The reform of Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty lasted from 581 to 605. At the beginning of the establishment of the Sui Dynasty, Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty took a series of strengthening measures to strengthen centralization.[1]
The reform of Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty, aimed at weakening the local powerful forces and strengthening the centralization of power, involved all aspects of politics, economy, military, society and culture. It was a reform movement that had a great impact on the development of the political system in the ancient history of China, and laid the foundation for the administrative system of later generations.[2]
On the one hand, Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty, as a statesman with grand plans, could not unify the world in the Northern Zhou Dynasty.It also quickly turned to corruption and national subjugation. Its historical lessons need to be summarized for reference, so as to work hard to meet the needs of the long-term split motherland's reunification and strengthening centralization.On the other hand, with the establishment and consolidation of the Sui Dynasty, new changes have taken place in class structure and class relations.Although they were the Han Guanlong aristocratic group headed by the Yang family, the Han Xianbei aristocratic group, the Shandong (Taihang) aristocratic group that surrendered to the Zhou Dynasty after the fall of the Northern Qi Dynasty, and the Southern aristocratic group that surrendered to the Sui Dynasty after the fall of the Southern Dynasty, they were in decline.After all, they still have considerable political and economic strength and influence in various regions, and they are still an indispensable part of the new ruling bloc camp. They need to be given an appropriate position within the new regime;At the same time, they still own many tribes and slaves, sheltering many attached households, shady households and floating guests, seriously affecting the government's revenue from taxes and servitude, which needs to be cleaned up and rectified.In addition, the common common landlords took the political situation after the unification of the Sui Dynasty as an opportunity, and the rapid growth of economic power also required corresponding political status.The peasants are the basic masses and the basic objects of exploitation by the landlord class and its political power.In order to mobilize their enthusiasm for production, we must ease the class contradictions between the landlord class and the peasants. The most fundamental thing is that the landlord class should be able to accept it and reduce exploitation.Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty wanted to adapt to this new situation.A series of adjustments and reforms have been carried out politically and economically.[3]
Reform content
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Political reform
Establish the system of three provinces and six ministries
Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty abolishedSix officials in the Northern Zhou Dynasty(Heaven, earth, spring, autumn, winter, summer) system. The bureaucratic system of the Northern Zhou Dynasty basically imitated the form of the original Zhouguan, or Zhouli, in the Western Zhou Dynasty, which was primitive and extremely chaotic.Six official systemThe title is complex, the duties are unclear, and the work efficiency is low.Yang Jian restored the system of the Han and Wei Dynasties, and basically established the system of three provinces and six ministries.Yang Jian set up three divisions in the central governmentthree counsellors of state, five provinces.Sanshi and Sangong are just a kind of honorary title.The five provinces, namelyNeishi Province、Secretariat Province、Shimen Province、Inner History ProvinceMonks are saved.Internal service province and secretary province do not play an important role in national government affairs.The inner province is of the courteunuchOrganization, management of palace affairs.The secretary province is in charge of books and calendars, with few affairs.It is the other three provinces that play a role, namely, Inner History Province, Subordinate ProvinceChanceryThey are the highest government agencies.The Ministry of Internal History is responsible for decision-making, the sub provincial departments are responsible for deliberation, and the Shangshu Province is responsible for implementation.This was the three provincial system that was later inherited by the Tang Dynasty.
Three provinces and six ministries
The Shangshu Province consists of six departments: officials, civilians, rites, soldiers, criminals and workers.Each department has a minister in charge of its own government affairs.There are six specific administrative departments: the Ministry of Officials, which is in charge of the appointment, removal, assessment, promotion and transfer of officials throughout the country;The Ministry of Civil Affairs is in charge of land, household registration, taxes and fiscal revenue and expenditure throughout the country;The Ministry of Rites is in charge of sacrifice, etiquette and foreign exchanges;The Ministry of War is in charge of the selection of military officers nationwide, as well as their military credentials and ordnance;The Ministry of Criminal Justice is in charge of the criminal law and sentencing throughout the country;The work department is in charge of various projects, craftsmen, water conservancy, transportation, etc.At the beginning, the six ministries were called Six Cao, or Six Administrative Offices.The chief of the six ministries is the minister.The establishment of the Six Ministries became the fixed system of the central government in the feudal countries of later generations.Three provinces and six ministries have clear division of labor, strict organization and strengthenedcentralization。It had a great influence on the Tang Dynasty and the dynasties after that.The whole set of large-scale and well-organized bureaucracy established by Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty shows that the feudal system has developed to a mature stage.Customized from Sui Dynasty to Qing Dynasty.[3]
Simplify local bureaucracy
At the beginning of Sui Dynasty, Yang Jian established the system of three provinces and six ministriesCentral institutionsLater, local institutions were reformed.Since the Northern and Southern Dynasties, due to the excessive establishment of prefectures and counties, "less people and more officials,too many government officials”Situation.At the beginning of the Sui Dynasty, three levels of local institutions were set up along the Northern Qi Dynasty and the Northern Zhou Dynasty. In the third year of the reign of Emperor Kaihuang, Yang Jian went to Taiwan as a military minister from HenanYang ShangxiIt was suggested that the county should be abolished and replaced by a two-level system of state and county.The prefecture has a governor, and the county has a magistrate.
In 590 AD, Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty, Yang Jian, ordered the government soldiers to enter the household registration of the prefecture and county, and the combination of army and agriculture began here.Yang Jian also reformed the local institutions.He adoptedMinister of DuzhiYang Shangxi's proposal of "keeping leisure and eliminating small ones" reduced the original chaotic local official system from state, county and county to state and county levels, and abolished more than 500 counties within the territory.At the same time, a large number of redundant officials were eliminated and some prefectures and counties were merged.It has greatly saved government expenditure, improved administrative efficiency and reduced the burden on the people.In order to better exercise power and control the local government, Yang Jian ordered that all officials above the ninth grade should be appointed and removed by the central government.The right to appoint officials is entirely controlled by the Ministry of Officials, and local officials are prohibited from hiring assistants on the spot.Moreover, every year, the Ministry of Official Affairs should assess to decide on rewards and punishments, promotion and demotion.Later, a three-year tenure system was implemented.Yang Jian simplified the local administrative organization, abolished the Jiupin Palace Law, and initiated the imperial examination system.Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty ordered the states to elect three talented people with gorgeous articles to serve in the central government every year.Later, Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty ordered that the local official department should be responsible for the appointment of officials with moral integrity and talent.This system of selecting government officials gives talented people from all walks of life the opportunity to work for the government.The imperial examination system initiated and established by Yang Jian remained in Chinese history for more than 1300 years, and was not abolished until the end of the Qing Dynasty. However, the United States, Britain and other countries at that time were surprised and learned from this selection system as a method of hiring government clerks.
Revised Kaihuang Law
Open imperial law
The laws of the Northern Zhou Dynasty were cruel and chaotic, "both internal and external terror, and people were uneasy".When Yang Jian seized the power of the Northern Zhou Dynasty, he carried out reforms and personally deleted《Criminal record system》, but not completely.After the establishment of the Sui Dynasty, Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty orderedGao JiongThey formulated it with reference to the old laws of the Wei and Jin Dynasties《Open imperial law》。In the first three years of the reign, Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty orderedSolvay 、Niu HongRevise the new law and delete harsh provisions.《Open imperial law》Replace the originalPalace execution(destruction of genitals)Car crack(Five horses split up)behead(cut off his head and hang it on the flagpole for public display) and other cruel criminal laws were abolished.There is no need for genocide.Subtract 81 capital crimes, 154 misdeeds, and more than 1000 crimes such as apostles and staffs, and retain 500 laws and decrees.There are five kinds of punishment: death, death, death, death, death, death, death, death, death, death and death.Basically completed selfThe Reform of the Criminal System of Emperor Wen of Han DynastyThe reform process of the penal system sinceFive feudal punishmentsSystem.《Reading Comprehensive Lessons》He praised and commented: "The ancient corporal punishment is not reused, and the Han language is also benevolent. However, the punishment of the Han Dynasty is mostly made by this system, so since the Wu Hu era, the cannibals of beasts have also been able to indulge their anger. As for the Tuoba, Yuwen, and Gao families, the death penalty was five: Qing, Hang, Chop, Xiao, Zhe, and the gatekeeper's punishment. All of them are not necessarily inspired by the Han law.Governance is the law of the Sui Dynasty, and the system of death penalty is based on two things: that is, twisting and cutting, changing the whip into a staff, and changing the staff into a whip. It is not a rebellious and rebellious crime, and there is no clan punishment. Up to now, all the people who inherit it are also the system of governance. "Death penalty repertory systemIt was customized from the 15th year of Emperor Kaihuang's reign. Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty stipulated that the death penalty should be executed only after "three readings".The Criminal Law Annals of the Sui Dynasty: "(Kaihuang) is a fifteen year system, and those who commit capital crimes will be sentenced three times." Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty also issued an imperial edict: "The world's capital crimes cannot be resolved easily, and all states must order Dali to recover." The Kaihuang Law has a profound impact on the laws of later generations, and the laws revised by Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty and the Tang Dynasty have basically inherited.
economic reform
To lead the order of equalization of fields
Implemented by Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty and Yang JianEqual field systemRectify household registration.The implementation of the "big look reading method" requires officials to regularly check the population and check the household registration according to the appearance, which greatly increases the number of households.And implementation“Transporting and sampling”On the basis of the first one, determine the number of registered permanent residence and prepare a "fixed book" to collect taxes.Three years after the founding of the emperor, the leakage was eliminatedmale adult4430000 people, 164150000 in total.Gao Zu ordered the prefectures and counties to read the appearance. Those whose household registration was not true were being matched for a long time and started to correct the problem.Great achievements have been made, and order to analyze the registration, each for the account, in case of concealment.So the account came in at $443000, adding $1.641 million to the total. "These measures prevent local tyrants from colluding with bureaucrats and engaging in malpractices.It liberated the population from the hands of the powerful and powerful, increased the country's labor force, and mobilized the poor farmers' enthusiasm for production.This has greatly increased the number of taxpayers under the control of the state.
Set up granary
In the Sui Dynasty, the government built many granaries everywhere, including Xingluo granary and Huiluocang granary,ever-normal granary, Liyangcang, Guangtongcang, etc.The stored grain is more than one million stones.In the 11th year of Zhenguan period, Ma Zhou, the inspector general, said to Li Shimin, Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty, "The Sui family stores Luokou, and Li Mi is responsible for it; the Xijing treasury is also used for the state, and has not been used up yet." The Sui Dynasty has been destroyed for 20 years, and Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty has been dead for 33 years, but the grain and cloth at that time have not been used up.In 1969, a granary of the Sui Dynasty was found in Luoyang——Hanjiacang Site。With an area of more than 450000 square meters, 259 grain cellars have been dug out.There is also a grain cellar with 500000 jin of charred millet left.This shows the prosperity and prosperity of the Sui Dynasty.
Reform currency
Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty unified the currency system, abolished other disorderly ancient coins and privately minted coins, and minted five baht coins, known as "five baht coins of the Sui Dynasty".Back of "Sui Wu Zhu"Good meatThey all have Zhou Guo, who is as heavy as his words, weighing four jin and two liang per 1000 yuan.Ancient coins and miscellaneous coins are prohibited.The five pieces of money "where the market is, the people will use it" to unify the currency.At the beginning of the Emperor's reign, it was stipulated that the ancient ruler should be one foot two inches, the ancient dipper should be three liters, and the weighing scale should be three kilograms."Cars and books are mixed together, and the soldiers of the first class are at peace." It was issued nationwide,Weights and measuresIt was reunified under Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty."The Sui family is mixed in the north and south, the old officials of Fan Qi and Zhou, the old officials of Liang and Chen, and the old officials of Liang and Chen, who gathered together the essence of the Tang Dynasty." In addition, Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty also issued benevolent policy measures such as "at the age of 50, people are exempt from service and accept mediocrity", and "at the age of war, families are given a year to recover".In view of the confusion of the currency system, Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty, "except for the tax on entering the market", "the county distilleries, the salt wells, and the common prosperity with the people, are all conducive to the development of commerce.[4]
military streamline
Fubing system
It is mainly about the reform of the Fubing system. The key points are the organizational system of the Fubing and the military service system.In addition to keeping the military registration, soldiers in the government are also incorporated into the state and county household registration with their families, and apply for land as well as private households.In peacetime production, they take turns to guard the capital every year and fight in wartime.The family members of the Fubing no longer follow the mobilization of the Fubing and live in uncertainty, which is conducive to the stability of social life and the increase of production. This "military in agriculture" system has consolidated and expanded the Fubing system and strengthened the central control over the military.[5]
Construction reform
Tailing
The Tailing Tomb of Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty was built in the fourth year of Renshou of the Sui Dynasty. In fact, it was the joint tomb of Empress Yang Jian and Empress Dugu.The tomb is 27,4 meters high, shaped like a covered bucket and rammed.The bottom area is 26560 square meters.The top of the tomb mound is flat and rectangular, 48 meters long from east to west and 38 meters wide from south to north.Three to five meters around the bottom of the mausoleum have been excavated, and the remains are 166 meters long from east to west and 160 meters wide from south to north.A rammed earth city wall was built around the mausoleum, but now it is basically destroyed. Only the north city still has a residual wall, about 130 meters long, with a maximum of 1.2m, and the remaining width is 5.5 meters.The tamping layer is clear and the tamping pit is obvious.Through preliminary drilling, Lingyuan is 756 meters long from east to west, 652 meters wide from south to north, and covers a total area of 49.290000 square meters.A large number of brick and tile fragments were found in the four corners and the middle of the wall, which should be the remains of the towers and gates built at that time.[6]
daxing
daxing
In the second year of Emperor Kaihuang's reign (582), Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty created a new capital called Daxing City on the Longshoushan Mountain in the east and south of Chang'an City with the idea of "female disabled for a long time".There are two cities in the city, East and West, East and West.Because it was the capital of the country, it became the largest commercial city at that time, "with five aspects of customs, people mixed food, Huarong mixed mistakes, went to agriculture and business, strived for the interests of every day, and wanderers did things, even at the end of the knife".[4]
Sui YuhanChang'an CityA new city is built in the southeast, which is called Daxing City. It is located in today's Xi'an City, the east, south and west of the city.I.eChang'an City of Tang Dynasty。At the beginning of the Sui Dynasty, the capital was still in the old city of Chang'anWar, broken.Moreover, the palace is too small to meet the needs of the new unified national capital.In addition, urban sewage has settled for hundreds of years, which makes it difficult to discharge at the bottom. Drinking water supply has also become a problem.Therefore,Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynastygive upLongshouyuanThe old Chang'an City to the north is located in the southeast of Chang'an City in the Han Dynasty to the south of Longshou.In the first month of the second year of Emperor Kaihuang (582)Yu WenkaiResponsible for the design and construction of the new city -- Daxing City, which will be completed in March of the next year.Yu Wenkai referred to Luoyang City in the Northern Wei Dynasty and the Eastern Wei DynastyBeiqiYechengIn the south city, the six high slopes south of the original dragon head are regarded as six straight lines,
And take this as the core, as the overall planning of Chang'an CityGeographical Basis。"Liupo" is the skeleton of Daxing City. The imperial palace, political organs and temples are all high above, in sharp contrast to ordinary residential areas.In the lowlands between Gangyuan, except for residential areas, canals are opened for water diversion, lakes are excavated, and the water area of the city is enlarged.Daxing City makes full use of the advantages of the terrain to increase the three-dimensional space and become more magnificent.The plane layout of Daxing City is neat and uniform, and the shape is rectangular.The whole city consists of Palace CityImperial cityThe Outer City is composed of three parts, which are completely symmetrical from east to west.The area of Outer City accounts for about 88.8% of the total area of the city. The substantial expansion of residential areas is a major feature of the overall design of Daxing City.Daxing City was the largest city in the world at that time, two or four times that of Chang'an City in the Han Dynasty,Beijing in the Ming and Qing Dynasties1, 4 times of.It is 7 times larger than the capital of the Byzantine Kingdom in the same period, and is larger than the capital built in 800 ADBaghdadThe city is 6, 2 times larger.
Before that, from the Qin and Han Dynasties to the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the urban pattern in the capital city had no rules and layout. The imperial palace, official offices and folk houses were interlaced and very messy.todaxing After that, the balanced and symmetrical pattern of the capital began to form, with orderly streets, crisscross from north to south, symmetrical from east to west, and orderly streets and alleys.palaceThe three parts of the imperial city, the imperial city and the folk houses are relatively separated, with clear boundaries, which are both safe and practical.
In the grand Sui Dynasty, Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty ordered the construction of the capital Daxing City (later Chang'an City). The construction of Daxing City was not only a sign of the high level of urban construction planning in ancient China, but also a comprehensive reflection of the country's economic strength and scientific and technological level at that time.Daxing City was the "first city in the world" at that time. Its design and layout thought had a profound impact on the urban construction of later generations, Japan and Korea... Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty was appointed in 584 ADYu WenkaiLead the crowd to open canals.From the northwest of Daxing CityWeishui River, slightly following the old canal route of the Han Dynasty, to the eastTongguanInto the Yellow River, more than 150 kilometers longGuangtong Canal。This is buildingthe grand canalStart of.The Grand Canal connects the Yellow River basin and the Yangtze River basin, connecting the two civilizations.So that the Yellow River basin and the Yangtze River basin will gradually become one."Great kindness and great virtue have never been compared before."This is from the Sui Dynasty“Rule of Emperor Kaihuang”。 Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty took a series of reform measures, which greatly reduced the country's financial expenditure and increased the country's financial revenue.Seventeen years after the founding of the emperor, the household registration has flourished, and the warehouses at home and abroad are all profitable.All the gifts did not exceed the amount of funds. The capital of Jingsi was sufficient and accumulated under the diplomatic affairs. So Gao Zu stopped giving money to Li Yuan this year.When Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty first ascended the throne, the national population was 4 million,Emperor Yang of the Sui DynastyAt the time of accession to the throne, there were 8.9 million households. If one household has six members, the national population is no less than 50 million, which is about untiltang xunzongOnly when.untilTang TaizongAfter death,Tang GaozongSuccession, accounting for 3.8 million households.During the reign of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty, there were 7.6 million households and 41 million people nationwide.In the ninth year of Emperor Kaihuang's reign in the Sui Dynasty, 19.44 million hectares of land have been reclaimed, and 55.85 million hectares of land have been reclaimed in the middle of Daye.Tang Tianbao has cultivated 14.3 million hectares of land in 14 years.When Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty ascended the throne, there were 8.9 million households, while Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty only had 3.8 million households until his death. We can imagine the gap in national strength.
The Great Sui Dynasty, which was founded by Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty, has existed for 37 years (from 581 to 618), and the scope of establishing formal administrative regions to implement effective jurisdiction has exceeded the past.The Tang Dynasty did not fully restore the territory of the Sui Dynasty until 630.The Sui army was wiped out or severely damagedTurkic、Tuyuhun, Khitan, Korea... delay prevented the power and rise of the alien race, and achieved an unprecedented victory.[4]
Social evaluation
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Cambridge History of Sui and Tang Dynasties in China: "The Sui Dynasty eliminated the outdated and inefficient system of its predecessors and created acentralizationThe structure of the empire has developed a common cultural awareness in regions that have been politically divided for a long time. All this is equally remarkable.People are studying the greatChinese EmpireThe achievements of the Sui Dynasty must be seen in every aspect of its structure and life. Its achievements must be one of the most remarkable achievements in Chinese history. "The granaries in the capital of the Sui Dynasty and other places were large enough to store grain of ten million stones, and small enough to store grain of several million stones, all full of grain.Tens of millions of pieces of silk are stored in the national treasury of Chang'an, Luoyang and Taiyuan.At the end of Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty, the storage of Tianxia's warehouses could be used for 50 or 60 years.
Compendium of Chinese General History (Fan Wenlan)："The main merit of Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty is that after unifying the whole country, he implemented various measures to consolidate unity, so that the war of three hundred consecutive years could be stopped, the whole country was peaceful, the people of the north and the south were rested, and the society showed unprecedented prosperity. The first emperor of Qin created the Qin system, which was followed by all the dynasties after the Han Dynasty. Emperor Wen of the Sui created the Sui system, which was followed by all the dynasties after the Tang Dynasty. Both the Qin and Sui dynasties have made great contributions, and can notBecause the history is short, we ignore their role in history. "[4]
Chen Guangchong: After citing the main achievements of Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty, Sui Shu praised him as a "good master in modern times", and pointed out that he had no academic knowledge, punished meritorious officials, listened to slander, and used harsh methods.Although it is a fair argument, it cannot explain the important role played by Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty in the development of Chinese history.[4]
social influence
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Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty devoted himself to consolidating the unity of the country.Since the Northern and Southern Dynasties, due to the development of productivity and cultural prosperity in the Central Plains, it has had a profound impact on the people of ethnic minority areas in China.In dealing with domestic ethnic relations, Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty made every effort to make the neighboring ethnic regimes submit to them and maintain national stability.[3]
