redistributedArchaic eraThe slogan of,monarchySpecial form ofTyranny It is popular again in the chaos.Although not all of them occur at the same time, they are not allGreek city-stateHave experienced the same crisis, butDevelopment trendIt is completely consistent.This indicates a unified and effective protection of wealthSlave owner classBeneficialAbsolute monarchyRegime is about to emerge in greece.Greek city-state crisis firstpeloponnesian war Sparta, the winner of.
disintegrate
Sparta, always a poor man, won unprecedented honor, money and power after the Peloponnesian War.Spartan commander came to Shande once when he was youngAsian GamesBack to 2000TarantBig money.WhenAthensWhen he returned home triumphantly after surrender, he brought back a whole vehicle of gold.He himself and many of his generals made windfall fortunes, turning from a poor man to a rich man.As the culture of countries with advanced wealth and economy flows into this country like a torrent,Laikugu reformFounding CitizensThe principle of equalityThe tradition of hard work and hard work was quickly destroyed: people were crazy about chasing money and saving property.Some of the strong become richer by sacrificing the interests of the weak, while some of the weak become poorer.Different properties are associated with different interests, and different interests generate different groups. The equal is no longer equal, and the principle of fairness is abandoned. Sparta began an irreversible decline.At the beginning of the 4th century BC, the shares of citizens who were originally state-owned could be officially transferred, and land privatization was publicly recognized.The rich people in Sparta were more and more unscrupulous in annexing the land of small farmers. In a short time, the number of citizens in Sparta was reduced to about 1900. By the second half of the fourth century BC, there were only 1000 citizens left.In 399 BCKeanatownThe "inferiors" led by him planned an uprising to overthrow the Spartan aristocracy.They even linked the Pirissians andHelots Because whenever Spartans are mentioned to these people, they sayTo make a requestSwallow the feelings of Spartans alive.It was only because the traitors betrayed that the uprising was stopped.However, the once enviable stability of Sparta is gone.
Temporary revival
peloponnesian war Later, Athens lost its vitality greatly, and the number of citizens decreased from 40000 before the war to about 20000.After a period of recuperation, the politics and economy of Athens have recovered, and the democracy has further developed,Civic AssemblyThe supremacy has been strengthened, the power to preside over the citizens' assembly and the power to preside over the 500 member councilSeparation of power。The executive chairman of the General Assembly is composed of one member from each of the nine presidium who are not on duty, and is no longer the chairman of the presidium on duty.This further weakensLocalismImpact on General Assembly resolutions.The podium of the Citizen's Congress is no longer dominated by people from famous families. A group of politicians and speakers from various families stand out. They are new people who have grown up under the influence of democratic life and enthusiastic eulogists of democratic system.Obtained by citizens participating in public activitiesAllowance itemsThe amount is increasing, not only to attend the citizens' assembly to enjoy subsidies and benefits (1 Opol at first, gradually increasing to 1drachma）In addition, there are also allowances for watching dramas.Although these benefits have encouraged the poor citizens to participate in politics, they have also changed the past conscious dedication into paid service and the conscious obligation into paid exchange, just like the introduction of subsidies in civil soldiers.Citizens are keen on personal income generation and prefer to hire foreigners to fight wars rather than themselvesObligation to perform military service。Civil soldiers are playing a weaker role in foreign wars. PatriotismCollectivismIncreasingly thin.
In terms of economy, the wealth of a few rich people has increased significantly. Among the richest 1200 people, most of them have about 5 tarans, hundreds of tarans more and 2 tarans less.Their source of income is no longer limited to real estate.Some people started the business that used to be run by foreignersHandmade workshop, Money exchange business, some earn remuneration by serving foreign rulers, some also operatebathhouse, brothels, pubs, real estate.Everyone has a large number of slaves, and the ratio of slaves to citizens has obviously increased.Gentiles in Athenseconomic activityThe main areas ofhandicraft industryThe two largest slave workshops in Athens were owned by foreigners.The progress of private economy made Athens loseAffiliated countryA large amount of income can still be obtained after a large amount of tribute, and the welfare of citizens has not decreased, but also increased.This helpssmall-scale peasant economyThe gap between rich and poor in Athens has widened, but the number of citizens who lost land is far less than that in Sparta. The crisis is mainly manifested in the decline of civil soldiers andIndividualismExpansion of.
In this case, most of the thinkers in the 4th century BC were critical of Athenian democracy, saying that the majority ruled the minority and the poor exploited the rich.Their understanding reflects the views of some rich slave owners, but this theoretical criticism has not led to the subversion of democracy in practice.Since the restoration of democratic politics until 322 BC, when foreign forces strangled it, the political dispute between the aristocracy and the poor, which was often seen in the past, has not reappeared. As a complete system, the democratic system has been widely accepted by the rich and the poor.AthensThe relative internal stability enabled it to resume active external activities.In 378 BC, Athens successfully drew some countries with the same interests to establish the second maritime alliance.However, the participating countriesDelian League Much less, and Athens is only an equal partner.With the establishment of the second maritime alliance, the temporary peace of Greece was destroyed, and the Athenian fleet was defeatedPeloponnesian League Our fleet has washed away the humiliation of the Battle of Yanghe.[1]
The Hegemony of Thebes
The victory of Athens was echoed by Thebes.Thebes rebuilt the Biotia Alliance, which had been forcibly dissolved by Sparta, and Sparta reacted strongly.The two sides engaged in a fierce battle in Liuketra.Sparta invested about 11000 Allied troops, and Thebes invested about 6000 citizens, led by General Epalminonda.The famous "wedge-shaped" square array under Epaminon Dabu, with the main force on the left wing and a depth of 50 columns, broke through the right wing of the Sri Lankan army at one fell swoop, causing the enemy to flee on all fronts.The Spartan king Cleon Borotus and 400 citizens died in battle, and the situation that his heavy infantry ruled the Greek battlefield was completely broken.The Battle of Ruktra became the starting point for Sparta's betrayal and the collapse of the Peloponnesian League.The democrats in some countries took the opportunity to overthrow the pro Spartan oligarchy, and some countries withdrew from the League.In the winter of 370 BC, Epamignon DayingyuanPeloponnesian League Invited by member states, led the army to enterPeloponneseIn Sparta, he went into a land without people and plundered in a large scale.MesenianHelots He was liberated and established a completely independent country.This is a fatal blow to Spartans, cutting off the source of livelihood of many citizens and acceleratingEquality CommuneBankruptcy.ThebesThe shock caused by the army in Peloponnese was not only so.Argos civilian "stick faction" took the opportunity to riot, killing 1200 nobles and confiscating their property, and even the leader of the democratic faction who tried to quell the riot was also beaten to death.
The rise of Thebes causedAthensAnd turned to alliance with Sparta.Thebes was with Athensaegean seaIn the competition, a navy was set up in 364 BC, bringing some of Athens' allies in the Aegean Sea to its side.In 362 BC, due to the situation in southern GreeceThebesAs a result, Epamenonda drove his troops into Peloponnese again and fought with the allied forces of Athens, Sparta and other states in Mandinia, winning again.However, when Epamionda was directing the pursuit, he was hit by the enemy's javelin, and Athens and other defeated troops were able to escape.On his deathbed, Epalminonda ordered him to conclude a peace treaty with the enemy and join the warBangjunexceedingly welcome.The independence of Messenia was recognized by all the participating city-state except Sparta at the peace conference.Sparta protested, but no one paid any attention.After the war, it has been reduced to an insignificant local country.
The Rise of Thebes and Greek Chaoticinternational situationAnd the efforts of outstanding people.Epamine Nonda played a decisive role in this.With the disappearance of his body, the mythical Theban hegemony was immediately destroyed.In this way, after 362 BC, Greece could not find a force that could control the inter state relations, nor a way to overcome the internal crisis of the city-state. All countries accelerated their decline in constant friction and self consumption, which created conditions for the conquest of Macedonia.[1]
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Faced with the rise of Macedonia, the Greek states were alert, led by Athens, and divided into anti Macedonia and pro Macedonia factions.Anti Macedonian industry and commerce are mainly democraticSlave owner, withDemosthenesFirst, because of the business tradition, the faction is unwilling to associate with Macedonia.The pro Macedonian faction was the slave owner of the upper class of the city-state. Because of the continuous resistance of the slaves and civilians in the city-state, the upper class slave owners hoped that Philip, the king of Macedonia, would change the city-state situation.
In 355 years ago, the "Holy War" broke out. 350 years ago, Demosthenes made a speech against Macedonia. 349 years ago, Macedonia occupied the Karstides Peninsula, and Athens was forced to make peace.In the first 348 years, the only one that prevented Macedonia from going southOlintosThe city-state was destroyed.In the autumn of 344 BC, Thessaly was under the control of Macedonia.In 339 BC, Philip launched a war and entered Greece again.In the first 338 years,Battle of Chaeronea The outbreak of the war led to the defeat of the Athens Thebes coalition, and the Greek states actually lost their independence.In 337 BC, Philip formed the "Greek Alliance" and controlled the Greek states.[1]
Greek culture
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Philosophy
Pre5th centuryGreek philosophyDevelopedMaterialismAmong which the earliest issicilyOfEmpedochleAnd Pericles' teacher, Anaxagoras.The former advocates thingsobjective existenceAnd independent, and constantly moving, advocating that knowledge comes from feeling, and things trigger people's feelings through the form of streaming, which is simpleTheory of reflection。At the same time, he believed that the world was formed by water, fire, air and earth, which opened the laterAtomism。The latter believes that things can be divided through continuous divisionMicroparticleHe was the direct inspiration of later atomism.
Following the twoDemocritusDemocritus put forward the "atomism", pointing out that things are composed of atoms, and atoms are in constant motion.hisepistemologyIt is argued that people's feelings and cognition are derived from external things, so if people have no external things, they will have no thoughts and understanding.
Socrates claimed that intellectuality and virtue should be unified, and the key lies in education.It advocates that people should break through the old knowledge through continuous speculation to achieve cognitive progress and integrity of virtue.
Plato is an idealist who believes that ideas and concepts are real and the essence of all things.Plato was also a litterateur with beautiful writing style.
Aristotle is famous for his profound knowledge. He believes that Plato's concept is unreasonable, and objectively the world of ideas does not exist.At the same time, AristotlematerialismGot caught up indualismMiddle School believes that material exists objectively, but at the same time, it is dominated by the spiritual world, that is, the form.Aristotle also made great achievements in other fields.
astronomy
Empedochler first explainedsolar eclipseThe process ofEarth DayAnaxagoras explainedlunar eclipse: The earth walks between the sun and the moon, andthe galaxyIt is the light of many stars in the distance. There are mountains and ravines on the moon. The sun is a hot lava stone. The sun god does not exist.
By the first four centuries,OdexsosIt is the first time to use geometric principles to explain the universe, althoughMode of interpretationIs wrong.But it was the first time that human beings tried to explain astronomical phenomena in their understanding of the universe.
mathematics
stayPythagorasLater, Greek mathematicians have proposedtriangle, Roundpolygon, many theorems of sphere.Hippocrates is also committed toRound to SquareAnswer to.
Eudoxos' student, Mehnikmus, is right againConic curveQuite a lot of research.
Medical Science
Hippocrates not only contributed to mathematics, but also made great achievements in medicine.He believes that human diseases are caused by the interaction of external factors and internal factors.It is emphasized that the cause must be clear and the patient must be completely cured.He made it“Hippocratic Oath”Still regarded by Western medicineProfessional integrityPrinciple of.
Herodotus is known as the "father of western history". His History is a classic work of western historyGreco-Persian Wars Is primarytime axis。Detailed descriptionBabylonMore importantly, Herodotus paid attention to verifying the authenticity of historical materials and laid down the narrative rules of later history.
Thucydides' works are《The Peloponnesian War 》He was once an Athenian general and was later exiled, concentrating on compiling history books.Thucydides paid attention to the selection and identification of historical materials, and had a highreliabilityIt is a model of western history.
Xenophon's works, as Greek History and The Long March, are not only rich in military and political affairs, history, but also literature, so his narrative style is relatively richLiterariness。
literature
In literature, three tragic poets and one comic poet emerged in the classical era
The tragic poet is AeschysSophocles、Euripides。Aeschys was named the "Father of Tragedy", and his works were impassioned. Sophocles' works were solemn and peaceful. Euripides focused on realism and passionAristophaneAs the father of comedy in ancient Greece, he was humorous and drawn from civilian life.
