According to the design of the International Phonetic Alphabet, it can only distinguish the opposite components of the following sound quality in the spoken language:Phoneme, intonation, and the separation of words and syllables.To representInterdental sound(or doubledental）And byCleft lip and palateAnother set of widely used sound qualityIPA Extensions System.[2]
The International Phonetic Alphabet follows the principle of "one note, one note, one sound", and was originally used toIndo EuropeanLanguageAfricaPronunciation of language, etc.After years of developmentChinese Languagescholarbetter known as YR. ChaoWith the efforts of others, the International Phonetic Alphabet has been gradually improved, which can bechineseAnd other oriental languages.[3]
Until 2005, the International Phonetic Alphabet had 107 separate letters and 56Diacritical markAnd superSegmentalComposition.Occasionally, the International Phonetic Society will add or delete some symbols, or modify some symbols.[4]
The "International Phonetic Alphabet" used in English is only a part of the International Phonetic Alphabet used in English. SeeDavid Harry Entries.
Chinese name
international phonetic alphabet
Foreign name
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)
Alias
International Phonetic Alphabet
Principles
One note, one note, one note
Purpose
Mark the pronunciation of various languages in the world
In 1886, FrancelinguistA group of English and French language teachers led by Paul Passy formed an association, which aims to create a set of transcription and recordshuman language This is the predecessor of the International Phonetic Society after 1897.
The phonetic alphabet they originally used was based on the spelling reform, that is, Romic alphabet. In order to make it available in other languages, the sound value represented by the symbol is allowed to change with the change of language.For example, [ʃ] was originally expressed as "sh" in English, but "ch" in French.
However, in 1888, these phonetic alphabets were revised into unified symbols in all languages and published in the Phonics Teacher（“International Voice Association”It is the first international phonetic alphabet in history and has become the basis for all future revisions.The idea of developing the International Phonetic Alphabet was first proposed by Otto Jespersen in a letter to Paul Pars.Later, Alexander John Ellis, Henry SweetDaniel Jones (Daniel Jones) and Passy.
The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) was created by British and French scholars and is mainly used for markingIndo EuropeanLanguage, African language and someminority language。After its publication, it was relatively popular in European linguistic circles.Most Americans still use their own study of American Indian symbols.Some sounds in Chinese dialects cannot be included in this table.For example: Mandarinapical vowel, isSwedenSinologistBernhard KarlgrenUpdated;Wu dialectMost palatalized consonants are phonologistsbetter known as YR. ChaoProposed.In addition, there are only 8 kinds of tone symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet, which describes the researchTonal languageIt is not enough.Zhao Yuanren, a Chinese linguist, put forward the Latin alphabet of tone, which was published in the Voice Teacher in 1930 and is called "tone alphabet".It is applicable to all tone languages and has been adopted by many international mathematicians.
Since its establishment, the International Phonetic Alphabet has undergone many revisions.After major revision and expansion in 1900 and 1932, the International Phonetic Alphabet remained unchanged until the Kiel Conference of the International Phonetic Society in 1989.
In 1993, a minor revision was made to add half open central rounded lip vowels and delete the Qingnei plosivesSpecial symbols。A revision in May 2005 added a lip and teeth flashing sound, which is very common in African languages.In addition to the addition and subtraction of symbols, the International Phonetic Alphabet is mostly consistent in other symbols, classifications and fonts.
After several revisions, the current version is the version revised in 2020.[5]
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Based on the Latin alphabet, but due to the great difference in human voice, the limited Latin alphabet is far from enough, so we changed the font and borrowed letters from other languages to supplement.In pronunciation, most symbols are still read to take care of the habitLatinOr other languages.
Therefore, the International Phonetic Alphabet formallylatin alphabetRomana lowercase letterPrintedMainly, such as: [a] [b] [c], etc.When it is not enough, the following methods can be used to supplement it:
(2) Deformation or inversion of Latin letters, such as: [ə] (inverted e, another word is the Cyrillic Feslav alphabet Schwa), deformation [f]（Curl tailc）、[ɖ] (right bent tail d), [ŋ] (long right leg n), [ʃ] (elongated s), etc.
(3) Borrow letters from other languages, for example: [ε]（Greek）, [θ] (Greek), [ɫ] (Polish), [ø]（Danish）、[ç]（Catalan）Etc.
(4) New letters, such as [ɤ], etc.
(5) Add symbols on letters, such as [ʉ] (underlined u), etc.
In the International Phonetic Alphabet, square brackets [] or double slash//are used (see below for details), which is different from ordinary letters.
In addition, for the convenience of recording, the International Phonetic Association also stipulates a set of "diacritical marks (additional symbols)" for some important phonetic concomitants.For example, the sign "~" above the letter means nasal (ẽ), strong air supply (small in the upper right cornerh）, p '(weakly aspirated), a: (full length a), a ˑ (half length a), etc.General symbols and special symbols are no longer cited.
Note: Due toBaidu EncyclopediaFor font restrictions, see IPA for specific character tableOfficial websiteOr related books.All IPA characters can be found on the website.[6]
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The International Phonetic Alphabet strictly follows the principle of "one note, one note, one sound", that is, "onephonemeOne symbol, one symbol, one phoneme ".
In languages that use pinyin schemes, the same letter often has several pronunciations in different words.For example: Englishlike"I" in and lit, marked with the International Phonetic Alphabet, are [a 618̯] and [618̯] respectively。Another example: MandarinChinese PinyinBan and a in bang are [a] and [∨] in the International Phonetic Alphabet (see“Comparison Table of Chinese Phonetic Alphabet and International Phonetic Alphabet”Entry).
In addition, in different languages, the same sound has differentSpelling。For example: sh in English, ch in French, sch in GermanPolishSzCzechS, in fact, is the [ʃ] sound of the International Phonetic Alphabet.
These are internationalPhonemeIts advantage is that it can record and distinguish phonetics more scientifically and accurately (after 2005, there are 72 consonants and 32 vowels on the traffic list, which is enough for marking phonetics).The arrangement of the International Phonetic Alphabet is easy to analyze and master (consonants roughly followArticulatory siteandPronunciation methodTo determine the vertical and horizontal coordinates, and the vowels areLingual positionThe position is determined from front to back.
The Pronunciation of the English Word "international" in Different English Dialects
narrow transcription
To record a voice, the initial method should benarrow transcription。The so-called strict stylePhonetic transcriptionThat is, record what phonemes appear and what accompanying phenomena exist.No matter what phoneme and any accompanying phenomenon, that is, the most faithful and detailed recording of the original appearance of the voice.Therefore, the strict phonetic notation is also called "phoneme phonetic notation".For example:Modern ChineseMedium, lowerdorsal vowelIt can be summarized as aPhoneme/A/, if strict phonetic notation is used, it must be marked as [ε], [ᴀ], [a], [∨], [œ], [∨], etc.Its feature is that each phoneme actually existing in a language or dialect (whether they belong to the same phoneme or not) is marked with a specific phonetic symbol.Therefore, there are many phonetic symbols used in Yan style phonetic notation, and the description of pronunciation is very detailed, mostly in the investigationFirst hand materialsIt is only used occasionally in other occasions.narrow transcriptionusesquare brackets[] means.
Broad Accent
so-calledBroad AccentBased on the strict phonetic notationPhoneme system, and then mark the voice by phoneme, that is, only remember phoneme, not phonemePhonemic variantAnd other non essential concomitant phenomena.Therefore, the wide form pronunciation is also called“phonemic notation”。For example, in modern Chinese,Lingual surfaceLow vowels include [ε], [ᴀ], [a], [ᴀ], and so on. It is only necessary to use/a/to use the wide form notation.By using the broad form of phonetic notation, the number of phonetic symbols can be limited to a limited range, so that the number ofPhonologyThe reflection is concise and clear.broad transcriptionUse double slash//to indicate.
A very complete international font, includinglatin alphabet、Greek alphabetandSlavic alphabet, looks like Roman, and in Windows, it is "Times New Roman"——Times New Roman）, including normal bodyItalicAnd bold.In addition to including the complete International Phonetic AlphabetCharacterIn addition, the tone symbols and the latest lip, teeth andPlay tonePhonics, and pre integrationAdditional symbolsAnd many non-standard phonetic symbols.
Symbol table
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consonant
Main entry: consonant
Note: "-" means impossible pronunciation;The blank space indicates that there is no such sound in the known language.
AffricateIt can be indicated by adding a tie bar above the letter.The affricate can also be usedList of words spelled withTo mark, but internationalphoneticsHowever, the association has no longer adopted this method, because if this method is used, a large number of new words will be required to express all affrications.In addition to the use of connecting arcs, sometimes the superscript method used to mark consonant removal can also be used to mark affricates. For example, t ˢ can represent t ͡ s, and k ˣ can represent k ͡ x.While c and ɟ, which were originally used to express hard jaw plosives, can sometimes be used as convenient expressions of t ͡ and d ͡ or other similar affricates, even the official publications published by the International Phonetic Association also have such expressions, so we must be careful when interpreting their meanings.
Affricate
Tie bar
List of words spelled with
describe
t͡s
ʦ
Gingival tamponade fricative
d͡z
ʣ
Turbid gingival affrication
t͡ʃ
ʧ
Voiceless palato-alveolar affricate
d͡ʒ
ʤ
Voiced palato-alveolar affricate
t͡ɕ
ʨ
Gingival clearing jaw plug fricative
d͡ʑ
ʥ
Voiced gingival palatal affricate
t͡ɬ
–
Gingival clearing frontier fricative
k͡p
–
Clear Lip Soft Jaw Burst
ɡ͡b
–
Voiced lip and soft jaw plosive
ŋ͡m
–
Labial soft palate nasality
ɡ͡ɣ
–
Voiced soft palatal affricate
Note: When the browser uses Arial Unicode MS to render IPA, such symbols willProgram errorIf there is an error, the display effect will be better: ts ͡,tʃ͡, tɕ͡, dz͡, dʒ͡, dʑ͡, tɬ͡, kp͡, ɡb͡, ŋm͡。
Tongue sounds are usually voiceless,DullnessThen add ̭ below;The internal plosive sound is generally voiced, and the voiceless sound is added with ̥ below;The spurt sound can only be pure.
vowel
Vowel Table One
Vowel Table Two
Vowel Table Three
The left picture symbolically shows the pronunciation part of the mouth of a person facing the left opening.The more left, the more forward the tongue extends, and the more upward, the smaller the mouth opens——In pairs of symbols, there arerounded soundAnd non-circular lips.The right isrounded vowel, the left is a non-circular lip vowel.
“Vowel chart”SameLeft view。Generally speaking, to describe a vowel from the perspective of pronunciation, there are three main parameters:
(1) The height of tongue position.From top to bottom in the figure, the corresponding tongue position is from high to low, that isapertureSize of.
(2) The anterior and posterior position of the tongue.From left to right, the figure corresponds to the front to back of the tongue position.
(3) The lips are rounded.The two vowels at the same position in the picture have the same tongue position, but the difference lies in the lip shape: on the left isunrounded vowels On the right is a round lip vowel.
For example, [a], [i], [u] arehuman language The three most common vowels in.According to the vowel chart, [a] isunrounded Beforelow vowel, [i] is the front of the non round lipHigh vowel, [u] is the rear high vowel of the round lip.Readers can try to pronounce these three vowels and feel the position of the tongue and the shape of the lips.These three vowels are connected with [∨] to form the pronunciation range of human vowels. The trapezoid in the vowel tongue table includes all vowels that can be pronounced.
In addition to the "consonant table" and "vowel chart", there are several other symbol tables in the International Phonetic Alphabet Scheme, but the arrangement is messy, unlike the "consonant table" and "vowel chart", which can reflect the systematic nature of speech, so it will not be introduced here.
Tongue position map of vowel pronunciation
DiphthongIt is usually represented by disyllabic symbols, such as "a 618̯".However, tie bar is also used, especially when it is difficult to accurately indicate whether the vowel is on glide or off glide: "a ͡ ɪ", "o ͜ e".
table of vowels
vowel
front
Before
Central
After
after
-
unrounded
rounded sound
unrounded
rounded sound
unrounded
rounded sound
unrounded
rounded sound
unrounded
rounded sound
close
i
y
-
-
ɨ
ʉ
-
-
ɯ
u
Near closure
-
-
ɪ
ʏ
ᵻ
ᵿ
ω
ʊ
-
-
Semi closed
e
ø
-
-
ɘ
ɵ
-
-
ɤ
o
in
ᴇ
-
-
-
ə
-
-
-
-
-
Half open
ɛ
œ
-
-
ɜ
ɞ
-
-
ʌ
ɔ
Proximity
æ
-
-
-
ɐ
-
-
-
-
-
open
a
ɶ
-
-
ᴀ
-
-
-
ɑ
ɒ
Note: For vowels appearing in pairs, the left is the non rounded lip vowel, and the right is the rounded lip vowel. The two symbols in the same one are different expressions of the same pronunciation.
Diacritical mark
Diacritical mark, also known asAdditional symbols"" "is a small mark added around a phonetic symbol to indicate the changes that must be made in the pronunciation of the phonetic symbol, or to give a more accurate description.".The diacritical suffix of the subscript (the mark usually placed below the phonetic symbol or symbol) can be placed above the letter if it is to be added to the descending phonetic symbol.
When i is addedMetaphoneIf the upper point may be confused with the additional symbol after the number is attached, the i (ı) without the point shall be used.Some IPA symbols can also be used as additional symbols to describe speech details, for example: t ˢ（Fricativereleased）, b ˀ (air leakage), ˀ a (throat onset), ᵊ (schwa insertion), ᶷ (diphthong).Other diacritical marks are included inIPA Extensions Medium.
a^Aspiration of voiced consonants is also vocal.Many linguists prefer to use diacritical marks which represent air leakage sounds.
b^Some linguists only use the air leak symbol for sound, and use the stop sign as in b.
Glottis state
glottisThe state of can be well described with diacritical marks.The following is the pronunciation of gingival burst from opening the glottis to closing the glottis:
Open the glottis
[t]
voiceless consonants
[d̤]
Expiratory sound
[d̥]
Galloping sound
Best position
[d]
Normal sound
[d̬]
Zhang Sheng
[d̰]
Creak
Close the glottis
[ʔ͡t]
glottal stop
Suprasegmental component
The following symbols are used toDescriptive languageFeatures beyond the level of individual consonants and vowels, such as prosody, toneSound length, and stress, which are often used to mark syllables, words or phrases, such as the strength, pitch, and duration of speech, as well as the rhythm and intonation in speech.Although most of these symbols are used to mark phoneme based differences in the speech level, they also show that intonation transcends its level in the vocabulary itself.
tone
intonation
Length, stress, rhythm
ˈ
ˈa
primary stress
ˌ
ˌa
Secondary accent
：
a：k：
long
ˑ
aˑ
Half length
◌̆
ə̆
UltraShort
.
a.a
Syllable free interval
‿
s‿a
Connection (idle interval does not appear)
-
|
Small prosody group/foot group
‖
Large prosody group/intonation group
-
↗
Overall rise
↘
Overall decline
e̋ ˥
super high
ě ˩˥
rise
é ˦
high
ê ˥˩
drop
ē ˧
in
e᷄ ˧˥
High rise
è ˨
low
e᷅ ˩˥
low-rising
ȅ ˩
Ultralow
e᷇ ˥˧
High drop
-
-
e᷆ ˧˩
Low drop
ꜛke
ascend the stairs
e᷉ ˧˩˧
falling-rising
ꜜke
reduced order
e᷈ ˧˥˧
Lifting
Main purpose
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The method of expressing pronunciation in dictionaries or foreign language textbooks is convenient for second language acquisition.
It is used for field survey recording language and forms the basis of a language writing system.
Annotate acoustic or other displays of speech analysis.
The following nine phonetic symbols are commonly used in Chinese linguistics, but they are not accepted by the International Phonetic Alphabet.There are exclusive symbols in Unicode, but they need the support of Unicode 4.0 and above standards, and they are not visible in some fonts containing international phonetic symbols (such as Lucida Sans Unicode).
Phonetic maps commonly used in Chinese
Nine phonetic symbols not accepted by the International Phonetic Alphabet: ɿʅ、ʮ、ʯ、ȶ、ȡ、ȵ、ᴀ、ᴇ。
