synonymThe Alps(Mountains in central and southern Europe) generally refers to the Alps (the highest and largest mountains in western Europe)
Alps (English: Alps),Western EuropeThe highest and largest mountain range, which means "white" in Latin, is named after the snow on its peaks all the year round and the development of glaciers in its valleys.It is located in the south of Europe.From the westFranceSoutheast, viaItalyNorthSwitzerlandSouthLiechtenstein、GermanySouth, eastAustriaandSlovenia。It extends from east to west in an arc, with a straight line length of about 1200 km and a width of 130~260 km.The total area is about 207000 square kilometers.The average altitude is about 3000 meters.[1]
The Alps are divided into three sections: the west, the middle and the east.The Western Alps is the narrowest and most concentrated section of the mountain range, the highest peakMont Blanc(4810m) at the French Italian border.The Middle Alps lies between the Great St. Bernard Pass andBoden LakeThe width is the largest.The altitude of the Eastern Alps is relatively low.The main mountain extends southwestward toPyrenees, extending southward toApennine Mountains, extending southeast toDinara Mountains, extending eastward toCarpathian Mountains。[1]
The Alps are located at the boundary between the continental humid climate in the temperate zone of Central Europe and the Mediterranean climate in southern Europe.The mountain itself has the characteristics of vertical climate differentiation.Many large rivers in Europe originate from the Alps, such asthe danube、Rhine、Po River、RhoneEtc.The beautiful scenery of the Alps is a tourist, holiday, mountaineering and skiing resort, which attracts a large number of tourists every year.The main towns in the mountain area are FrenchGrenobleAustrianInnsbruck, ItalianBorzanoEtc.[1]
The formation of the Alps is one of the issues that have long been debated by European geologists.[14]The formation of the Alps is closely related to the development of the world geological history.In the Permian, about 225 million years ago, Eurasia was connected with Africa and the Americas, and the central part was the Paleotethys Sea.The ancient Tethys Sea is actually the present Alps Mediterranean region, which is actually a trough extending from east to west.[13]
According to the traditional tectonic theory - geosyncline platform theory: geosyncline area shows a large range of uplift and subsidence movement and huge thickness of sedimentary formation.The Atlantic Ocean split about 180 million years ago, resulting in the relative movement between the African plate and the Eurasian plate and the Himalayan movement in the Early Tertiary.The relative movement between the African plate and the Eurasian plate can be divided into three stages.[13]
During the eastward movement of the African plate, the European and American plates were not separated from the Middle Jurassic to the Cretaceous (165 million to 80 million years ago). As the Atlantic Ocean began to expand, the entire seabed was renewed every 300 to 400 million years.The continent moves with the silicon magnesium layer, the mid ocean ridge pushes the African plate eastward, and the northern Africa also splits into small plates.[13]
In the phase of relative westward movement of the African plate, the North Atlantic expanded from the Upper Cretaceous to the Late Eocene (80 million years to 40 million years ago).At this time, its expansion speed was faster than that of the Central Atlantic Ocean. The European plate separated from North America moved eastward faster than the African plate, so the African plate moved westward relatively.The west section is relatively close and converges earlier.[13]
In the northward movement stage of the African plate, from the late Eocene to the present (from 40 million years ago to the present), the expansion speed of the North Atlantic Ocean and the Central Atlantic Ocean is similar. Africa is stretched on three sides by the mid ocean ridge, but there is a trench in the north, so it moves northward, leading to the collision between the plate split in the Upper Cretaceous and the Eurasian plate.Moreover, due to the different eastward moving speeds of Laoya and Gondwana, the oceanic plate of the ancient Tethys Sea was broken due to the split and split of the north and south, and the relative rotation of each plate.[13]
Generally speaking, Europe and Africa are converging, and their borders are of extrusion type.However, due to the above movements, there is tension or transition boundary in the convergence boundary.In the fault zone where the transfer fault is located, the rock is relatively broken and easy to be eroded, so grooves are often formed on the seafloor, which is how the Mediterranean Sea is formed.[13]
The compressional plate boundary is the place where the lithospheric plates are converging, disappearing and colliding, that is, the convergence subduction zone of two plates, with strong and complex tectonic activity.This is how the Alpine Fold Mountains were formed.At this time, the ancient Tethys Sea gradually disappeared, forming the Mediterranean Sea between Europe, Asia and Africa today.[13]
In the above three stages, the small Mediterranean plate can be roughly divided into two parts, the Iberian plate (including the Iberian Peninsula of Xijia and Sardinia) and the Apulian plate (western Italy, the Balkans and Asia's Turkey, etc.).The convergence of these two small plates in the general north direction was subject to various constraints, resulting in complex convergence tracing back to the source. These two small plates had split from Africa before the Upper Cretaceous.However, since the Paleozoic Pangaea was formed at the end of the Paleozoic, Iberia and Apulia are small.The plate is confined between Europe, Africa and North America.At the beginning of the Upper Cretaceous, the Iberian and Apulian plates gradually converged to Europe, and a extinction zone appeared on the southern coast of Europe.[13]
Between the Late Pliocene and the Early Oligocene, the Alpine suture was formed at the junction of the southern Alps and the Austrian Alpine nappe due to the collision between the small plates mentioned above and Europe.In the Tertiary Period, the Himalayan Movement (also known as the Alpine Movement) occurred, the entire ancient Mediterranean Sea was strongly folded, and mountains stretching from east to west, including the Alps, appeared on the earth.[13]
Location context
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The Alps are located in the south of Europe, starting from the southeast of France in the west, passing through northern Italy, southern Switzerland, Liechtenstein, southern Germany, and reaching Austria and Slovenia in the east. They are mainly distributed in Switzerland and Austria, extending from east to west in an arc, with a straight line length of about 1200 kilometers and a width of 130~260 kilometers.The total area is about 207000 square kilometers.[1]
Geologically, it belongs to the Tertiary young fold mountain range.Its formation is closely related to the expansion of the North Atlantic and the resulting relative movement between the African and European plates.Since the Early Cretaceous, small plates split from Africa and moved northward continuously. In the Late Eocene, they began to collide with the European plate and gradually uplifted the Alps.The huge nappe structure is its distinctive feature, which is due to the formation of intense thrust faults for many times during the plate collision process, so that some huge rock masses were moved tens of kilometers to cover other rock masses, and formed large recumbent folds.This nappe structure is most typical in the Western Alps.Geologically, it belongs to the Tertiary young fold mountain range.Its formation is closely related to the expansion of the North Atlantic and the resulting relative movement between the African and European plates.Since the Early Cretaceous, small plates split from Africa and moved northward continuously. In the Late Eocene, they began to collide with the European plate and gradually uplifted the Alps.The huge nappe structure is its distinctive feature, which is due to the formation of intense thrust faults many times during the plate collision process, so that some huge rock masses were lifted and moved tens of kilometers to cover other rock masses, and formed large recumbent folds.This nappe structure is most typical in the Western Alps.
The Alps is a typical folded mountain range, which is composed of many almost parallel anticlines and synclines, as well as large-scale overthrust and nappe faults.In the formation of modern landforms, the vertical movement from the end of the Tertiary to the beginning of the Quaternary, as well as the subsequent intense erosion and Quaternary glaciers have a great impact.The geomorphic characteristics of the Alps can be summarized into the following four points:
The mountains are majestic and lofty;Glacier landform is developed and widely distributed;There are passes between mountains;The topography of the east and west is inconsistent.[13]
Alpine mountain landform can be divided into three parts according to altitude: 1. foothill ice water alluvial plain and lowland, with an altitude below 500 meters, are mainly composed of ice broken hills, ice water alluvial plain and the lowest mountain mouth.There are many ice carbon lakes along the piedmont line.
2. Hilly belt, 50-1000 meters above sea level, including some huge old ice rich hills and platforms
3. Mountainous areas, with an altitude higher than 1000 meters, mainly refer to crystalline rock Alps and limestone Alps. The height difference between the valley bottom and the nearby mountain top is as much as 3000 meters.[20]
Climatic characteristics
The Alps is the most important mountain in Europe, located between the temperate zone and the subtropical zone. It is the boundary between the continental humid climate in the temperate zone of Central Europe and the subtropical dry summer climate in southern Europe (Mediterranean climate). At the same time, the climate has obvious vertical changes.[7]
The Alps are the dividing line between the Mediterranean climate in southern Europe and the marine climate in central Europe and the continental transitional climate. Its uplift blocks the southward movement of cold waves in the north, but also has its own climatic characteristics:
The temperature decreases with the increase of height. The temperature decreases by about 1 ℃ every 100 meters.The temperature decline rate in summer and on the south slope is relatively small.
In summer, it is generally high in the northern hemisphere, and the south slope is sunny and windward from the Mediterranean wind.) The 0 ℃ isotherm of Mount Blanc, the highest peak, is 3500 meters in summer;In winter, the temperature at 130 meters is as low as - 5 ℃.
The temperature is affected not only by the height, but also by the topographic relief.The climate in the valley area is continental, while the climate in the mountain peak and ridge area is oceanic.The valley area is blocked, and the temperature change is relatively large, while the high peak is relatively developed, and the temperature change is relatively small.At the same time, mountain areas are more vulnerable to the westerly wind than valley areas.In winter, the inversion phenomenon occurs in the depth of the valley, that is, the temperature in the lower part of the valley can be very low, while the temperature in the upper part of the hillside is rising, unlike the frequent frost damage in the valley.
The precipitation generally increases with the increase of height, but after reaching a certain degree, the higher the precipitation, the less the precipitation.The precipitation in the Alpine Valley is generally very little. The height of the windward slope increases, and the precipitation increases especially fast. The precipitation in the marginal mountains is more than that in the interior.The western Alps are high and in a favorable position to meet the westerly wind, so the precipitation is more than that of the eastern Alps.
The climate of the Alps is characterized by high temperature, abundant precipitation and high forest line on the south slope;The north slope has low temperature, less precipitation and low forest line;The valley climate is continental, and the mountain peak and ridge climate is oceanic.[13]
River system
Many large rivers in Europe originate from the Alps, such as the Danube, Rhine, Po, Rhone, etc.The upstream of each river has the characteristics of mountain rivers, with rapid water flow and rich water resources.Mountain lakes are mostly caused by glaciers, and the larger ones are Lake Lemang (Lake Geneva), Lake Sisenlinzhou (Lake Lucerne), Lake Zurich, Lake Boden, Lake Maggiore, etc.
The Alps is the largest mountain glacier center in Europe.The mountains are covered with ice sheets up to 1 km thick.All types of glacial landforms are well developed, and glacial erosion landforms are particularly typical.There are also more than 1200 modern glaciers, with a total area of about 4000km ².Mid Alpine foothillsSwitzerlandSouthwestAlechi GlacierIt is the largest, with a length of about 22.5 km and an area of about 130 km ².
The annual precipitation in mountainous areas is generally 1200~2000 mm, but varies from place to place.The maximum precipitation zone is about 3000 meters above sea level.The annual precipitation in high mountain areas is more than 2500 mm, and the valley between leeward slopes is only 750 mm.
According to statistics, there are more than 1200 glaciers in the Alps, covering a total area of 3600 square kilometers.The largest one is Alezhi Glacier, 26.8 kilometers long and 169 square kilometers in area.During the Pleistocene, the Alps was the largest mountain glacier center in Europe.Various types of glacial landforms are widely distributed, and glacial erosion landforms are particularly typical.The mountain has rugged rocks, sharp horns and steep peaks, and many glacial cliffs, U-shaped valleys, cirques, hanging valleys, glacial lakes, etc.
During the Quaternary period, the Alps were subjected to several glaciations, which are generally recognized as the four ice ages of Gonz, Minde, Rhys and Yumu.The last Yumu Ice Age has the largest range and the highest strength.During the peak period of glaciers, more than 70% of the Alps were covered by glaciers. In the central Alps mountain valley, the glaciers were more than 3000 meters thick.Huge valley glaciers pour into the plains and foothills, leaving a trail to the end.[14]
vegetation
Alpine mountain vegetation shows obvious vertical zonality. From bottom to top, it can be divided into subtropical evergreen hardwood forest belt (base belt, below 800m on the southern slope of the mountain), mixed coniferous and broad-leaved forest belt (800-2200m), alpine meadow belt (2200-3200m), bare rock and year-round snow belt (above 3200m).The subtropical evergreen hardwood forest belt, which is composed of coastal pine, palm, agave and sparse forest land, reflects the characteristics of the Mediterranean climate.[7]
The south slope below 800 meters above sea level belongs to the subtropical evergreen hard leaf forest belt;800-1800m is the forest belt, the lower part is the mixed forest belt dominated by beech and fir, and the upper part is the coniferous forest composed of spruce, fir, cedar, etc;It is cold and windy at 1800-2300m, which is the upper limit of the forest line, and gradually turns to alpine meadow above;Further up are mostly exposed rocks and year-round snow belts.The wild animals include Alpine bighorn goats, small antelopes, prairie dogs, mountain hares, etc.
Mountain range relationship
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Major mountain ranges
The Alps are divided into three sections: the west, the middle and the east.The Western Alps is the narrowest and most concentrated section of the mountain range. The highest peak, Mont Blanc (4810 meters), is at the border of France and Italy.The Middle Alps is between the Great St. Bernard Pass and Boden Lake, with the largest width.The altitude of the Eastern Alps is relatively low.The backbone of the mountain range extends southwestward to the Pyrenees, southward to the Apennines, southeastward to the Dinara Mountains, and eastward to the Carpathians.[1]
Main peaks
Mont Blanc
MontBlanc is the highest peak of the Alps, located at the border between France and Italy, with an altitude of 4805.59rice[21]。Mont Blanc was first conquered by humans on August 8, 1786.Most of them are in France, including the peak.The whole mountain extends about 48 kilometers from the Little St. Bernard Pass to the north, with the widest point of 16 kilometers, including nine peaks with an altitude of more than 4000 meters, such as Taguerblanc, Modi, Ajiye, Duolun, Midi, and Welt.The mountain is mainly composed of crystalline rock.The two most famous towns near Mont Blanc are Kumayor in the Aosta region of VALEDA, Italy, and Chamonix in the Haute Savoy province of the Alps region of Rhone, France, where the first Winter Olympic Games were held.The low slope is densely forested, and there are modern glaciers more than 2400 meters away.There is the famous Mede Glacier on the French side of the northwest slope.With aerial cable car and winter sports facilities, it is the largest tourist center in the Alps.Chamonix is the mountaineering base leading to Mont Blanc.[8]
Mont Blanc
Matterhorn Peak
Matterhorn Peak(Matterhorn or MonteCervino) is the most famous peak in the Alps, with an altitude of 4478 meters. It is located at the border between Switzerland and Italy, and Switzerland is nearbyValais townZermattAnd the small town of Bulei Chervenia in the Aosta Valley of Italy.The name of Matterhorn Peak is composed of "Matt" (meaning valley and grassland) and "horn" (meaning that the peak is conical like a corner) in German. It was successfully topped by the famous H ö rnligrat line on July 15, 1865 under the leadership of the local father and son guides Peter Taugwalder and Peter Taugwalder,But in the end, only Edward Whimper and Taugwalder and his son successfully withdrew, and others were killed.2015 is the 150th anniversary of the summit of Matterhorn. From July to August 2015, from 9:00 to 9:30 every night, there are spectacular celebrations to light Matterhorn along Holly Ridge.
Dufour Peak
Dufour PeakDufourspitze is the second highest peak in the Alps, 4634 meters above sea level, facing Matterhorn in the west, the highest point of the Monte Rosa Massiv on the border between Switzerland and Italy, belonging to the Valle Alps (or Benning Alps), and bordering Zermatt, a small town in Switzerland, in the north.[10]
Dom Peak
Dom is the third highest peak in the Alps, 4545m above sea level. It is located in the east of Randa Village in the north of Zermatt, opposite Weisi Peak across the river valley. The valley on the east side of Dom is another resort in WallaceSarsfeld（Saas-Fee）。Mount Dom is the highest point of the Mischabelgruppe, the second largest mountain group in the Valle Alps, and it is also the highest peak in Switzerland in practical sense, which is completely located in Switzerland.
Weisi Peak
Weisshorn is 4505 meters above sea level, which is considered by many climbers to be the most beautiful mountain in the Alps. Its shape is very similar to another "most beautiful mountain in the world" - Alpamayo (5947 meters) in the Andes of South America.
Eiger
Eiger (Eiger) is 3970 meters above sea level. Although it is less than 4000 meters above sea level, it is famous for its famous north wall, which is also the AlpsThree north wallsone of.Swiss extreme climber Dani Arnold broke the north wall climbing record held by the famous Swiss "climbing machine" Ueli Steck on April 20, 2011, which was 2 hours and 28 minutes, nearly 20 minutes faster than Ueli Steck.DaniArnold is also the record holder of the north wall of Matterhorn Peak (1 hour and 46 minutes, set on April 22, 2015).
The Alps are located between the temperate and subtropical latitudes, becoming central EuropeHumid continental climate And the subtropical dry summer climate in southern Europe.At the same time, it has the characteristics of mountain vertical climate.The vegetation in the Alps shows obvious vertical changes.Can be divided intoSubtropical evergreen hardwood forest belt(800 meters below the south slope of the mountain range);Forest belt(800-1800m), the lower part isMixed forestThe upper part is coniferous forest;Above forest beltAlpine meadow zone；On the other hand, there are mostly exposed rocks and snow covered mountains all the year round.
Several in the AlpsPlant belt, reflecting the difference in altitude and climate.Various deciduous trees grow at the bottom of the valley and on low hillsides;Among them arelinden、Oak、Beech、poplar, elm, chestnutSorbus bungei, birchNorwegian mapleEtc.Among the trees at higher altitude, the most areconifer, the main varieties areSpruce、larchAnd othersPine。In most parts of the Western Alps, spruce dominated forests can reach an altitude of 2195 meters (7200 feet).Larch has good cold resistance, drought resistance and strong wind resistance. It can grow up to 2500 meters (8200 feet) above sea level, and can be mixed with spruce at low altitude.In perpetuitySnowlineThe areas below and about 914 meters (3000 feet) above the tree line are areas eroded by glaciation;It is covered with lush grassland, and cattle and sheep are herded during the short midsummer.These distinctive grasslands - called "alpages" (alpine midsummer pastures), from which the Alps and plant belts are derived - are located above the main, transverse valleys.At the southern foot of the coastal Alps and the southern part of the Italian Alpsmediterranean seaPlants, withCoastal pine, palm, sparse woodland andagave，Prickly pearThere are many.
There are also many kinds of animals in the Alps, such as rock antelope, lynx, wolf, red deer, golden eagle, otter and other animals have adapted to the mountain environment, although some areasThe bearHas disappeared, but the Highland GoatRock antelopeHowever, it was saved by the Italian Royal Game Reserve.MarmotOverwintering in an underground passage.Hare andThunderbirds(OneGrouse）It turns white in winter (protective color).In the middle of some small mountains, there are severalnational parkIt can provide safe protection for local animals.
mineral resources
The Alps
The pillar of modern Alpine economy is the combination of mining, stone cutting, manufacturing and tourism.There has been a mining industry since the Neolithic Age,AustriaThe Erzberg mining industry is still very important, and the Erzberg has been mining iron ores since the Middle Ages.Near CluseGenevaNot far awayhaute-savoie In the first 25 years of the 19th century, the former Alpine Mountains (Haute Savoie) saw the rise of watchmaking, spiral cutting, parts processing and related industries. It has evolved into one of the regions with the most concentrated industries of these types in the world.In Osta andMur RiverThe valley and the Murz valley have large steel plants due to the local production of iron and coal.
tourist resources
Alpine skiing
The scenery of the Alps is very charming. It is a world famous scenic spot and tourist resort, and is known as "the palace of nature" and "the real landform exhibition hall".It is also a holy land for ice and snow sports and a paradise for explorers.
Mountain glaciers present a polar scenery, and are a resort for mountaineering, skiing and tourism.Alpine mountain glaciers form many lakes.The largest lakeLake LemangIn addition, there are four forest state lakesLake Zurich、Boden Lake、Lake Maggiore andKomo LakeEtc.The beautiful lake area is a tourist attraction.
The western and central Alps have beautiful scenery, with modern hotels, ski slopes and climbing chairs.winterSkiingAttract a large number of tourists.piedmontAndvalleyThere are many villages and towns with beautiful scenery and elegant environment, and a large number of tourists come here every year.
In addition, the Alps alsoTour de FranceEvery year, a large number of tourists are attracted by the two gold lettered signboards. While enjoying the beautiful scenery of the Alps, they watch the Tour de France on the spot and cheer the athletes on from the roadside.
Water resources
The Alps provide drinking water, irrigation and hydropower in Europe.Although the area only accounts for 11% of Europe, it provides more than 90% of Europe's water resources, especially in arid areas and summer.MilanIn other cities, 80% of the water is supplied by the Alps.There are more than 500 hydropower plants in the river basin, generating 2900kW of electricity.Other rivers, such as the Danube, also derive their main tributaries from the Alps.Longhe Riveryesmediterranean seaThe second largest water source, second only tothe Nile；Glaciers melt into water source of Longhe River, flowing intoLake GenevaIt then flows to France, where it is also used to cool nuclear power plants.RhineFromSwitzerlandA 30km ² area accounts for about 60% of Switzerland's water output.
Historical culture
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Characteristic culture
Mont Blanc
sincePaleolithicSince 60000 to 50000 years ago, there have been people living in the Alps and hunting;From Vercors River near Isere River Valley in France toAustriaThe Lieglhohle River above Taupliz has left handicrafts everywhere.After the retreat of the Alpine glaciers (4000~3000 years ago), there were people of the Neolithic Age living in the valleys. They lived in caves and small settlements, some of which were built on the banks of Alpine lakes.stayAnasiNear the LakeLake GenevaSites where such residents live are found along the coast, in the Totes Mountains in Austria, and in the Aosta and Camonica valleys in Italy.The Kamonika Valley is famous for about 20000 rock carvings, which left precious and vivid pictures of human living conditions for more than 2000 years.
Between 800 and 600 BC,CeltThe tribe attacked the Neolithic camp and forced them to move to the remote valley in the AlpsAustriaHalstadt(Hallstatt) found thatCeltsGreat cultural center.Because of the rich archaeological relics found here, the name Halstadt has become synonymous with the end of the Bronze Age and the beginning of the Iron Age (1000?~500BC) in Europe.The Celts began to carve out some passes on the Alps as trade routes.
In 15 BC,Imperium RomanumThe army crossed the Alps and swept and conquered half of Europe.RomanExpanded the ancient Celtic villages;Many new and prosperous towns have been built in the valleys leading to the Alps and in the valleys of the Alps themselves.The Romans improved the water supply and built an arena and theater, which were best preserved in Osta.Controlling the Alpine passes was the key to Roman expansion, and the sheep gut trail was expanded into a narrow road.The mountain passes connecting Roman foreign military outposts (such as those of Saint Bernard, Sprugen, Brenner, and Plocken) are particularly important.BarbarianGermanicThe first invasion of the tribe took place in 259 AD, and by 400 the Roman control of the Alps had collapsed.
RomanizedCelts, whose land was used by Germanic tribes such asBurgundy BurgundianAlemanni(Alemanni) andLombardy(Lombard).During the 8th and 9th centuries, the Alpine lands becamecharlemagne Holy Roman EmpirePart of.Charlemagne's grandchildren《Treaty of Verdun》(Treaty of Verdun, 843) carved up the empire, and the further decomposition in 888 led to the divergence of basic languages that continues to this day.Celts、RomanThe unification with the Alps imposed by barbarians disappeared during the Middle Ages.For most of the time, the valleys were isolated from each other.The closed state of the Alpine peoples was broken by the industrial revolution and the arrival of the railway (passing through the Alps through huge tunnels).
athletic sports
Mountaineering
MountaineeringBecoming a sports event is gradually formed on the basis of human production activities, and its origin is generally recognized as the Alps in the second half of the 18th century.On August 8, 1786, a doctor, MG. Packar and J. Palma, a crystal mason, climbed Mount Blanc, the highest peak of the Alps at 4810 meters above sea level, for the first time.Later, people called mountaineering "Alpine Movement".[2]
Anadromy
Tracing the streamIt is necessary to cross waterfalls and climb cliffs, making river tracing a comprehensive outdoor leisure activity integrating mountaineering, wading, camping, diving, swimming, rock climbing, orienteering, map research and judgment, survival in the wild, and emergency rescue.Originally a popular way of mountaineering in the European Alps, stream tracing has evolved into a relatively independent outdoor sport.[3]
Whitewater canoeing
canoeingKayak originated from Inuit people, including kayak and canoe. Both are boats with small ends and no oars. They are basically the same in the competition field, competition distance, competition rules and referee methods.Canoeing originated in the European Alps and some mountains in the United States, which are rich in river resources.Europe was the first to launch some canoeing competitions down the river, and international competitions began around 1920.During the 11th Olympic Games held in Berlin in 1936, canoeing was listed as an official Olympic event.In 1992, canoeing slalom was listed as an Olympic event.[4]
Paragliding
gliderIt originated in Europe in the 1970s.In 1978, a French climber successfully flew down from the Alps using a square parachute.For this reason, many mountaineering enthusiasts have followed suit and further improved the parachute, making use of hillside terrain to take off and fly freely in the air.[9]
Hiking
on footSports are often mixed with outdoor sports such as mountaineering, camping, outdoor survival, river tracing, rock climbing, etc. The more pure forms of hiking include: hiking, hiking adventure, orienteering, urban (trail) hiking, etc.The modern hiking originated from the popular hiking fitness style in the Alps and has a history of more than 100 years.[11]
Snowboarding
Snowboarding originated in the Alps and Switzerland in the 19th century.The first Winter Games in 1924 listed the four person snowmobile as a competition item.Since then, the snowmobile and sledge project has gradually evolved into a sports project that uses an artificial track, including bobsleigh, skeleton and sledge.It is collectively referred to as sled sport.[12]
Alpine skiing
Skiers wear snowshoes and snowboards, and hold snowsticks on the mountain to use the acceleration of gravity to ski downhill.It is also called Alpine skiing because it originated in some countries near the Alps, such as Austria, Switzerland, Italy, France and other countries.[15]
Migratory grazing: seasonal livestock migration in the Mediterranean and Alps
Austria, Greece, Italy)
Major events
Among Alpine mountain disasters, earthquakes, debris flows, avalanches, landslides, collapses, rolling stones, soil slides, snow slides, storms, hail disasters and rapid glacier movement are caused by internal forces.They are mainly mountain torrents, debris flows, avalanches and landslides.Mountain torrents are concentrated in the middle and low mountains of the Alps in Italy, France, Yugoslavia, West Germany and Austria.Debris flows spread all over the Alps.[19]
Avalanches are mainly distributed in the central alpine region (Switzerland), the middle and low Alps in southern Germany and northwestern Austria.Landslides often occur in sections with poor geological conditions, steep slopes and developed joints and fissures in the Alps, which are mostly caused by slope excavation and slope instability due to improper drainage.[19]
Under the background of increasingly severe global warming trend in recent decades, ice avalanches are triggered in the Alps.On August 30, 1965, an ice avalanche occurred on the Ao'anlin Glacier at the construction site of Matmark Dam (hydropower reservoir) in the Sars Valley of the Alps in southern Switzerland, resulting in the death of 88 workers.At the same time, the Alps region is also a high incidence area of debris flow in the world, and is one of the regions where collapse and landslide are relatively developed in the world.[14]
Early onThe AlpsAnd some other mountains have a certain image of mountain gods, who mainly incarnate as large rocks, rocks, water sources, caves and trees.
Up to now, the procession ceremony and worship activities of God's guards of Alpine residents have been preserved.GraubindenZiteil, the highest holy place in Europe, is worshipped twice a year. It is 2433 meters above sea level.The religion close to nature believes that there are gods in the mountain, and the gods live in the uninhabited peak, because it is the place where heaven and earth meet.On the contrary, in the Alps, their legends come from the folk. The legendary characters are some savages or idealized herdsmen and women. When people do good things, they will be rewarded by them, and when they do bad things, they will be punished by them.
Iris
IrisIt is the Rainbow Goddess in Greek mythology - the messenger of the gods in the world, so iris is also called the saint of flowers.The different colors she is born with make her charming, while the blue and purple iris growing in the Alps is particularly rare, and its thick roots show strong vitality.
Protection research
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Ecological protection
In the late 1980s, Austria, Germany and other eight Alpine countries began to discuss how to better develop and protect the natural and cultural resources of the Alps.In 1991, the eight countries signed the Alps Convention in Salzburg, Austria.The contracting parties reached a consensus to jointly promote the sustainable development of the Alps, taking into account the ecological environment and human environment.The Alps Convention came into force in 1995, which is also the first convention on mountain protection in the European continent.The Convention has made scientific research on Alpine forestry, agriculture, tourism, natural landscape protection and other aspects in line with national conditions.[5]
The Alps has the longest history of establishing trans administrative border agencies for regional cooperation in Europe.Since the 1970s, regional working groups have been gradually established in the middle, east and west of the Alps, and similar organizations have also been established in famous tourist areas adjacent to two or more countries.Mountain organizations in Europe, such as the European Association for Mountain Cooperation, the European Union of Mountain Representatives, the Alpine Alliance, and the European Mountain Forum, also play a positive role in the protection and development of the Alps.[6]
Alpine countries have promulgated laws and regulations on various natural environments, such as the Forest Law, the Law on Prevention and Control of Mountain Torrents and Debris Flows, and the Law on Financing Water Conservancy Projects.[19]
scientific research
The Alps is the cradle of modern geology, where many classical concepts and theories of earth science were born.[18]Modern mountaineering started from climbing the European Alps, and scientific expedition on mountaineering began from then on.At the same time, modern research on climate change, from 1840 to 1840, the Swedish J50. R. Agassi began his research on glaciers in the Alps.[16]
In 1779, HB. De Saussure's Alpine Journey (4 volumes) was published, which is the first monograph on Alpine geology.The outstanding achievement of tectonic geology research in the Alps is the discovery of large-scale overthrust structures.In 1841, A.von Escher of Switzerland first found that the older rock strata overthrust onto the younger rock strata in the Alps.The nappe structure of the French Alps was discovered by P. Termier in 1891.[17]In 1984, the French scientist Chopin first discovered the ultrahigh pressure mineral coesite on the surface of the western Alps. Based on the ultrahigh pressure metamorphic characteristics of this mineral, he proposed the hypothesis that the lower continental crust subducted to a depth of less than 100 kilometers and returned to the surface, and then developed the theory of continental deep subduction.[18]
The State Key Laboratory of Lithospheric Evolution, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, led and organized Chinese, French and Italian scientists to carry out the first large-scale mobile seismic station observation experiment in the Alps from 2010 to 2013 (China France Italy Alps Seismic Array Detection Plan, CIFALPS),55 sets of broadband seismic instruments were intensively deployed in the key corridor of the western Alps subduction zone.[18]
In 2023,France is testing 947 permafrost zones in the Alps, and relevant research is carried out in several high-risk locations.The French Ministry of Ecology has issued specific action plans to monitor and respond to possible natural disasters in the valley areas.[22]
The Alps are an important part of the territory of Austria, covering the western and central parts of AustriaVorarlberg、Tyrol、Salzburg、StyriaandUpper AustriaAnd other provincial administrative regions, includingInnsbruckandSalzburgAnd other big cities.The area of the Alps in Austria accounts for 65% of the total land area and 50% of the population.The area of the Alps in Austria is 54600 square kilometers, accounting for 29% of the total area of the Alps, ranking first among relevant countries.The permanent population of the Alps in Austria reaches 4 million, accounting for 29% of the total population of the whole Alps, second only to Italy.[5]
GermanyBavariaLocated in the northern foot of the eastern part of the Alps, the Bavarian Alps (Bayerische Alpen) covers the whole territory of Bavaria.[5]
The Alps have evolved into one of the most densely populated mountains in the world.Since the fifties and sixties of the 20th century, the population growth in the west and northwest of the central Alps has always maintained a growth rate of about 5%, driven by the comprehensive development of economy, tourism and transportation.[5]
Switzerland is one of the major countries in the Alps.The Alps cover about 60% of Switzerland's land area, including three of the five topographic divisions (the former mountain area, the middle mountain area and the southern slope), where 24% of the country's population lives.[6]
Alpine Mountains
Economics
Before the 19th century, the Alps were relatively closed, and many villages and towns had backward transportation, and some areas were even isolated from the outside world.In the whole mountain area, the local people are mainly engaged in agricultural production.In the German inhabited areas, the agricultural economy is characterized by animal husbandry.In some areas, there are other industries, such as the mining industry in Schradmin, Styria, Austria.Only a few princes and nobles spent their summer holidays in the mountains. For example, in 1849, the Austrian emperor Franz Joseph built a summer palace in Badyishe.At this time, there was no tourism in the mountain area.Since the 1870s, people have gradually paid attention to the tourism resources in the Alps.[5]Modern glacier tourism originated in the Alps in the middle of the 19th century.
In 1855, the first travel guide book about the Alps in Bavaria was published.In 1862, three Vienna university students spontaneously established the Austrian Alps Club.In 1869, led by the Austrian Club, Munich organized the German Alps Club.After the Second World War, the Alpine tourism in Germany and Austria developed rapidly and entered the stage of "mass tourism".[5]In the middle of the 20th century, the tourism industry represented by alpine skiing in the Alps became the main driving force for the population recovery and economic revitalization in parts of Switzerland and western Austria.[6]
traffic
In order to facilitate tourists to climb Zug Peak, Germany and Austria have built a series of railways and cable cars.In 1928, Germany built the Zuger Peak Railway.In 1962, Germany set up the cable car of Ebu Lake.Austria built the Tirol Zug Peak train in 1924 and the cable car in 1989.[5]
The Brenner Pass (1370 meters), Simplon Pass (2009 meters) and St. Gotha Pass (2112 meters) in the Alps have been the main north-south traffic routes since ancient times.In 1871, the first railway tunnel was built in Seni Mountain between France and Italy.The Simplang Tunnel (19.8 km) between Switzerland and Italy, completed in 1922, is the longest mountain railway tunnel in the world.From 1958 to 1965, France and Italy jointly built Mont Blanc Highway Tunnel (11.6 km).In 1980, Switzerland built the longest St. Gotha highway tunnel (16.9 km) in the world.
