He followed his father in Christianity when he was young.Entered Shanghai in 2013school for training translators set up by Li HongzhangLearn French.Transferred in in 1889Jingshi Tongwen HallStudy and be appointed as minister abroad after graduationXu JingchengHe was an interpreter of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and was sent to Europe as an envoy.Served successively as the third class translator, secretary and third classCounsellorGrade.Served as resident in 1906NetherlandsMinister, transferred in 1911Russiaminister.Change of letter in the same yearCatholicism。Revolution of 1911After the outbreak, the joint diplomatic envoys abroad took the lead in powering up to support the Republic.Republic of ChinaSince its establishment, he has served as the Director General of Foreign Affairs for many times, reformed the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, trained diplomatic talents, and established a team of professional diplomats.Later, he served as Prime Minister and Secretary of State.Led the Chinese delegation to attend in 1919Paris Peace ConferenceUnder the pressure of the domestic people and overseas Chinese in France, he refused to sign the peace treaty with Germany.In 1920, he served as the national disaster relief supervisor and gradually faded out of the political arena.Served as resident in 1922SwitzerlandMinister, representing China at the International Labour Conference for many times.In 1927, he completely withdrew from the diplomatic circle and entered the Catholic monastery. After hard work, he was promoted in 1935Siduo。“September 18th Incident”Later, he actively did international propaganda for China to expose Japan's aggression and atrocities.1946Holy SeeHonorary Dean of St. Peter's Monastery.In Belgium on January 15, 1949BrugesDeath from illness.[1][12]
Lu Zhengxiang entered the diplomatic circle at the age of 21Li HongzhangVisit Russia twiceHagueThe CPPCC, the Sino Russian Northeast withdrawal negotiations, the Sino Dutch Treaty, the revision of the Sino Russian Commercial Treaty, the Sino Russian Treaty, and China Japan“Article 21”、Hongxian monarchy, Paris Peace Conference and other important negotiations, and is the representative figure of the first generation of professional diplomats in China[5]。Since modern times, scholars have long held a low opinion of Lu Zhengxiang's diplomatic activities and believed that he should be responsible for the major diplomatic failure in the early years of the Republic of China.Modern research gradually affirmed its performance in China's diplomacy at that time.[12]
Lu Zhengxiang, Zixin, Zixing, Qing DynastyTongzhiHe was born in Shanghai on June 12, 2010 (July 29, 1871).His father Lu Cheng'anxinfengChristianity, is a missionary employed by foreign missionaries, "to help Christian pastors preach for a living".Under the guidance of his father, Lu Zhengxiang joined the Christian Church when he was young.[2]
Lu Zhengxiang was weak when he was young. He entered private schools at the age of ten and entered private schools at the age of twelveShanghaiJiangnan Manufacturing Bureausubsidiaryschool for training translators set up by Li HongzhangEight years of schooling.Then go toBeijing, admittedPremier's YamenDoneTongwen MuseumLearn French.At that time, he didn't have the idea of "being an official if you study well". He just wanted to find a chance to study abroad after graduating from the same office, and then work in the Postal Administration Bureau to support his father after returning home.[2]
Step into the diplomatic circle
26 year old Lu Zhengxiang
In the 18th year of Guangxu (1892), Lu Zhengxiang was sent toPetersburg, stationed in Russia, Germany, Austria and NetherlandsministerXu JingchengTranslation of.Xu Jingcheng appreciated Lu Zhengxiang very much and encouraged him to "learn diplomatic etiquette, contact diplomatic corps members, stress public law, study treaties, and hope to become an official on the right path" to establish a profound friendship between teachers and students.Lu Zhengxiang was constantly instructed and edified by Xu Jingcheng, laying a good foundation for future diplomatic work.[1]Lu Zhengxiang once said, "Without him (Xu Jingcheng), I would never have become a diplomat, and I would never have become a monk or a priest in a monastery."[2]Later, he specially wrote a preface for Xu Jingcheng's collection of essays, and also thought that he was influenced by Xu Jingcheng. "In the past 20 years, he has learned a lot by following his example.".[14]
Lu Zhengxiang was only a learner when he first arrived in Russia. A few months later, he was classified as a fourth class translator, and in 1896, he was promoted to a second class translator.In the winter of the same year, Xu Jingcheng returned home. Yang Ru succeeded the envoys to Russia, Austria and Holland, and Lu still stayed in the embassy as a translator.[1]
On February 12, the 25th year of Guangxu (1899), Lu Zhengxiang andBelgiumThe man Berthe Fran ç oise Eug é nie Bovy became his partner.Peder was born in Belgium as a general. His grandfather and father were both Belgian generals. He was closely related to the Belgian envoy to Russia and worked as a private teacher in Petersburg.Lu Zhengxiang admired Peide very much, and the wedding was also based on what the woman believedCatholicismEtiquette held.[1]
In the 28th year of the reign of Emperor Guangxu (1902),Hu WeideSuccession of Minister in Russia, Lu Zhengxiang and Jin Jia the next yearCounsellorTitle.Lu Zhengxiang has served in Petersburg for 14 years. He is familiar with the situation in Russia, handles Sino Russian negotiations carefully and carefully, and gradually becomes sophisticated and lively, which is highly valued by successive envoys.[1]
Sent to Netherlands and Russia
Lu Zhengxiang in the Late Qing Dynasty
On November 16, the 31st year of Guangxu (1905), we prepared for the participation of special envoysThe Second Hague Peace ConferenceThe Qing government gave the time with three titlescandidateLu Zhengxiang, the prefect, plus the title of fourth rank minister, served as the first Minister Plenipotentiary in Holland and concurrently held the second Hague Peace Conference.On March 8 of the following year (1906), Lu Zhengxiang arrived in The Hague, the Netherlands, opened a legation and presented his successorNational credentials。This ended the history of the former envoys to Holland who were also envoys to Germany or Russia.[1][13]
During his term as Minister in Holland, Lu Zhengxiang reasonably solved the Dutch government's compulsionoverseas ChineseThe question of Dutch nationality.In the Sino Dutch Consular Treaty he signed with the Netherlands, it was stated that the Chinese would still be Chinese citizens if they returned home after they became Dutch citizens according to Dutch laws.With regard to the rights and obligations of consuls, the agreement between the Netherlands and Japan was also taken as a precedent, and more reasonable provisions were made through consultation.[1]
In the 33rd year of Guangxu (1907), Lu Zhengxiang attended the Second Hague Peace Conference on behalf of China.At the meeting, he andSouth AmericaSome representatives of small countries from the United Kingdom and Germany contacted and jointly opposed the proposal to divide the national hierarchy according to the strength of the country and use it as the basis for selecting international capture judges, which failed to pass.Lu Zhengxiang also actively supportsRoman alphabetThis practice became an international practice.He also ventured to receive exiled reformist leaders in The HagueKang YouweiAnd told him not to go to Russia to avoid the risk of being extradited back to China.[1]
Lu Zhengxiang, the envoy to Russia who was called "the envoy leader who ridiculed the Qing emperor's abdication"[10]
Lu Zhengxiang has lived in foreign countries for a long time and worked as a diplomat. He married a Belgian. He can speak fluent foreign languages and pays attention to social intercourse. Therefore, he is very popular with foreigners and is also a well-known figure in China and abroad.In the 34th year of Guangxu (1908)Ministry of Foreign AffairsEpiscopalhigh Qing officialHe also appreciated Lu Zhengxiang. Among the diplomatic officials of the State Council, he said that he "had a good understanding of current affairs and was careful about things. Last year, the second Baohe Conference was held in The Hague as an envoy. He argued for reasons in matters related to the state system, and had many difficulties, especially insight into the situation of major powers,KechePerfunctory, really insightful ".[3]
XuantongIn 1911, Lu Zhengxiang was transferred to be Minister in Russia.In October of that year, under the mobilization of Peide, he converted to Catholicism in Petersburg.Same monthWuchang UprisingAfter the outbreak, Yuan Shikai was appointed Prime Minister of the Cabinet by the Qing government.Yuan Shikai fought and pulled against the Southern Revolutionary Army and exerted pressure on the Qing court to promote the abdication of the Qing emperor.At this timeLiang ShiyiEntrusted by Yuan Shikai, he contacted all parties and sent a secret telegram to Lu Zhengxiang, instructing him to cooperate with Yuan Shikai's activities.On December 25, Lu Zhengxiang, together with some diplomatic envoys abroad, called the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Qing Dynasty to persuade the Qing Emperor to abdicate, and the message advised the Qing Emperor not to "use one person's title to besmear the life in the sea".This telegram just gave Yuan Shikai a hand in the forced palace activities.[1]
First Foreign Minister
North South peace talksAfter the end of the reign and the abdication of the Qing Emperor, Yuan Shikai became the emperorRepublic of ChinaThe temporary president appointed Lu Zhengxiang on March 30, 1912, the first year of the Republic of ChinaTang ShaoyiCabinet diplomacyTotal length。Lu Zhengxiang was still in Russia at that time. He felt that China was facing an extremely complicated diplomatic situation. When he was foreign minister, he hesitated. He went home to discuss with Peide and was encouraged to return to work.Peide was also appointed as the Chief of the Courtesy Office.[1]
Lu Zhengxiang, the first foreign minister in the early years of the Republic of China, tried to follow the Western countriesMinistry of Foreign AffairsRestructuring the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in the mode of.First of all, he proposed a new Organic Law of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, which was submitted to the Congress for approval, and implemented in accordance with regulations.Secondly, the embassies and consulates stationed abroad should be changed into professional institutions, and diplomatic personnel should be professional diplomats, who should be specially trained personnel.Third, we should strengthen the management of embassies and consulates abroad, prevent foreign envoys from acting arbitrarily within their jurisdiction, and establish budget and reporting systems, telegraph password systems, etc.Lu Zhengxiang himself paid more attention to training young diplomatic talents.[1]
Failed cabinet building
Modern Works on Lu Zhengxiang
In June of the first year of the Republic of China (1912), State Premier Tang Shaoyi resigned.Yuan ShikaiAllianceOrganize a political party cabinet, and Lu Zhengxiang is expected to succeed.On the surface, Lu Zhengxiang is non partisan and often proclaims "transcendentalism". In fact, he can only obey Yuan Shikai.[1]
Lu Zhengxiang first served as Acting Prime Minister. On June 29, he was formally appointed as Prime Minister by Yuan Shikai after being approved by the majority of the Senate. Envoys from various countries in Beijing sent congratulatory letters in succession.So Lu Zhengxiang was ordered to form a cabinet.Although the League agreed with him as Prime Minister, it resisted the organization of a "detached cabinet".On July 18, Lu Zhengxiang attended the interim Senate meeting, announced the administrative policy, and proposed the list of six additional cabinet members according to Yuan Shikai's intention.His polite words used at the meeting to close the distance with the senators were considered inappropriate by some people, and then were falsely rumored as "adding the list of cabinet members", just like "opening a menu to make a birthday", becoming a target for politicians to criticize him.[30]In order to oppose Yuan Mu, the cabinet members vetoed all the candidates he proposed, which led to the miscarriage of the new cabinet and turned into a nationwide political disturbance.Later, Yuan Shikai made the Senate pass the motion of five other members of the cabinet by means of threat of force and bribe, but Lu Zhengxiang was impeached for dereliction of duty and was unable to get sick.[1]
Weak country diplomacy
A few months after resigning as Prime Minister, Lu Zhengxiang took overZhao BingjunIn April 1913, the foreign minister of the cabinet participated in the signing of the 25 million pound《Aftercare Loan Contract》To raise funds for Yuan Shikai's civil war.In May, an agreement on the Mongolian issue was concluded with Russian Minister Kupensky“Draft contractSix items ".Rejected by the Senate, he soon quit the cabinet and became Yuan Shikai's diplomatic adviser.[1]
Lu Zhengxiang (second from left) and Cao Rulin (first from left) are negotiating with Japan
In January of the fourth year of the Republic of China (1915), JapanOkuma ChongxinThe cabinet has proposed“Article 21”Yuan Shikai replaced Lu ZhengxiangSun BaoqiHe is the Director General of Foreign Affairs.Lu Zhengxiang and the Deputy Foreign MinisterCao RulinTogether with the Japanese MinisterDaily purchase profitNegotiations.After several months of negotiation, Japan put forward an ultimatum on May 7, forcing Yuan Shikai to issue a statement on May 9, which was recognized except for the fifth five items, "Allow Japan to negotiate later".[1]
Following the will of Yuan Shikai, Lu Zhengxiang officially signed the so-called "Sino Japanese Treaty" (also known as“Fourth People's Treaty”）And exchange of notes, including two Shandong and South Manchu treaties, and 13 exchange of notes.The content is about FujianHanyeping CompanyandLvdaLending period extension and other issues.In short, except for No. 5, most of the contents of the original "Article 21" are included.On the 26th, Lu Zhengxiang attended the Senate meeting, answered questions about the negotiation, stated in detail the whole process of the negotiation and the difficulties and sufferings of the government at that time, and tried to justify himself and compromise.After the signing of the "Four People's Treaties", which aroused strong opposition from the people of the whole country, the Congress failed to approve it, and Lu Zhengxiang resigned by telegram, but it was not approved.He also felt a lot of pressure when he signed the humiliating treaty.[1]
Lu Zhengxiang (front right), Xu Shichang (front middle), etc
In October of the same year, Yuan Shikai openly promoted the imperial system,secretary of stateXu ShichangFeeling that the political crisis was coming, Yuan Shikai resigned on the pretext. Yuan Shikai ordered Lu Zhengxiang, Chief Foreign Affairs Officer, to act as Xu Shichang's deputy.In December, Lu Zhengxiang officially assumed the post of Secretary of State and still served as Foreign Minister.In March of the following year (1916), Yuan Shikai was forced to cancel the imperial system, and Xu Shichang was appointed as Secretary of State again. Lu Zhengxiang continued to serve as Foreign Minister until Yuan Shikai died of illness in June.[1]
In the early six years of the Republic of China (1917), when the Beijing government“The dispute between the government and the court”During the white hot period, Lu Zhengxiang was employed asDuan QiruiMember of the Supreme Council of Foreign Affairs established by the Cabinet.He advocated that China should treat GermanyAustria-Hungary Declare war, joinEntenteaspect.From December, Lu ZhengxiangWang ShizhenDuan QiruiQian NengxunIn the three cabinet terms, he was re elected as the Foreign Minister.[1]
Paris Peace Conference
The Chinese delegation to the Paris Peace Conference published by Oriental Magazine[4]
In January of the eighth year of the Republic of China (1919), Lu Zhengxiang served as China's Foreign Minister“Paris Peace Conference”Chief Representative, andGu Weijun(Minister to the United States)Wang Zhengting(Deputy Foreign Minister of the Southern Military Government)Shi Zhaoji(Minister to the UK)Wei Chen Group(Minister in Belgium), under the promotion of the people, put forward some requirements to the Peace Conference.Among them: (1) cancel the privileges of the great powers in China;（2） Cancel the 21 unequal treaties signed between Japan and Yuan Shikai;（3） Japan took it from Germany during the restitution warShandongRights.However, after several months of discussion, China's demands were all rejected by the participating powers, while the rights and interests of Shandong seized by Japan were clearly recorded in the peace treaty with Germany.This aroused the unanimous opposition of the Chinese people.Driven by the common struggle of the domestic people, overseas Chinese in France and students studying in France, the Chinese delegation led by Lu Zhengxiang finally took a historic action in modern diplomatic history: "Public decisions are not signed."[1]
China's refusal to sign the Paris Peace Treaty shocked the world, set a precedent for daring to fight on the international stage, and had a positive impact on China's diplomacy in the future.When Lu Zhengxiang and his party returned home, they were warmly welcomed by people of all walks of life.[1]
After returning to China, Lu Zhengxiang remained as the Foreign Minister, and resigned in August of the ninth year of the Republic of China (1920), gradually fading out of the political arena.[12]He sawthe May 4th MovementThe Chinese patriotic students beat up the pro Japanese faction, and they were still worried about the work of the Foreign Minister. They were also gratified by the people's understanding for refusing to sign the peace treaty.[1]
Unexpected mission
In June of the 11th year of the Republic of China (1922), Lu Zhengxiang, who had originally planned to go to Rome, Italy, to provide for his old age by selling the income from the Swiss Roganoyi villa and buying a large number of French war bonds, suffered from a series of accidents, which made his life difficult.Under such circumstances, he had to accept the residence of the Beijing governmentSwitzerlandAppointment of Minister.[27]In October of the same year, he also attendedLeague of NationsRepresentative.He also served as Minister Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary in the Netherlands and Belgium.Before the 13th year of the Republic of China (1924), he attended many times as a representative of the Beijing governmentinternational labor conferences。[1]
In the spring of 1926, Lu Zhengxiang's wife Peide died in Switzerland.In May of the following year (1927), he sent his wife's coffin back to Belgium for burial and completely withdrew from the diplomatic community.In July, entered BelgiumBruges（Bruges）Benedictine ChurchSt. Anders Abbey.Since then, he has been engaged in religious career.Lu Zhengxiang was originally a monk, and in June of the 24th year of the Republic of China (1935), he was promoted toSiduo(Father).He studied hard in Christian theology and became more religious in his belief in God.[1]
Although living in a foreign monastery, Lu Zhengxiang still remembered the safety of his motherlandCounter-Japanese WarAfter the outbreak, he was very concerned about the disasters suffered by the Chinese nation and joined the anti Japanese war with practical actions.Once responsible for editing《Yishibao》The overseas communication, under the pseudonym of "Mulan", wrote articles introducing the thoughts and actions of Chinese women in the War of Resistance against Japan, and appealed to the people of European countries to support China's War of Resistance against Japan.[1]When the European war broke out, the monastery was requisitioned by the German army. Lu Zhengxiang made many speeches among the people and wrote memoirs.[12]
In the 34th year of the Republic of China (1945), Lu Zhengxiang, with high reputation, once became the first in Chinacardinalcandidates.[12]
In May of the 35th year of the Republic of China (1946), the PopePius XII Lu Zhengxiang was appointed Honorary Dean of St. Peter's Monastery in Belgium.[1]Since then, Lu Zhengxiang has been accepted by the Chinese Catholic CardinalTian GengshenHe seriously considered going back to China for missionary work, but was unable to do so due to old age and physical decline.[12]
On January 15, 1949, Lu Zhengxiang died of illness in the Clinique de Soeures Noires, Bruges, Belgium[29], buried in the monastery of San Andrei.[1]
Historical evaluation
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Famous journalist in the early Republic of ChinaHuang Yuanyong：
Lu Junxunxun is a servant who speaks in a methodical manner, and he is an excellent Occidental gentleman.However, his physique is just like winning. If he is too weak to wear.Moreover, his talk is very vulgar, which seems to be the people who do not understand our society very well.The reporter retreated to talk about my colleagues. This gentleman is involved in today's political circles in China. He is like a leaf in the sea of waves and waves. There is no one who is not subversive.If the water is clear and quiet, then the light pole and the solitary oar are floating like a fairy![31]
Diplomacy is backed by military strength, and (China Russia negotiation) relies on Lu Zixin, a general commander, whose achievementsoutmaneuver the enemy over glasses of wineYeah?[16]
Lu Zhengxiang and others, who went to Paris to participate in the Peace Conference, always wanted to retain Jiaoao and refused to sign it. They were more appropriate than Cao, Zhang and Lu.However, as for the weak tongue and scorched lips, it is not a pity that the death cannot be saved in case![26]
Chinese modern scholarsXu Yishi"Lu Zhengxiang was an altar goblet in his early days, a center of Zhongzhi, a freak in his late days, and a self styled celebrity in modern times."[28]
Modern Chinese HistorianTang Zhenchang"The first generation of professional diplomats in China began with Yuan Shikai after 1911 and the Beiyang governments of all previous dynasties... Among the famous figures of this generation are Wu Tingfang, Wu Chaoshu, Lu Zhengxiang, Cao Rulin, Shi Zhaoji, Wang Zhengting, Gu Weijun, etc."[5]
Chinese modern historianTang Qihua: "Lu Zhengxiang was the most representative diplomat in the period of China's weakest national power and lowest international status at the end of the Qing Dynasty and the beginning of the Republic of China. He lived in a troubled world in which China, East Asia and even the world were changing. He shouldered the heavy responsibility of China's diplomacy. His diplomatic career reflected many important aspects of the times, and there are many places for reflection today.When he entered the monastery in his later years, he also gained a high position in the Catholic Church. "[12]
interpersonal relationship
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Lu Zhengxiang's wife Peide
fatherLu Cheng'an, known as Yunfeng, believes in Christianity and is a missionary employed by foreign missionaries.
stayCai DongfanWritten by《Romance of the Republic of China》Medium, on 15th[15], 17th[16]18th[17], 42nd[18]43rd[19], 44th[20], 53rd[21], 56th[22], the twelfth[23], the thirteenth[24], the fourteenth[25], the nineteenth[26]When Lu Zhengxiang came back, he basically recorded the major events that Lu Zhengxiang participated in in the early years of the Republic of China, and made some artistic processing.
