chemical element

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synonym element (atoms with a certain number of nuclear charges) generally refers to chemical elements

Chemical elements have the same Nuclear charge number (Intranuclear Proton number ）A generic term for a class of atoms of. From a philosophical perspective, an element is the result of qualitative change caused by quantitative change in the number of atomic protons.

The common elements are hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and carbon. By 2019, a total of 118 elements have been found, 94 of which exist on the earth. have Atomic number ≥83（ bismuth Element and its successors) Nucleus Are unstable and will decay. The 43rd and 61st elements (technetium and promethium) are not stable isotope , will decay. The heaviest existing element in nature is No. 94 plutonium^{[2 ]} 。

Chinese name: chemical element
Foreign name: Chemical elements

Discipline: Chemistry
Alias: element
Periodic table creator: Mendeleev

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Historical origin

The origin of element thought is very early, Babylon, Cuba People and ancient Egyptians once regarded water (later air and soil) as the main elements of the world, forming three Element theory 。 ancient India There are four kinds of theories about human beings. Ancient Chinese have Five Elements Theory 。

The theory of elements, that is, the theory that elements are regarded as the simplest components of all real objects in nature, has been produced since ancient times. However, in ancient times, the modern concept that elements were regarded as a specific form of matter did not exist. Whether in ancient Chinese philosophy or in ancient Indian or western philosophy, elements are regarded as an abstract and primitive form of expression of spirit, or the basic nature of matter.

ancient Greek Natural philosophy put forward the famous Four element theory 。 This was not created by Greek philosophers. The four element theory was a tradition in ancient Greece Folk belief It exists in the middle, but does not have (relatively speaking) solid Theoretical system support. Ancient Greek philosophers "borrowed" the concept of these elements as essence.

chemical element (49 sheets)

Miletus philosopher Thales The essence of all things is water, and only water is the essence. The two elements of earth and air are the condensation or thinning of water. Anaximander The essence is changed into a primitive substance (called "infinite" or "indeterminate"), and the fourth element fire is added at the same time. Four elements After the formation of this original material, it is divided into four layers in the order of soil, water, gas and fire. Fire evaporates water and produces land. Water vapor rises and surrounds the fire in a round pipe of clouds. What people see is like a celestial body, which is the hole of these pipes, so that people can see the fire inside from the hole. Formed the earliest prototype of the four elements.

Another Militarian philosopher Anaximini The gas or air is regarded as the original material, and other elements are described as Air composition 。 When the air becomes thin, it becomes fire. His argument is that air is hot when exhaled from the mouth, but cold when sprayed under pressure. Similarly, through the process of condensation, gas first turns into water, and then into soil. The difference between these elements is only the result of quantitative change, and the elements are just air condensed or thinned to different degrees.

The early philosophers, led by the Miletus School, took a single element as their essence until Empedochle (Empedocles) It is the first time to establish a philosophy system of four elements coexistence. Some people also argue that this is the first attempt to explain the traditional four elements theory in a scientific way. However, from the incomplete literature left by Empedocles, there is not enough evidence to support this theory. Empedochler used "root" in his book "On Nature" about 450 BC（ Greek : ῥ ῥ ζὤ μ α τα). Empedochler was the first person who systematically put forward the theory of four elements. He believes that all things are composed of four material elements, earth, air, water and fire. This element is eternal. The other two abstract elements, love and hate, connect or separate them.

Democritus He believes that the origin of all things is atom and void 。 Atoms are the last Indivisible Of Corpuscle 。 Everything in the universe is composed of atoms moving in the void. The so-called production of things is the combination of atoms. The atom is in perpetual motion, that is, motion is inherent to the atom itself. The void is absolute unreality Is the place where atoms move.

The widely known four element theory was later Aristotle He proposed that his theory does not include the two abstract elements of love and hate in Empedochler's theory, but believes that these four elements have the nature of two opposites that can be felt by people. Then we can infer that the origin of all things in the world is four primitive properties: cold, hot, dry and wet, and the elements are composed of these primitive properties in different proportions. Aristotle On《 On Heaven 》And other works to conceive the theory of five elements Plato In the four elements of ether (Essence, Eternity). Aristotle believed that "there is no Material separation "The void without objects". Aristotle's formal definition of "element" can be found in《 metaphysics 》。

Modern development

Whether ancient natural philosophers or Alchemy Warlocks, or ancient medical scientists, understand elements through objective things By observation or conjecture. Only in the middle of the 17th century, due to the rise of scientific experiments, accumulated some experimental data on material changes, and initially solved the concept of elements from the results of chemical analysis.

1661 British scientist Boyle He doubted the four elements of Aristotle and the three original books of alchemists, and published a pamphlet called "Sceptical Chemists".

Boyle emphasized the importance of experiment when affirming and explaining which substances are primitive and simple. He called those substances that can no longer be decomposed Simple substance , that is, the element.

After that, for a long time, elements were considered to be simple substances that could not be separated by chemical methods. This confuses or equates the two concepts of element and simple substance.

Moreover, in the later period, due to the lack of accurate Experimental materials The question of which substances should belong to chemical elements, or which substances are simple substances that can no longer be divided, has not been resolved.

Lavoisier In the book "Basic Discussion of Chemistry" published in 1789, he listed the List of chemical elements , a total of 33 chemical elements are listed, which are divided into 4 categories:

1. Simple substances in gaseous state can be considered as elements: light, heat, oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen.

2. Simple non-metallic substances that can oxidize and form acid: sulfur, phosphorus, carbon hydrochloric acid Base hydrofluoric acid Base boric acid Base.

3. Simple metal substances that can be oxidized and salified: antimony, arsenic, silver, cobalt, copper and tin. Iron, manganese, mercury, molybdenum, gold, platinum, lead, tungsten, zinc.

4. Simple soil that can form salt: lime Bitter soil , heavy soil Bauxite 、 Silica 。

It can be seen from this chemical element table that Lavoisier not only lists some non simple substances as elements, but also considers light and heat as elements.

Lavoisier listed hydrochloric acid group, hydrofluoric acid group and boric acid group as elements according to his own theory that all acids contain oxygen. hydrochloric acid He thinks it is a compound of hydrochloric acid group and oxygen, that is, it is a compound of simple substances and oxygen, so hydrochloric acid group is regarded as a chemical element by him. The same is true for hydrofluoric acid and borate groups. The reason why he added "oxidizable and acidogenic" before "simple non-metallic substances" is also in this sense. In his opinion, since it can be oxidized, it can certainly become acid.

As for the "soil" in Lavoisier's table of elements, before the 19th century, they were considered by chemical researchers at that time as elements and simple substances that can no longer be divided. At that time, "soil quality" means that simple substances with such common properties, such as alkalinity, are not easy to melt or occur when heated Chemical change It is almost insoluble in water and does not produce bubbles when encountering acid. So, lime（ calcium oxide ）It is a kind of soil, heavy soil—— Barium oxide , bitter soil-—— magnesium oxide , silica—— Silicon oxide , bauxite alumina. They belong to Alkaline soil Element or Tu elements Of oxide 。 The word "earth" also comes from this Atomic theory 。

At the beginning of the 19th century, David, a brilliant British scientist, entered the Royal Academy of British Studies and presided over scientific lectures. After the lecture, he devoted a lot of time scientific research , the first invention of electrolytic refining Metal element He was called the scientist who discovered the most elements at that time. In order to extract potassium and sodium, David was even chemical It blew out an eye.^[1]

In the early 19th century, Dalton founded the Atomic theory And start to measure Atomic weight The concept of chemical element began to be linked with the atomic weight of material composition, making each element become the same kind of atom with a certain (mass) weight.

In 1841, Bezilius According to the fact that some elements, such as sulfur and phosphorus, can exist in different forms, sulfur has Rhombic sulfur 、 Monoclinic sulfur , phosphorus White phosphorus and phosphorus , created the concept of isomorphism, that is, the same element can form different simple substances. This shows that the concepts of element and simple substance are different and different.

Founded in Mendeleev in the second half of the 19th century Periodic system of chemical elements The basic attribute of an element is its atomic weight. He believed that the differences between elements concentrated on different atomic weights. He proposed that we should distinguish the two different concepts of simple substance and element, and pointed out that Red mercuric oxide There is no metallic mercury and gaseous oxygen in the, but only elemental mercury and elemental oxygen, which behave as metals and gases only when they exist as simple substances.

However, with the development of society productivity At the end of the 19th century X-ray and radioactivity These discoveries led scientists to study the structure of atoms. 1913 British chemist Soddy propose isotope The concept of. Isotopes have the same Nuclear charge number The isomers of the same element with different atomic weights are located in chemistry periodic table of ele ments In the same grid position.

In theory, periodic table of the elements There are still many elements to be added. There should be 32 elements in the seventh cycle Not found The eighth cycle of should have 50 elements. Therefore, the element cycle needs to be constantly supplemented and improved.

periodic table of ele ments

periodic table of ele ments
cycle	ⅠA	-																	Electronic layer
one	one H hydrogen	ⅡA	-										ⅢA	ⅣA	ⅤA	ⅥA	ⅦA	two He helium	K
two	three Li lithium	four Be beryllium	-										five B boron	six C carbon	seven N nitrogen	eight O oxygen	nine F fluorine	ten Ne neon	L K
three	eleven Na sodium	twelve Mg magnesium	ⅢB	ⅣB	ⅤB	ⅥB	ⅦB	Ⅷ			ⅠB	ⅡB	thirteen Al aluminum	fourteen Si silicon	fifteen P phosphorus	sixteen S sulfur	seventeen Cl chlorine	eighteen Ar argon	M L K
four	nineteen K potassium	twenty Ca calcium	twenty-one Sc scandium	twenty-two Ti titanium	twenty-three V vanadium	twenty-four Cr chromium	twenty-five Mn manganese	twenty-six Fe iron	twenty-seven Co cobalt	twenty-eight Ni nickel	twenty-nine Cu copper	thirty Zn zinc	thirty-one Ga gallium	thirty-two Ge germanium	thirty-three As arsenic	thirty-four Se selenium	thirty-five Br bromine	thirty-six Kr krypton	N M L K
five	thirty-seven Rb rubidium	thirty-eight Sr strontium	thirty-nine Y yttrium	forty Zr zirconium	forty-one Nb niobium	forty-two Mo molybdenum	forty-three Tc Technetium	forty-four Ru ruthenium	forty-five Rh rhodium	forty-six Pd palladium	forty-seven Ag silver	forty-eight Cd cadmium	forty-nine In indium	fifty Sn tin	fifty-one Sb antimony	fifty-two Te tellurium	fifty-three I iodine	fifty-four Xe xenon	O N M L K
six	fifty-five Cs cesium	fifty-six Ba barium	57~ seventy-one Lanthanide	seventy-two Hf hafnium	seventy-three Ta tantalum	seventy-four W tungsten	seventy-five Re rhenium	seventy-six Os Osmium	seventy-seven Ir iridium	seventy-eight Pt platinum	seventy-nine Au gold	eighty Hg mercury	eighty-one Tl thallium	eighty-two Pb lead	eighty-three Bi bismuth	eighty-four Po Polonium	eighty-five At Astatine	eighty-six Rn radon	P O N M L K
seven	eighty-seven Fr Francium	eighty-eight Ra radium	89~ one hundred and three Actinide series	one hundred and four Rf 𬬻	one hundred and five Db 𬭊	one hundred and six Sg 𬭳	one hundred and seven Bh 𬭛	one hundred and eight Hs 𬭶	one hundred and nine Mt 鿏	one hundred and ten Ds 𫟼	one hundred and eleven Rg 𬬭	one hundred and twelve Cn 鿔	one hundred and thirteen Nh 鿭	one hundred and fourteen Fl 𫓧	one hundred and fifteen Mc Fixed	one hundred and sixteen Lv 𫟷	one hundred and seventeen Ts 鿬	one hundred and eighteen Og 鿫	Q P O N M L K

Lanthanide

fifty-seven

fifty-eight

fifty-nine

sixty

sixty-one

sixty-two

sixty-three

sixty-four

sixty-five

sixty-six

sixty-seven

sixty-eight

sixty-nine

seventy

seventy-one

Actinide series

eighty-nine

ninety

ninety-one

ninety-two

ninety-three

ninety-four

ninety-five

ninety-six

ninety-seven

ninety-eight

ninety-nine

one hundred

one hundred and one

Extra

one hundred and two

Nanometer

one hundred and three

Lawrencium

periodic table of ele ments It was 1869 Russia Dmitri Mendeleev, a scientist, later formed the contemporary periodic table after years of revision by several scientists. There are 118 elements in the periodic table. Each element has a number whose size is exactly equal to the number of protons in the nucleus of the element atom. This number is called Atomic number 。 The layout and nature are obvious Regularity , scientists are arranged in ascending order of atomic number Number of electronic layers Put the same elements on the same line Number of outermost electrons The same elements are placed in the same column.

The periodic table of elements has 7 periods and 17 families. Each horizontal row is called a cycle, and each vertical row is called a family. These seven cycles can be divided into Short period (1, 2, 3) and long period （4、5、6、7）。 There are 17 families, which can be divided into: alkali metal 、 alkaline-earth metal 、 Rare earth metal , titanium group elements, vanadium group elements Chromium group element , manganese group elements Ferruginous element 、 Platinum series element , currency metals, zinc group elements Boron group element 、 Carbon group element 、 Phosphorus element 、 Chalcogenide 、 Halogen group element 、 Noble gas Element. The position of the element in the periodic table not only reflects the atomic structure It also shows the gradual change of element properties and the internal relationship between elements.

In the same cycle, from left to right, the number of electron layers outside the core of the element is the same, and the number of electrons in the outermost layer increases in turn, Atomic radius Decreasing（ Zero family elements Except). The ability to lose electrons gradually weakens, and the ability to obtain electrons gradually increases, Metallicity Gradually weakened, Nonmetallic Gradually increase. The highest positive value of the element Oxidation number It increases from left to right (except for those without positive valence), and the lowest negative oxidation number increases from left to right (except for the first cycle and O and F elements in the second cycle).

In the same family, from top to bottom, the number of outermost electrons is the same, the number of extranuclear electron layers gradually increases, the atomic number increases, the element metallicity increases, and the nonmetallic property decreases.

The melting point and hardness of metals in the same family decrease from top to bottom Main group metal The hardness increases as the melting point increases from left to right.

The periodic table is of great significance. Scientists use it to find new elements and compounds.

World view

domestic

403-221 BC, China the warring states There are some theories about the origin of all things in the era, such as the Tao Te Ching of Laozi, which says: "Tao generates one, One begets Two ， Two begets Three , three things are born. " Another example《 Pipe · water ground 》It says, "Water is nothing. The origin of all things."

The theory of five elements in China is of material significance, but sometimes it is basic in nature. The Five Elements Theory of China was first developed in the late Warring States Period《 Shangshu 》The original text is: "Five elements: one is water, two is fire, three is wood, four is gold, and five is earth. Water is moistening ， The fire is burning ， Mu Yue Qu Zhi ， Jin Yuecong The soil is called farming. " The translation is: "The five elements: one is water, the other is fire, the third is wood, the fourth is gold, and the fifth is soil. The nature of water moistens things downward, and the nature of fire burns upward. The nature of wood can be straight or curved, the nature of gold can be cast, and the nature of soil can be cultivated and harvested." Later《 Mandarin 》The five elements clearly represent the primitive concept of all things. The original text is: "The man and the living things cannot continue if they are the same. He who is equal to him is called peace, so that things can grow and grow. If he is equal to the barnyard grass, it will be abandoned. Therefore, the former king mixed earth with gold, wood, water and fire to create hundreds of things." The translation is: "Harmony is the principle of creating things, and the same cannot continue forever. Combining many different things to make them balanced is called harmony, so it can make the material rich and grow up. If the same things are added together, they will be abandoned. Therefore, the emperors of the past combined earth with gold, wood, water and fire to create everything. "

Western natural school

In the 13th and 14th centuries, western alchemists supplemented the elements proposed by Aristotle, adding three elements: Mercury , sulfur and salt. These are what alchemists call the Three Primitives. However, what they said about mercury, sulfur and salt are just the properties of substances: mercury is the embodiment of metal properties, and sulfur is flammability And non-metallic properties, salt is Solubility The embodiment of.

By the 16th century, Switzerland The doctor Paracels applied the three principles of alchemists to his medicine. He proposed that substance is composed of three elements salt (body), mercury (soul) and sulfur (spirit) in different proportions, and the cause of disease is Organism One of the above three elements is missing from. In order to cure diseases, we should inject the missing elements into the human body.

Element Discovery Table
Atomic number	Element symbol	Element Name	Relative atomic mass	Discoverer
one	H	hydrogen	1.00794（7）	In 1766, British aristocrat Henry Cavendish (1731-1810) discovered
two	He	helium	4.002602（2）	In 1868, French astronomer Jean Sen (1824-1907) and British astronomer Norman Loecker (1836-1920) discovered the solar spectrum.
three	Li	lithium	6.941（2）	In 1817, the Swede John Owens Afweisen (1792-1841) discovered that
four	Be	beryllium	9.012182（3）	In 1798, the French Louis Nicolas Walkeran (1763-1829) discovered that
five	B	boron	10.811（7）	In 1808, French Joseph Louis Lussac (1788-1850) and French Louis Tanner (1777-1857) jointly discovered that David, the British chemist, was only nine days late in publishing
six	C	carbon	twelve point zero one one	In 1796, the British chemist Smithsonian Tenant (1761-1815) found that diamonds were composed of carbon atoms
seven	N	nitrogen	fourteen point zero zero seven	In 1772, Swedish chemist Carl William Scheler, French chemist Lavagne and Scottish chemist Daniel Rutherford (1749-1819) discovered nitrogen at the same time
eight	O	oxygen	fifteen point nine nine nine	In 1771, it was discovered by Priestley in England and Scheler in Sweden; The discovery of ancient Chinese scientist Ma He (controversial)
nine	F	fluorine	eighteen point nine nine eight	In 1786, chemists predicted the existence of fluorine, which was confirmed in 1886 by French chemist Moissand who obtained fluorine by electrolysis
ten	Ne	neon	twenty point one seven	In 1898, British chemists Ramsey and Rayleigh found that
eleven	Na	sodium	twenty-two point nine eight nine eight	In 1807, David, a British chemist, discovered and made it by electrolysis
twelve	Mg	magnesium	twenty-four point three zero five	In 1808, David, a British chemist, discovered and made it by electrolysis
thirteen	Al	aluminum	twenty-six point nine eight two	In 1825, H C. Oster uses anhydrous aluminum chloride and potassium amalgam to evaporate the mercury
fourteen	Si	silicon	twenty-eight point zero eight five	In 1823, Swedish chemist Bezenius discovered that it was an element
fifteen	P	phosphorus	thirty point nine seven four	In 1669, German Polant discovered that
sixteen	S	sulfur	thirty-two point zero six	The ancients found it (French Lavoisier identified it as an element)
seventeen	Cl	chlorine	thirty-five point four five three	In 1774, the Swedish chemist Scheler discovered chlorine. In 1810, David of England pointed out that it was an element
eighteen	Ar	argon	thirty-nine point nine four	In 1894, British chemists Rayleigh and Lemsey found that
nineteen	K	potassium	thirty-nine point zero nine eight	In 1807, David, a British chemist, discovered and made it by electrolysis
twenty	Ca	calcium	forty point zero eight	In 1808, David, a British chemist, discovered and made it by electrolysis
twenty-one	Sc	scandium	forty-four point nine five six	In 1879, Nielsen, a Swede, discovered that
twenty-two	Ti	titanium	forty-seven point nine	In 1791, Mark Gregor, an Englishman, found it in ores
twenty-three	V	vanadium	fifty point nine four	In 1831, when Sefstemu, Sweden, was studying galena, he found that in 1867, Roster, England, first made vanadium
twenty-four	Cr	chromium	fifty-one point nine nine six	In 1797, Louis Nicolas Walkeland of France discovered that
twenty-five	Mn	manganese	fifty-four point nine three eight	In 1774, Scheler, Sweden, discovered pyrolusite
twenty-six	Fe	iron	fifty-five point eight four five	Ancient discovery
twenty-seven	Co	cobalt	fifty-eight point nine three three two	In 1753, Brandt found that
twenty-eight	Ni	nickel	fifty-eight point six nine	The ancient Chinese discovered and used it. In 1751, Swedish mineralogist Klanstadt first thought it was an element
twenty-nine	Cu	copper	sixty-three point five four	Ancient discovery
thirty	Zn	zinc	sixty-five point three eight	Ancient Chinese Discoveries
thirty-one	Ga	gallium	sixty-nine point seven two	In 1875, when studying sphalerite, Buwabodeland, France, discovered
thirty-two	Ge	germanium	seventy-two point five	In 1885, Winkler, Germany, discovered that
thirty-three	As	arsenic	seventy-four point nine two two	In 317 AD, Gehong in China was refined from realgar, turpentine and saltpeter, which was later recognized as a new element by Lavoisier in France
thirty-four	Se	selenium	seventy-eight point nine	In 1817, Betzenius, Sweden, discovered
thirty-five	Br	bromine	seventy-nine point nine zero four	In 1824, Paris discovered that
thirty-six	Kr	krypton	eighty-three point eight	In 1898, Lemsey and Riley found that
thirty-seven	Rb	rubidium	eighty-five point four six seven	In 1860, German Bunsen and Kirchhoff found that
thirty-eight	Sr	strontium	eighty-seven point six two	In 1808, David, a British chemist, discovered and made it by electrolysis
thirty-nine	Y	yttrium	eighty-eight point nine zero six	In 1789, it was discovered in Kraprut, Germany
forty	Zr	zirconium	ninety-one point two two	In 1789, the German chemist Klaplos found in zircon
forty-one	Nb	niobium	ninety-two point nine zero six four	In 1801, British chemist Hachett found that
forty-two	Mo	molybdenum	ninety-five point nine four	In 1778, Swedish Scheler discovered that in 1883, the Swede Gelm was the first one to make
forty-three	Tc	Technetium	ninety-seven point nine zero seven	In 1937, Lawrence of the United States first obtained it with a cyclotron, which was identified as a new element by Perriel of Italy and Siberg of the United States. It is the first artificial element
forty-four	Ru	ruthenium	one hundred and one point one	In 1827, Russia Ozan discovered it in the platinum mine, and in 1844, Russia Klaus also discovered it in the gold mine of Ukraine and confirmed it as a new element
forty-five	Rh	rhodium	one hundred and two point nine zero six	In 1803, Wollaston, England, discovered and separated crude platinum
forty-six	Pd	palladium	one hundred and six point four two	In 1803, Wollaston, England, discovered and separated crude platinum
forty-seven	Ag	silver	one hundred and seven point eight six eight	Ancient discovery
forty-eight	Cd	cadmium	one hundred and twelve point four one	In 1817, F. Strommel found it in zinc carbonate
forty-nine	In	indium	one hundred and fourteen point eight two	In 1863, Richter and Lex of Germany found that
fifty	Sn	tin	one hundred and eighteen point six	Ancient discovery
fifty-one	Sb	antimony	one hundred and twenty-one point seven	Ancient discovery
fifty-two	Te	tellurium	one hundred and twenty-seven point six	In 1782, F.J. Miller Reichenstein discovered the gold bearing ore
fifty-three	I	iodine	one hundred and twenty-six point nine zero five	In 1814, it was discovered in Kuwatwa, France (1777-1838), and later confirmed as a new element by David, England, and Guy Lussac, France
fifty-four	Xe	xenon	one hundred and thirty-one point three	In 1898, Ramsey and Rayleigh found that
fifty-five	Cs	cesium	one hundred and thirty-two point nine zero five	In 1860, German Bunsen and Kirchhoff found that
fifty-six	Ba	barium	one hundred and thirty-seven point three three	In 1808, British chemist David discovered and made
57~71	La～Lu	Lanthanide	-	-
fifty-seven	La	lanthanum	one hundred and thirty-eight point nine	In 1839, Moshangir (1797-1858), Sweden, found it in crude cerium nitrate
fifty-eight	Ce	cerium	one hundred and forty point one	In 1803, Bertenius of Sweden, Klaprault of Germany, and Hisinger of Sweden found
fifty-nine	Pr	praseodymium	one hundred and forty point nine	In 1885, Wiesbar (1858-1929) of Austria separated rose red neodymium salt and green pradymium salt from pradymium neodymium mixture
sixty	Nd	neodymium	one hundred and forty-four point two	In 1885, Wiesbar (1858-1929) of Austria separated rose red neodymium salt and green pradymium salt from pradymium neodymium mixture
sixty-one	Pm	Promethium	（147）	In 1945, Malinski, Glendening and Corinin of the United States discovered and separated the uranium fission products from the atomic reactor
sixty-two	Sm	samarium	one hundred and fifty point three	In 1879, it was discovered by Bouboudeland in France
sixty-three	Eu	europium	one hundred and fifty-one point nine six	In 1896, de Marge of France discovered
sixty-four	Gd	gadolinium	one hundred and fifty-seven point two five	In 1880, the Swiss Mariniak found it in the Samarsk ore. In 1886, pure gadolinium was produced in Buwabordran, France
sixty-five	Tb	terbium	one hundred and fifty-eight point nine	In 1843, it was discovered by Mossander in Sweden and officially named in 1877
sixty-six	Dy	dysprosium	one hundred and sixty-two point five	In 1886, it was discovered by Bouvabodeland in France that pure dysprosium was made in Juerban, France, in 1906
sixty-seven	Ho	holmium	one hundred and sixty-four point nine	In 1879, Clive, Sweden, separated from erbium soil and found that
sixty-eight	Er	erbium	one hundred and sixty-seven point two	In 1843, Modsaner, Sweden, found it in yttrium soil by the method of graded precipitation
sixty-nine	Tm	Thulium	one hundred and sixty-eight point nine	In 1879, Clive, Sweden, separated from erbium soil and found that
seventy	Yb	Ytterbium	one hundred and seventy-three point zero four	In 1878, it was discovered in Mariniac, Switzerland
seventy-one	Lu	Lutetium	one hundred and seventy-four point nine six seven	In 1907, it was discovered from ytterbium soil in Welsbard, Austria and Juerban, France
seventy-two	Hf	hafnium	one hundred and seventy-eight point four	In 1923, Swedish chemist Hervey and Dutch physicist Coster found that
seventy-three	Ta	tantalum	one hundred and eighty point nine four seven	In 1802, Sweden Aikebao found that in 1844, Germany Ross first separated niobium and tantalum
seventy-four	W	tungsten	one hundred and eighty-three point eight	In 1781, Swedish Scheler discovered that
seventy-five	Re	rhenium	one hundred and eighty-six point two zero seven	In 1925, German Geochemists and their wife Nordak discovered that
seventy-six	Os	Osmium	one hundred and ninety point two	In 1803, British chemist Tennant and others found that crude platinum was dissolved in aqua regia
seventy-seven	Ir	iridium	one hundred and ninety-two point two	In 1803, British chemist Tennant and others found that crude platinum was dissolved in aqua regia
seventy-eight	Pt	platinum	one hundred and ninety-five point zero eight	In 1735, Antonio Uloa of Spain found it in the Pingtuo River gold mine. In 1748, the British chemist W. Watson confirmed it as a new element
seventy-nine	Au	gold	one hundred and ninety-six point nine six seven	Ancient discovery
eighty	Hg	mercury	two hundred point five	Discovered by the ancient Greeks
eighty-one	Tl	thallium	two hundred and four point three	In 1861, Crookes in England found that
eighty-two	Pb	lead	two hundred and seven point two	Ancient discovery
eighty-three	Bi	bismuth	two hundred and eight point nine eight	In 1450, German Valentine found
eighty-four	Po	Polonium	（209）	In 1898, French Pierre Curie and his wife discovered that
eighty-five	At	Astatine	（201）	In 1940, American chemists Seagrey, Corson and others found and obtained
eighty-six	Rn	radon	（222）	In 1903, when the British Lemsey carefully observed and studied the laser gas, he found that
eighty-seven	Fr	Francium	（223）	In 1939, French chemist Perry (female) accidentally discovered that
eighty-eight	Ra	radium	two hundred and twenty-six point zero three	In 1898, French chemist Pierre Curie and his wife discovered that in 1910, Madame Curie made the first piece of metal radium
89~103	Ac～Lr	Actinide series	-	-
eighty-nine	Ac	Actinium	（227）	In 1899, A 50. De Beer discovered and separated from uranium slag
ninety	Th	thorium	two hundred and thirty-two	In 1828, Betzenius, Sweden, discovered
ninety-one	Pa	Protactinium	231.03588（2）	In 1917, F. Sody, J. Gladstone, D. Hahn and L. Maitner respectively discovered
ninety-two	U	uranium	two hundred and thirty-eight	In 1789, it was discovered by Klaprault (1743-1817) in Germany that metallic uranium was only made in 1842
ninety-three	Np	Neptunium	two hundred and thirty-seven point zero five	In 1940, Abelson and Macmillan of the United States made it by artificial nuclear reaction
ninety-four	Pu	plutonium	two hundred and forty-four point zero six	In 1940, Siberg, Wall and Kennedy of the United States discovered in the uranium mine
ninety-five	Am	Americium	（243）	In 1944, Siberg and Giosso of the United States made it by bombarding plutonium atoms with protons
ninety-six	Cm	Curium	（247）	In 1944, it was artificially made by Siberg and Giosso in the United States
ninety-seven	Bk	Berkeleton	（247）	1949, Ibid
ninety-eight	Cf	Californium	（251）	1950, ibid
ninety-nine	Es	Einsteinium	two hundred and fifty-two point zero eight	In 1952, Giosso observed the atomic "debris" produced by the hydrogen bomb explosion
one hundred	Fm	Of	two hundred and fifty-seven point one zero	1952 Ibid
one hundred and one	Md	Extra	two hundred and fifty-eight point one zero	In 1955, Giosso et al. of the United States made it by bombarding einsteinium with helium nuclei
one hundred and two	No	Nanometer	two hundred and fifty-nine point one zero	In 1958, the University of California in the United States cooperated with the Nobel Institute in Sweden to produce curium by carbon ion bombardment
one hundred and three	Lr	Lawrencium	two hundred and sixty-two	In 1961, scientists from the University of California, USA, bombarded californium with boron atoms
one hundred and four	Rf	𬬻	two hundred and sixty-one point one one	In 1964, the scientific teams led by Vlyorov of Russia and Giosso of the United States made them manually
one hundred and five	Db	𬭊	two hundred and sixty-two point one one	1967, Ibid
one hundred and six	Sg	𬭳	two hundred and sixty-three point one two	In 1974, Russian Vlyorov and others made it by bombarding the lead core with chromium, and in the same year, American Giosso, Siberg and others made it by other methods
one hundred and seven	Bh	𬭛	two hundred and sixty-four point one two	Found in 1981, named by Danish physicist Paul
one hundred and eight	Hs	𬭶	two hundred and seventy-three	Discovered in 1984
one hundred and nine	Mt	鿏	two hundred and sixty-eight	In August 1982, element 109 was synthesized in the particle accelerator with Fe-58 and Bismuth-209 by the Darmstadt Heavy Ion Research Association of the Federal Republic of Germany
one hundred and ten	Ds	𫟼	（269）	On November 9, 1994, it was found by the Heavy Ion Research Institute in Darmstadt, Germany
one hundred and eleven	Rg	𬬭	（272）	In 1994, the international research team led by Professor Silgurd Hoffmann of the German Heavy Ion Research Center first found that
one hundred and twelve	Cn	鿔	（277）	Synthesized in 1996
one hundred and thirteen	Nh	鿭	（278）	On September 28, 2004, it was discovered by the Japanese Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Lanzhou Institute of Modern Physics, Chinese University, and Institute of High Energy, Chinese Academy of Sciences
one hundred and fourteen	Fl	𫓧	（289）	In 2000, it was synthesized in Russia's Vlyorov Nuclear Reaction Laboratory
one hundred and fifteen	Mc	Fixed	（288）	On February 2, 2004, the scientific team jointly formed by the Joint Nuclear Research Institute in Dubna, Russia and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in the United States successfully synthesized
one hundred and sixteen	Lv	𫟷	（289）	In 2004, it was synthesized by Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
one hundred and seventeen	Ts	鿬	（291）	In 2010, Russia's Dubna Joint Nuclear Research Institute successfully synthesized for the first time, and again in 2012
one hundred and eighteen	Og	鿫	（294）	Jointly synthesized by scientists from Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory of the United States and the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna, Russia

isotope

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Later, British physicists Aston At the beginning of 1921, it was proved that most chemical elements had different isotopes. Of an element Atomic weight Isotope mass exists in nature according to isotope mass fraction Solved average value 。

During this same period, British physicists moseley In 1913, the cathode made of various elements was systematically studied X-ray It indicates that the characteristic of the element is the nuclear charge number of the atom of the element, which is the atomic number determined later.

In this way, it is obviously unreasonable to regard isotopes as several different individual elements. Because the characteristic of an element's atom is not its atomic weight, but its nuclear charge.

In 1923, the International Atomic Weight Commission decided that chemical elements are based on Nucleus The number of electric charges is a method of classifying atoms. A type of atom with the same number of nuclear charges is called an element.

Element development

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Historical development

years	Element Name	Discoverer
ancient	carbon	\
ancient	sulfur	\
ancient	iron	\
ancient	copper	\
ancient	zinc	\
ancient	silver	\
ancient	tin	\
ancient	antimony	\
ancient	gold	\
ancient	mercury	\
ancient	lead	\
one thousand two hundred and fifty	arsenic	A. Magnus, 1193-1280
one thousand six hundred and sixty-nine	phosphorus	H.Brand
one thousand seven hundred and thirty-five	platinum	D.A.de Ulloa (1716-1795)
one thousand seven hundred and fifty-one	nickel	A.F. Cronsted, 1722-1765
one thousand seven hundred and fifty-three	bismuth	C.J. Geoffory
one thousand seven hundred and fifty-three	cobalt	G. Brandt (Sweden) 1694-1768
one thousand seven hundred and sixty-six	hydrogen	H. Cavendish (1731-1810)
one thousand seven hundred and seventy-two	nitrogen	D. Rutherford (1749-1819)
one thousand seven hundred and seventy-four	oxygen	Priestley (1733-1804)
one thousand seven hundred and seventy-four	chlorine	(Sweden) C.W. Scheele, 1742-1780
one thousand seven hundred and seventy-four	manganese	(Sweden) J.G. Gahn, 1745-1818
one thousand seven hundred and seventy-eight	molybdenum	P.J. Hjelm, 1746-1813 (Sweden)
one thousand seven hundred and eighty-two	tellurium	F. J. M ü ller, 1740-1825
one thousand seven hundred and eighty-three	tungsten	(West) De El huyar brothers
one thousand seven hundred and eighty-nine	beryllium	L.N. Vauquelin
one thousand seven hundred and eighty-nine	zirconium	M.H. Klaproth, 1743-1817
one thousand seven hundred and eighty-nine	uranium	M.H. Klaproth
one thousand seven hundred and ninety-one	titanium	Gregor (1762-1817)
one thousand seven hundred and ninety-four	yttrium	(Finland) J. Gadolin (1760-1852)
one thousand seven hundred and ninety-eight	chromium	L.N. Vauquelin, 1763-1829
one thousand eight hundred and one	niobium	C. Hatchett (1765-1847)
one thousand eight hundred and two	tantalum	A.G. Ekeberg, 1767-1813
one thousand eight hundred and three	rhodium	W.H. Wollaston (1766-1828)
one thousand eight hundred and three	palladium	W.H. Wollaston
one thousand eight hundred and three	cerium	(Germany) M.H. Klaproth, etc
one thousand eight hundred and four	iridium	S. Tennant
one thousand eight hundred and four	Osmium	S. Tennant (1761-1815)
one thousand eight hundred and seven	boron	J.L. Gay Lussac, 1778-1850, etc
one thousand eight hundred and seven	sodium	David (1778-1829)
one thousand eight hundred and seven	potassium	H. Davy
one thousand eight hundred and eight	magnesium	H. Davy
one thousand eight hundred and eight	calcium	H. Davy et al
one thousand eight hundred and eight	strontium	H. Davy
one thousand eight hundred and eight	barium	H. Davy
one thousand eight hundred and eleven	iodine	J.B. Courtois, 1777-1838
one thousand eight hundred and seventeen	lithium	J.A. Alfredson (Sweden), 1792-1841
one thousand eight hundred and seventeen	cadmium	F. Stromeyer, 1776-1835
one thousand eight hundred and eighteen	selenium	(Sweden) J.J. Berzelius (1779-1848)
one thousand eight hundred and twenty-three	silicon	J.J. Berzelius (Sweden)
one thousand eight hundred and twenty-four	bromine	A.J. Balard, 1802-1876
one thousand eight hundred and twenty-seven	aluminum	H.C. Oersted (1777-1851)
one thousand eight hundred and twenty-eight	thorium	J.J. Berzelius (Sweden)
one thousand eight hundred and thirty	vanadium	(Sweden) N.G. Sefstrom, 1787-1845
one thousand eight hundred and thirty-nine	lanthanum	C.G. Mosander, 1797-1858 (Sweden)
one thousand eight hundred and forty-three	terbium	C.G. Mosander (Sweden)
one thousand eight hundred and forty-three	erbium	C.G. Mosander (Sweden)
one thousand eight hundred and forty-four	ruthenium	K.K.Klaus, 1796-1864
one thousand eight hundred and sixty	cesium	(Germany) Bunsen (R.W. Bunsen, 1811-1899), etc
one thousand eight hundred and sixty-one	rubidium	(Germany) R.W. Bunsen, etc
one thousand eight hundred and sixty-one	thallium	(UK) W. Brookes (1832-1919)
one thousand eight hundred and sixty-three	indium	Reich (Germany), 1799-1882, etc
one thousand eight hundred and seventy-five	gallium	L. de Boisbaudran (1838-1912)
one thousand eight hundred and seventy-eight	Ytterbium	J.C.G. Marignac (Switzerland)
one thousand eight hundred and seventy-nine	scandium	L.F. Nilson (Sweden), 1840-1899
one thousand eight hundred and seventy-nine	samarium	L. de Boisbaudran
one thousand eight hundred and seventy-nine	holmium	(Sweden) P.T. Cleve (1840-1905)
one thousand eight hundred and seventy-nine	Thulium	(Sweden) P.T. Cleve (1840-1905)
one thousand eight hundred and eighty	gadolinium	J.C.G. Marignac (Switzerland), 1817-1894
one thousand eight hundred and eighty-five	praseodymium	B.A.von Weisbach (1858-1929)
one thousand eight hundred and eighty-five	neodymium	B.A.von Weisbach
one thousand eight hundred and eighty-six	fluorine	H. Moissan, 1852-1907
one thousand eight hundred and eighty-six	germanium	C.A. Winkler, 1838-1904
one thousand eight hundred and eighty-six	dysprosium	L. de Boisbaudran
one thousand eight hundred and ninety-four	argon	R.J.S. Rayleigh (1842-1919), etc
one thousand eight hundred and ninety-five	helium	Ramsay (1852-1916)
one thousand eight hundred and ninety-eight	Polonium	Marie Curie (1867-1934) (born in Poland), etc
one thousand eight hundred and ninety-eight	radium	Marie Curie et al
one thousand eight hundred and ninety-eight	neon	W. Ramsay et al
one thousand eight hundred and ninety-eight	krypton	W. Ramsay et al
one thousand eight hundred and ninety-eight	xenon	W. Ramsay et al
one thousand eight hundred and ninety-nine	Actinium	A.L. Debierne (1874-1949)
one thousand and nine hundred	radon	F.E. Dorn
one thousand nine hundred and one	europium	E.A. Demaroay, 1852-1904
one thousand nine hundred and five	Lutetium	(France) Urbain （G.Urbain，1872-1938）
one thousand nine hundred and thirteen	Protactinium	Poland Fayans （K.Fajans，1887-1975）
one thousand nine hundred and twenty-three	hafnium	(Hungary) G. von Hevesey et al
one thousand nine hundred and twenty-five	rhenium	(Germany) W.Noddack, etc
one thousand nine hundred and thirty-seven	Technetium	(Italy) B. Segr é et al
one thousand nine hundred and thirty-nine	Francium	M.M.Perey
one thousand nine hundred and thirty-nine	Neptunium	E.M. McMillan (1907-1991), etc
one thousand nine hundred and forty	Astatine	D.R. Corson et al
one thousand nine hundred and forty	plutonium	G.T. Seaborg, 1912-1999, etc
one thousand nine hundred and forty-seven	Promethium	J.A. Marinsky, 1919 -, et al

Modern development

Of course, the process of understanding chemical elements has not ended. In current chemistry molecular structure It is expected that the research on nuclear particles in physics will bring new understanding of chemical elements. Up to 2007, a total of 118 elements have been found, 94 of which exist on the earth.

The 113 to 118 superheavy elements were discovered and named by scientists from Japan, Russia, the United States and other countries around 2016. Most of these new elements were discovered in accelerators or with the help of nuclear reactors. The synthesis of new elements requires new production methods, and the experimental conditions need to be improved. The researchers believe that further improving the beam intensity may be the most effective solution at present. At present, Germany and the United States are building major scientific projects, Russia has built an overweight factory, and Japan has further improved its accelerator performance, with a view to achieving a breakthrough first and synthesizing element 119.^[3]

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