Funeral objects are the embodiment of private ownership in funeral rites and customs, which marks the identity and grade of the tomb owner.Most of the etiquette systems in ancient countries stipulated the identity, status and corresponding burial objects of the dead. Those beyond this level were called "over system", which was supposed to be punished.The emergence and development of funerary objects are closely related to people's social "consciousness, religion and belief. As long as the consciousness of" immortality of soul "exists, it is the existence of funerary objects. The common social" filial piety "consciousness plays a role in fueling the flames.Because of this, there are many long funerals and thick funerals throughout the ages.Since ancient times, China has had the traditional concept of "seeing death as life", which is the burial objects in ancient tombs.Most of them are made for daily use or for the dead. Imagine that the dead can use them in another world.
Funeral objects mark the identity and status of the tomb owner in traditional funerals.In ancient China, the ritual system stipulated that the funerary objects should be corresponding to the identity and status of the dead, and those beyond the level of "over system".
The appearance of burial objects is related to people's social consciousness and religious belief. The concept of filial piety and immortality of the soul is deeply rooted in people's hearts, which makes people generally have the awareness of treating the dead well and hoping that the dead can live better in the dead. And burial objects are the product of this awareness.This is also the reason why it is common to bury the dead in a thick way.
Development of funerary objects
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Most of the burial objects of the earliest dead were articles of daily use, such as food, tools, livestock and poultry.People think that although the dead is still alive, he still wants to live like a living person, so he should be allowed to bring the necessities of life.
The funerary objects
Later, luxury goods gradually entered the ranks of funerary goods, such as gold and jade articles, cloth, silk and satin, furniture and other objects, calligraphy and painting toys, etc.The burial objects in the tomb of Liu Sheng and his wife, King Jing of Zhongshan in the Western Han Dynasty, include several large pottery jars just for wine.After the emergence of monetary economy, there was money burial.More than 7000 seashells were found in the tomb of Yin Ruins in Anyang, Henan Province.Metal coinageAfter its appearance, it also entered the tomb for the dead to spend.The Han tombs also excavated "land coupons".It proves the owner's ownership of the cemetery, and clearly indicates that others shall not harass or infringe.People gradually understand that "people die like lights out", and there is no need for physical burial objects. Based on this understanding, imitation symbolic burial objects have emerged, which are Ming ware and Shehuo.Ming wares, also called male wares, are symbolic funerary objects copied from real objects.Most ancient Ming wares areMock up, using bamboo, wood, clay, clothsilver paperEtc.
From the Song Dynasty, paper made Ming wares became popular, such as "wreaths", which turned from original objects to paper made ones.Today, we use paper as our object. "Since the emergence of the paper model, the flow of the physical model has not been cut off, and the two go hand in hand.In order to distinguish between two different kinds of male artifacts, some places call the paper wrapped artifacts "Shehuo", and some also call them "paper goods".Due to the fact that the physical model of the Ming ware is labor-intensive, time-consuming and material consuming, it is not more beautiful than paper goods, so modern rural areas often use paper to tie Ming ware.Paper goods are usually burned at the tomb, and the objects of the model are buried or burned.As far as the content is concerned, Ming ware can be divided into two categories: one is practical and common in life, and the other is purely symbolic. Like the world after death, it is the product of people's ideas.There are practical utensils, clothing, food, shelter and transportation, such as dishes, clothes, shoes and hats, bedding and pillows, beds, tables and chairs, cattle and horse vehicles, schoolboys and maidservants, and residential yards;There is a pomegranate couplet hanging on the colonnade, which reads, "Moonlight, water, floating a dream; paper window bamboo house, living for three years". In the paper house, there are tables, chairs, beds, three beds and four covers. There are cattle, horses, vehicles, poultry and livestock in the yard.There are also Zhiza's master sitting in the nave, taking tea and lighting cigarettes in the ring, and Zhiza's servants cleaning the courtyard.The deceased took all his hobbies with him.
Another kind of Ming ware is commonly usedCornucopiaAnd money trees.This is what people aspire to and is also the product of people's ideas.It may be useful to let the dead take this treasure with them.Therefore, it can still be seen at traditional funerals in rural areas.China's grand funeral ceremony is world famous, and today is no exception. It develops with the development of society, constantly renovates its patterns, and pursues the trend of the times.
In some places, children and grandchildren are buried and burned with refrigerators, color televisions, radio recorders, motorcycles, cars, sofas, and large cabinets after people die.In order to prevent the deceased from living a poor and tired rural life, even the "filial sons" copied the urban hukou book, medical card, and work card, so that the deceased could become a farmer and a farmer in another world.It can be said that boxing is filial and affectionate.
Modern burial objects
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Modern funerary objects[1]
As the name suggests, "funerary objects" are the objects that are put into the tomb with the burial person.We are both familiar and unfamiliar with this word.But why do you say that?Because we have learned from the history textbook in our primary schoolMountaintop cavemanWhen ancestors began to have funerary objects, we will often hear about them laterthe Mausoleum of Emperor Qinshihuang、Mawangdui TombMany cultural relics come from here;Many movie and television stations are going to look for treasures. Almost all of them are funerary objects of a certain tomb, so funerary objects are not strange to everyone.
But what is said above is all the funerary objects in large ancient tombs. In reality, what are the funerary objects in our common people and modern cemeteries?Let me explain to you one by one.
Many family members often see from TV that it is a mistake to put objects used by the deceased into the cave.Because in modern cemeteries, the size of graves has standards, which is almost the size of the urn, so the number and size of funerary objects in the graves are limited.Items used by the deceased before death, such as large items, cannot be put into the cave;Small items are oftenBracelet, rings, earrings and other precious items, but these precious items are not convenient for burial because he still needs to use them.So people came up with an object that was not used in life, or even not practical, but was purely made for burial. The ancients called this object "Ming ware", homophonic“Pluto”。
There are many kinds of materials for Ming ware, but some precautions need to be understood.It has been buried underground for a long time, so its permanence must be taken into account, which requires that burial objects cannot be corroded, oxidized and broken. Considering the above reasons, it is generally best to use "jade" burial objects, so people often hear the word "burial jade".
The funerary objects are usually "Ming ware". Another explanation of Ming ware is etiquettesex aidsHe symbolizes wealth, status and status, so the "jade" funeral objects are very particular.
Customarily speaking, it is mainly wealth. According to the two ancient symbols of wealth: yuan bao and old money, it is made of topaz. Like gold, it is called "topaz yuan bao". Generally, four pieces are used to put the four corners of the urn, which is called "four corners press wealth and hope";The jade coins made of jadeite are usually seven pieces placed under the urn, which are called "stepping on the seven stars and stepping on the money". They symbolize that money is rolling in.
The above two items are generally necessary items to put in the cave. In addition, some jade virgin boys and girls symbolize status and are served by servants;The legendary mythical wild animal symbolizes the acceptance of the wealth of the four sides.
Classification of funerary objects
The funerary objects can be divided into two categories, one is the objects used by the tomb owner before his death, and the other is the objects that are not used before his death, or even have no practicability, and are purely made for funerary purposes. The latter is called Ming ware.Some articles are not suitable for burial because of their size, value or need to be used continuously.In addition, in most historical periodsConcubine, attendants, servants, etc. are not allowed to be buried with others.At this time, it is necessary to make Ming ware as a representative.
Classification of funerary objects
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Household appliances
It refers to pottery, stone, bone, wood and other utensils used in daily life.Pottery is not only the most important living utensils in prehistoric times, but also one of the most important funerary objects.The pottery commonly used for burial is mostly practical, and there are also a few so-called "Ming ware" (i.e“Pluto”）。There are many marks left on the utility, such as soot on the cooker and repair marks after the container is damaged;Ming ware is small and fragile. It is a symbolic artifact and has no use value.The combination of funerary objects generally consists of cooking utensils, water utensils, food utensils and containers, and there are only one or two types of funerary objects.In different times, regions or cultures, burial pottery is often different in terms of combination, form, etc., reflecting the distinctive characteristics of the times, regions and culturesArchaeological datingOne of the main bases for distinguishing cultures and regional types.
ornament
Examples of burial with decorations can be traced back toPaleolithic AgeLateMountaintop cavemana burial;Neolithic AgeIt is popular in all cultures.Bone beads, tooth ornaments, pottery rings and hairpins are common in the Yellow River basin;In the Yangtze River basin, stone or jade pipes, rings, decorations, and defects are common.Generally speaking, decorations are mostly found in female tombs. For example, Jiangzhai M7 is a young female, and there are 8577 bone beads buried with it;The M 10 in Dawenkou is an elderly female, with a string of 25 pieces of perforated whitemarblefeldsparPiece, headdress composed of 2 conodont pieces, headdress composed of 31 marble beads, headdress composed of 19 pieces of irregular turquoise pieces andIvory combEtc.Therefore, decorations can reflect the gender differences to some extent.
tool of production
Production tools are also one of the common burial objects in prehistoric tombs.According to the materials, there are stone, bone, horn, clam, pottery, etc., of which stone tools are the most;According to the use, there are axes, adzes, shovels, sickles, chisels, knives, cones, files, needles, daggers, spears, arrowheads, harpoons, spinning wheels, grinding plates, grinding sticks, etc.In different cultures, the types of burial tools are different due to different economic modes.For example, in Heilongjiang Province, which is dominated by fishing and hunting economyMishan CountyXinkailiu SiteIn tombs, stone arrowheads, bone spears, harpoonsharpoon Fishing and hunting tools such as fishing hooks and tooth knives;Among the cultures in the Yellow River basin that are mainly characterized by millet farming, burial is the main form of burialStone shovel, stone knives, grinding plates, grinding rods and other agricultural production tools.Sometimes the difference of burial tools in different tombs may also reflect the difference of the main work of the deceased before his death.asLintongInkstone, stone grinding stick, water cup andHematitePigment blocks, etc., are a group of tools used for painting, indicating that the tomb owner may be mainly engaged inPainted potteryThe craftsman of the production;In genusdawenkou cultureJiangsuPi CountyAmong the funerary objects unearthed from Dadunzi M38, there are 24 pieces of aggregate and dental materials, which are groundbone implementUsedBurr4 pieces. The owner of the tomb was obviously a craftsman who was mainly engaged in making bone and tooth utensils.In addition, Guanzhong regionYangshao CultureThe statistics of burial tools show that there are far more burial tools for men than for women, such asJiangzhai SiteMale burial tools accounted for 68.8%, female tombs only 31.2%;Beishouling SiteThe number of burial tools in male tombs reached 99.3%, and that in female tombs only 0.7%.It shows that men are the main undertakers of productive labor.
Etiquette supplies
So called etiquettesex aidsIt refers to the articles used to express identity, rank and status, such as Cong, Bi, Yue, which symbolize divine power, royal power, and military power.stayNeolithic AgeIn the early period, the tombs in various cultural cemeteries were not very different from each other in terms of the size of the tomb shape, the number and types of burial objects, which reflected that the status of clan members was basically the same.In the middle and late Neolithic Age, there were differences in the shape and size of the tombs and the number of funerary objects in the clan cemeteries, especially in the appearance of ritual objects such as jade axes (or axes)Jade Cong、jadeAnd so on, indicating thatSocial organization structureChanges have taken place, and there has been differentiation between the rich and the poor.
Etiquette supplies
In the Yellow River basin,dawenkou cultureThere were differences in the number of funerary objects, such asDawenkouM10, with well shaped wooden outer coffin, 38 pieces of pottery, a large number of decorations and impracticalJade shovel、Jade AxeEtc.In the Longshan era, this difference was further expanded.stayTao TempleThere are large, medium and small tombs in the cemetery. The number of large and medium-sized tombs is small, but the scale is large and there are many funerary objects.For example, there are more than 200 pieces of M 3015 funerary objects, including more than daily life tools and production tools, a variety of painted wood andStone chime, alligator drum, jade axe, stone axe and other ritual articles;M 3072 Unearthed PaintingsCoiled dragon patterndiscsEtc.The existence of this important ritual vessel indicates that the owner of the tomb is a tribal dignitary in charge of sacrifice and military affairs.83 pieces of M48 unearthed from the Empress's Empress Terrace in Wuwei, GansuShibiFar beyond the need of decoration, it should be a ritual vessel to show status and power.
In the Yangtze River basin,songze culture During this period, the number of funerary objects was different.Such as JiangsuWuxian CountyZhangling MountainM05 has a wooden coffin and is buried with 31 pieces of pottery.Liangzhu CultureAt the early stage, jade ritual vessels were widely used in some large tombs, such as the M4 on the upper floor of Zhang Lingshan. There were as many as 41 funeral objects, includingJade Axe、Jade Cong、YuyuanOne for each;The jade cong is a square cylinder with an outer circle and an inner circle, and its surface is decorated with animal face patterns. It is obviously a ritual artifact.Middle and late Liangzhu culture“Bury jade”More popular, such as Sidun M3 in Wujin County, Jiangsu Province, is a male tomb about 20 years old, with more than 120 pieces of pottery, jade and stone tools buried, of whichjade24 pieces, 32 pieces of jade cong;Twenty four jade pieces of different sizes are placed in front of the head, behind the feet, up and down the body, and the largest one is placed in the abdomen, with a diameter of 26 cm;32 jade congs, ranging in height from 1 to 15 knots, surround the tomb owner;There is an exquisite jade axe beside the left upper limb.The newly discovered important M 5 funerary jade articles include cong, bi, yueStrap hookAmong them, one jade wall with a diameter of 29 cm is the largest one unearthed so far;The jade cong placed behind the foot is 32cm long, divided into 11 sections, and carved with 44 facial patterns. It is the best jade among the long congs.Liangzhu CultureThe M198 of Caoxieshan Mountain in Wuxian County in the late period was the tomb of one man and two women. The man lived in the center of the tomb, with the most funerary objects, includingJade Axe、Jade Cong, Yubi, etc. Two women were buried for the second time, and also buried with Yubi, Yucong, jade ornaments, etc.In addition, Guangdong in South ChinaQujiang CountyShixia CultureJade congjade, stone tomahawk and other ritual vessels.
Northeast China as early asHongshan cultureIn China, large-scale tombs and ritual funerals have already appeared.Such asNiuheliang JishizhongIn group, largesarcophagusLocated in the center of the stone mound;A large number of very exquisite utensils have been unearthed from various sarcophagus, includingJade pig dragon, YubiCloud shaped jade pendant, Yuhuan, YuniaoJade tortoise、Jade fish, jade beasts, etc.These findings indicate that at least in the late Hongshan culture, profound changes have taken place in society.
Other funerals
In addition to the above funeral objects,Neolithic AgeThe burial of pigs, sheep, dogs and other domestic animals was also widely found in the tombs of the middle and late periods.Lower Yellow Riverdawenkou cultureIt is popular to bury with pig's head, such asDawenkou CemeteryOf 133 tombs, 1/3 were buried with pig head or pig bone;14 pig heads were buried in M13, half pigs were found in M60, and other tombs were buriedPig mandible, pig teeth, etc.Upper Yellow Rivermajiayao culture、the Qijia CultureIt is customary to bury pigs, sheep, dogs and other bones.For example, in Jiangjiaping, Yongdeng, Gansu Province, a large tomb belonging to the middle of the horse factory type was found, with more than 30 pieces of pottery buried in it. A rectangular pit was dug under the human skeleton, with pigs, dogs and other bones buried in layers;There are 9 tombs with pig mandibles in Dahezhuang Cemetery in Linxia, Gansu Province, with a minimum of 3 and a maximum of 36.Middle Yellow RiverTao TempleThere are 14 tombs in the cemeteryPig mandibleThe maximum amount of one is more than 30.Yangtze valleyMajiabin Culture、songze culture 、Liangzhu Culture, Qujialing culture, etc.In addition, in HeilongjiangMishan CountyXinkailiu SiteIn the tombs, fish bones, wild boar teeth, antlers and other burial phenomena were also found.
It is generally believed that because livestock can be eaten and exchanged, it has become one of the earliest ideas of private property.The burial of livestock in tombs should be an important manifestation of private property ownership.
Funeral objects of different dynasties
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Neolithic Age
Neolithic AgeAmong the civilian tombs, the most common funerary objects are all kinds of stone tools and pottery, because these are the daily necessities of the dead.At that time, jade ritual vessels were common in aristocratic tombs, which represented their status and wealth during their lifetime.
Before Qin and Han Dynasties
Qin and Han Dynasties(221-220 BC) Before that, most of the funerary objects in civilian tombs were pottery, while most of the burial objects in royal tombs were variousBronze ritual vessels。In addition, since the Shang and Zhou Dynastiesbe buried alive with the deadThe situation is also very common.
Qin and Han Dynasties
During the Qin and Han Dynasties, people were no longer allowed to livebe buried alive with the deadTherefore, a large number of figurines made of pottery and wood appeared.Qin Shihuang (247-210 BC) and Han Jingdi (157-141 BC) even brought their entire army to the tomb.During this period, the bronze wares in the funerary articles gradually decreased and were replaced by exquisite lacquerware and various silk fabrics, which is also a true reflection of social life at that time.
Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties
During the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties (220-581), the production technology of porcelain gradually matured, and porcelain and pottery figurines were equally divided among the funerary objects.Most Tang tombs are buried with peopleTricolorPottery, a kind of funerary ware, is bright and gorgeous.
Song dynasty
The Song Dynasty was a peak in the development of science, technology and culture in ancient China.Since this period, the social economy and science and technology have reached a considerable height, and the types of funerary objects have become increasingly rich, no longer having the distinctive characteristics of the times in early tombs.
Burying the hope that future generations will become emperorsfounder of imperial ChinaQin Shihuang Mausoleum, located 35 kilometers east of Xi'an, Shaanxi ProvinceLintong DistrictIt is the first imperial cemetery in Chinese history.According to historical records, the First Emperor of Qin enlisted more than 700000 craftsmen to build the mausoleum, which lasted for 38 years and produced miracles.
In March 1974, the Terracotta Warriors and Horses "came out from the ground 5 meters deep", which is the luck of several farmers and also a historical necessity.Although located 1.5 kilometers to the east of the Mausoleum of the First Qin EmperorMuseum of Terracotta Warriors and HorsesIt still covers an area of more than 300 mu, with a grand scale and momentum.
“8000terra cotta warriorsLike the resurrected army,palace guardsmeansthe Mausoleum of Emperor Qinshihuang。”Museum of Terracotta Warriors and HorsesLiu Zhancheng, the leader of the archaeological team, said, "AlthoughPottery figurine, but they are as big as human beings, or they wear knee length clothes, are covered with armor, and holdLong weapon, or leather belt around the waist, leg binding, feet on the square mouth, head up and pointed shoes, or black hair, blue robe,Green faceWhat left behind is not only the martial power of the valiant, but also the life of the ancients 2200 years ago. "
According to the archaeological exploration, the Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor can be divided into two major parts: Mausoleum Park and Ancestral Burial Area.Covering an area of nearly 8 square kilometers, the cemetery area has both inner and outer cities. The enclosure is square and conical, and the existing height is 76 meters. There are a lot of ground architectural relics and funerary objects around.The mausoleum is the place where the coffins of Qin Shihuang are placedFunerary pitAnd more than 400 tombs. The main compensation burial pits include copper chariot and horse pits, rare birds and animals pits, stables pits andTerracotta Warriors PitOver the years, more than 50000 important cultural relics have been unearthed.A group of large painted bronze chariots and horses with two carriages, Gao Che and An Che, unearthed in 1980, are the largest, most ornate, most lifelike and complete ancient bronze chariots and horses found in China so far, and are known as the "crown of bronze".
