Hittite Empire

Slavery countries in Asia Minor

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synonym Hittite (Hittite) generally refers to the Hittite Empire

Asia Minor regional Slave state 。 The Hittite country appeared in the 19th century BC, and the kingdom of Hittite was founded by Rabbanas in the 17th century BC. It reached its peak around the 14th century BC. The capital was first in Kusal and then moved to Hatusha (Hatusha Site is located in turkey central section Chorum Bozkoy Village^[5] ）。 The Hittite Empire reached its peak in the 13th century BC. At the end of the 13th century BC, Philistine Sweep across the east Mediterranean region , Hittite was dismembered. In the 8th century BC, the remaining Hittite Empire was Assyrian Empire Destruction. Although the Hittite Empire ended, it had a profound impact on the development of ancient world civilization. They were the first to invent and use iron, which greatly promoted the progress of human productivity. Now popular in the badges and flags of European countries Double headed eagle It is said that the logo dates back to the ancient Hittite Empire^[5] 。

Chinese name: Hittite Empire
Foreign name: Hittie Empire
Capital: Kusar, Hatusha

Language: Hittite, Nesat
Location: Asia Minor
Continent: Asia
Current country: turkey

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brief introduction

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The Hittite Empire, also translated as the Xitai Empire, or transliterated as Hitato, Beatedo.

The Hittite Empire and the Egyptian Empire

The Hittite State was formed in the middle of the 19th century BC. It was a small country at the beginning and later Hatusha (Today Bogakos) as the center to form an alliance and gradually become unified. Hittite Babylon, Cuba In the later period of Two river basin The largest invasion occurred in the early 16th century BC when the Hittite army fell Babylon , defeated the Kingdom of Babylon in Cuba, and returned full of plunder. In the second half of the 16th century BC, King Hittite Railway alignment After the reform, he established the law of succession to the throne, that is, the eldest son has priority, the second son has no eldest son, and the son-in-law has no son. At the same time, it was stipulated that the internal disputes of the royal family should be settled by the "Pencus Conference", and the king should not kill them at will brothers and sisters If he is really guilty, only his own crime should be investigated, and his family members should not be involved. The reform has consolidated Hittite's royal power and made the country prosperous. From the end of the 15th century BC to the middle of the 13th century BC, Hittite was the most powerful period in the history of Hittite New Kingdom 。 During the reign of the Hittite king Supiluliumas, the Hittites destroyed the Kingdom of Mitanni And take advantage of Egypt Akhenaten reform The opportunity is to seize Egypt's territory in West Asia and compete with Egypt for hegemony. Nineteenth dynasty of Egypt Of Pharaoh We have all fought with Hittite. To Pharaoh of Egypt Ramesses II At that time, Hittite and the Egyptian army met in Kadesh, and both were defeated. In 1259 BC, a peace treaty was signed. Later, there was civil strife in Hittite, and the great empire went into decline. At the end of the 13th century BC“ Maritime nationality ”The Philistines swept the east mediterranean sea In the region, Hittite was dismembered. In the 8th century BC, the remaining Hittite Kingdom was Assyrian Empire Is extinguished.

Hittite ancient kingdom Agriculture has become the main Production department 。 metal smelting It has reached a fairly high level. According to literature records, the Hittites first invented iron making technology. The ancient Hittite Kingdom is a city state alliance centered on Hatushash. The king is elected by the nobility, and succession to the throne must be recognized by the nobility council. The king allocated the conquered land to the prince, and the conquered Indigenous peoples Or they were moved to other places, or left to become agricultural slaves of Hittite. General slaves are regarded as Slave owner Prisoners of war are the main source of slaves.

social relations

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Slavery Great development, frequent foreign wars prisoner Slaves flowed into Hittite. The king gave the slaves, livestock and land plundered in the war to the ministers and nobles, which promoted the development of the slave economy. Ministers, nobles, big slave owners and temples all had huge farms and pastures, which forced a large number of slaves and dependent workers to work or graze. Some slave ranches even become A country within a country Slaves were brutally exploited and abused. There are still a large number of agricultural slaves in the ancient Hittite Kingdom. They have a certain amount of land and have to pay heavy taxes. Domestic slaves (servants) have a high status. They own a certain amount of land and property, and can be used with Free people Women get married (but must deliver higher Retainer ）, not a slave in the general sense. In addition, there were debt slaves.

royal family direct control A large amount of cultivated land is distributed to those who serve the royal family in the form of land allotment, except for awarding ministers and nobles. According to the Hittite Code, there are two levels of land owners: ① "subordinate" or land owners; ② "Person of tools (weapons)", namely handicraftsman A member of a rank. The identity of "subordinate" comes from the king, and the identity of craftsman comes from Governor 。 The share of land from the king cannot be bought, sold or transferred, but can only be inherited. The condition for obtaining the share of land is to serve the royal family. After the identity of "subordinate" is changed, the share of land will be returned to the royal family. Land shares from local governors can be bought, sold and transferred. The condition for land shares is to undertake the corvee in most ordinary cities. After the change of craftsman's identity, the land will be accepted by the local commune.

The class of free people has been seriously divided, and some have become "Hippalas", bound by Public organizations In "labor combination", the status is similar to slave; Some become“ portion of succession People ", who are dependent on the soldiers (ploughing for them or going to war) or temples, are exploited and oppressed by them.

Economic situation

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Although the productivity of the early Hittite countries was Bronze Age However, Hittite was the first country in West Asia to invent ironmaking and use ironware. Hittite Iron weapon Egypt and other countries have been frightened. The Assyrians learned iron smelting from the Hittites. During the Hittite Empire, agriculture and animal husbandry were developed, and bronze plows and sickles were widely used. A large number of silver, copper and lead ores have been mined, and the mining and use of iron have been mastered With Supply to other civilizations. Developed trade is one of its main economic sectors. Hittite mainly focuses on agriculture. Besides metallurgy, there are also pottery manufacturing, textile, etc industrial sector 。 Commercial trade It is also prosperous, with Egypt Phoenicia 、 Cyprus , Aegean islands and other places have exchanges.

handicraft industry There is a more detailed division of labor, including pottery, wood, leather, tailoring, textile and other industries. Due to economic development Political system It is no longer a city-state or a city-state alliance, but Centralization Empire. The king is the supreme ruler in charge of military, administrative, diplomatic, judicial, religious and other powers. "Sun" replaces Old Kingdom "Taberna" becomes the king's title. The king was deified after his death.

The Hittites are a nation accustomed to war, and generations of war have made them realize that it is impossible without a strong army. The Hittite kings maintained an army of up to 300000 people. Their weapons are advanced, using short axes, sharp swords, bows and arrows and chariots. Hittites are famous for iron smelting. They are the first country in West Asia to invent iron smelting and use ironware.

historical background

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rise

Territory of Hittite Empire

Hittites originated from Asia Minor The eastern highland mountains, in the Harris River (today's name Kezel River ）Upstream. The original inhabitants here are called the Hittites. They are neither Semitic nor related to other ancient peoples. At the beginning of the 20th century BC, a group of Nesit people belonging to Indo European people moved here and gradually assimilated with the local Hittites to form the Hittites Hittite The main component of Nesat is Nesat.

The Hittites rose in the early 20th century BC Asia Minor This ancient civilized area. Asia Minor is Near East Civilization and Aegean civilization The bridge and tie of connection. When the Hittites arrived, Anatolia The middle of the Assyria Merchant Sphere of influence There are a large number of Assyrian commercial colonies, named Karum. The Hittites learned to write from Assyrian businessmen and used the cuneiform characters popular in Mesopotamia as the record form of Hittite characters.^[1]

Prosperity

From the 20th century BC to the 19th century BC, Asia Minor The city states of Kusar, Nessa, Hatushashi, etc. were gradually formed.

In the 18th century BC, the Hittites expelled Assyrian merchants, ending their trade activities in central Anatolia. At the same time, many established city-state gradually unified to form the Hittite Kingdom, which was founded by Pitanas and his successor Anitas and his son.

In the 17th century BC, during the rule of his son Hattusiri I (i.e. Rabbana II) (reigned from 1650 BC to 1620 BC), he moved his capital to Hattusha, conquered Silesia, and its boundary reached the Mediterranean coast. Hattusiri also made Syria Of Alalah They surrendered to themselves and defeated Ursu and Hasu, the two major cities in the region. After the death of Hattusili I, the so-called "uprising of princes' slaves" took place in Hittite, that is, the uprising of people in the area conquered by Kusal. The royal nobles suppressed the uprising under the joint efforts of Mursili I, the successor of Hatuxili I.

After his accession to the throne, Mursili I (reigned from about 1620 BC to 1590 BC) and Euphrates River Hana, the city state of Kasit in the middle reaches, allied with each other, marched into the Euphrates River in about 1595 BC, captured and destroyed Harpa, and then destroyed the First Dynasty of Babylon. ancient Kingdom of Babylon Since then, it has never recovered. The conquest of Hatu Sili and Mursili has made the Hittite Kingdom into a state at that time Near East A big country in the region.

Law of succession to the throne

Mursili I died of court conspiracy, and the Hittite Kingdom fell into the civil war for the throne. The Hittite king Tielepin carried out a large-scale reform in the late 16th century BC, which solved the problem of succession to the throne of the Hittite kingdom. The power of the Hittite king before the reform was subject to the Pencus Conference (Citizen's Conference) and the Turias Conference（ Aristocratic meeting ）Constraints. These two meetings have the right to decide on succession to the throne and also manage judicial affairs. The issue of succession to the throne often leads to political turmoil.

Railway alignment The principle of succession to the throne was determined, that is, the eldest son should inherit the throne first, and if the eldest son is absent, the second son should inherit, and so on; If there is no prince to inherit, let the eldest daughter choose her husband to be king. The problem of fighting and killing within the royal family has also been solved. The king should not kill his brothers and sisters at will. The internal dispute of the royal family should be decided by the Pencus conference. If the king's relatives committed a crime, they should only be responsible for it. They should not involve their families or confiscate their property^[2] 。 The reform has consolidated Hittite's royal power and made the country prosperous.

crisis

From the death of Tielieping to 1400 BC, Hittite maintained peace and prosperity for a period of time. But the good times are not long, Egypt and Kingdom of Mitanni Formed a military alliance and invaded Hittite's territory in Syria Dependent country The rebellion also occurred, and then Kaska, the powerful enemy in the north, took advantage of the chaotic situation to loot the towns on the northern border of Hittite and pushed southward. Hatusha, the capital of Hittite, could hardly resist the fierce attack of Kaska. Within a few years, the Hittite Kingdom lost most of its territory, leaving only a small part of its core land in central Anatolia. The enemies of Hittite all believe that the Hittite Kingdom has been destroyed, but one person will lead Hittite to stand up again and build a powerful empire. He is Suppiluliuma I, the greatest monarch in Hittite history.

After falling behind in Hatusha, he and his father retreated to Shamwa, the temporary capital, to reorganize the army and recapture the lost land. When the good news came, the father of Supiluliumas fell ill. On his deathbed, he bypassed Supiluliumas and passed the throne to another son. Supiluliumas was provoked to kill his brother, usurped the throne, and violated Tieleping's Law of succession to the throne 。

brilliant

After Supiluliumas ascended the throne, he conquered Azawa's territory westward and eliminated Kaska northward. Hatusha returned to Hittite's control. He continued to march southward and defeated the Syrian coalition forces. In less than a year, most of Syria was under his control, and the Mitanni Kingdom was also defeated. Supiluliumas also used political means to consolidate his military victory Ugarit The alliance has controlled the important trade channel, making it provide a valuable source of income. In the next two centuries, Ugarit's tax revenue has become the most important economic source of Hittite.

Supiluliumas wanted to extend his influence to Mesopotamia, so he divorced his queen and married her Babylon Princess, she became "Tavanana" (Tavanana is an official title that should be enjoyed as his wife) - Queen of Hittite.

After 20 years of rule, the Hittite territory started north in the hands of Supiluliumas Black Sea , Dongda Euphrates River , arriving in the south Lebanon Mountain And become a veritable empire.

The plague swept through

In 1327 BC, Supiluliumas surrounded Mitanni The remaining stronghold is Carchemish. Just then he received a letter from Egypt, which was roughly as follows: "My husband died, but I have no children. I heard that you have many sons. If you can send a son, he can be my husband, and I will not choose a lower courtier as my husband, but I am worried." The letter was written by the Egyptian queen, Ahnsenarone, and her dead husband was Egypt Pharaoh Tutankhamun 。 Suspecting that there was a fraud, Supiluliumas sent people to Egypt to meet with Anhezenamon, and captured Kakmesh at the same time.

The next year, Supiluliumas received a reply from Anhorsen Namon: "Why do you say 'they cheat me'? If I had a son, I would have to hurt myself and the country to beg for one Foreign countries Is it? I didn't write to other countries, only to you. They said that you have many sons, so please give me one. For me, he will be the husband, and for Egypt, he will be the king. " Supiluliumas was moved, and he sent a son to Egypt, but the prince was killed by the political enemies of Anhezenamon after he set foot on the land of Egypt.

Supiluliumas decided to attack Egypt in retaliation. The Hittite soldiers looted and burned Egyptian towns in Syria, and a large number of prisoners were brought back to Hatusha plague The disease spread rapidly, the population declined significantly, and the land became barren.

In 1322 BC, after the death of Supiluliumas I due to the plague, the eldest son Alnuwanda II ascended the throne. Only one year later, he also died of disease.^[3]

The last heyday

Hittite was succeeded by Mursili II, the youngest son. The young emperor took over the powerful and weak empire. After his long and pious prayer, the plague finally dissipated. However, Mursili II has a thorny problem Private issues , his stepmother, Tawananna, the Babylonian widow of Supiluliumas. Tavanana is the chief of this land Priestess She has an important influence in religion and politics. She is powerful and autocratic. After the death of the emperor, she still retains the title and rights of the queen, even if the new emperor succeeds to the throne.

In the ninth year of the reign of Mursili II, his two brothers Aleppo Governor and Governor Kakmish died one after another, and his wife Gassulawiya was seriously ill. Doctors and gods could not save her life, which was reminiscent at that time art of casting spells Mursili II was very sad and convinced that his stepmother killed Gaisulavia with witchcraft, so he deprived Tavanana of her status as a priestess and expelled her from the palace.

Despite many setbacks, Mursili II conquered the western territory, making the territory of the Hittite Empire reach the peak, and officially climbed onto the Mesopotamia Plain and Anatolia The plateau is the location of the protagonist on this vast land.

In the 13th century BC, Muwatalli, the eldest son of Mursili II, ascended the throne as the 22nd king of the empire Ramesses II The battle of Kadesh was carried out. Battle of Kadesh Later, Hatushili led his army back to Hatusha, and stopped at Holy City Rawazantiya, come and worship his protector ishtar （ Ishtar ）The goddess met Puduhepa, the daughter of the local priest, and married her there.

Around 1272 BC, Muwatari died and his son Ulmi Teshup ascended the throne Shangjun Ulsitaishup, the prince of the city, was very alert to Hatuxili and felt that his uncle was a threat. After seven years in power, he deprived most of Hatu Sili's titles and territories. In response, Hattusili revolted, overthrew his nephew's rule and ascended the throne, namely Hattusili III. King Hattusili III wrote a "defense of Hattusili" for his usurpation, which can be said to be the earliest autobiography.

Peace treaty

The first move of Hattusili III after he ascended the throne was to establish a solid political bond with his neighbors, and royal marriage and treaty conclusion were the best ways to achieve the goal. As a queen, Puruhepa organized her family to marry other kings Vassal states The king exchanged letters, and she frequently appeared in the activities of various affairs of the kingdom, but the most far-reaching influence was in the religious field. The Hittites have integrated multiple cultures and many gods in more than 400 years. As the chief priestess of the empire, she ordered to collect, file and revise various religious texts religious rites And organize and re deify many gods.

After 1260 BC, the problem of Assyria, which continued to grow in size, can no longer be avoided. Before dealing with Assyria, we must first stabilize Egypt on the other side. In 1259 BC, King Hattusili III of the Hittites and the Egyptian Ramesses II A peace treaty was signed. The Hittite version of the peace treaty is stamped with the seals of Hattusiri and Purdhepa, and the Aka German The writing was sent to Egypt, where it was translated into Egyptian characters and engraved on Kelnik On the walls of the temple of Ramesses. The Egyptian version of the treaty was also written in Akkadian and sent to Hatusha. This version is displayed in Turkey today Istanbul Of Archaeological Museum Li. The Egyptian version was written by Hattusiri, while the one in Istanbul today is the masterpiece of Ramesses.^[3]

In 1246 BC, King Hatuxili III adopted a policy of reconciliation and marriage, and married one of his daughters to the Egyptian Ramesses Pharaoh. Later found in Egypt Karnak A sculpture on the temple wall depicts the scene of the Egyptian pharaoh marrying the Hittite Princess at that time.

Warfare

And Ancient Egypt It is one of the oldest wars in which the peace treaty has been handed down. From the end of the 14th century BC to the middle of the 13th century BC, Ancient Egypt To compete with Hittite for Syria control power The war lasted for decades. A crucial battle in this war Battle of Kadeshi It's ancient Military history It is one of the earliest battles recorded in writing. The peace treaty concluded after the war is the earliest recorded in writing that has been preserved in history until now International military treaty document.

The ancient Syrian region was located between Asia, Africa and Europe. It was the hub of the ancient "tin road", the trade hub of the ancient sea and land caravans, and always the place for the great powers.

As early as the 3000th BC, Egypt launched several wars of conquest over Syria, trying to establish and consolidate its hegemony in Syria. However, Egypt's efforts to establish hegemony have met strong challenges from Egypt's powerful neighbor, Hittite. In the 14th century BC, when Egypt was busy with religious reform, Hittite rose rapidly. Under the leadership of its brilliant King Supiluliumas, Hittite actively pushed forward to Syria and gradually controlled the southern region Damascus The entire Syrian region, a heavy blow to Egypt's vested interests in this region. Pharaohs of Egypt's 19th Dynasty, ca. 1290 BC Ramesses II He ascended the throne (from 1290 BC to 1224 BC), determined to regroup, compete with Hittite, and restore Egypt's ruling position in Syria. To this end, Ramesses made strenuous efforts to expand the army and prepare for the war, and formed the Putah Legion, together with the original Amun Legion, Lai Legion and Saite Legion, plus Nubians, Sardans, etc mercenary army , with a total of 4 corps and more than 20000 troops. In 1286 BC (the fourth year after the accession of Ramesses II), Egypt first sent troops to occupy Belit (today's Beirut) and Biblus in southern Syria. At the end of April 1274 BC, Ramesses II led four legions to the north from the Jialu Fortress in the east of the delta, along the Ridani River Valley and the Orent River Valley. After nearly a month's march, he entered the Kadish area and camped on the highland about 15 miles south of Kadish. The Kadish Stone, located on the west bank of the upper reaches of the Orent River, was fast with steep cliffs, The terrain is dangerous, and it is the throat connecting North and South Syria. It is also the military center of the Hittite army Strategic location 。 The Egyptian army tried to capture Kadesh first, control the throat of northward movement, and then move northward to resume its rule over the whole Syria.

As Egypt marched northward, an intensive war preparation campaign was also launched in Hittite. Before Ramesses II left, Hittite learned from the spies sent to Egypt that Egypt was about to send troops for an expedition. King Muwatari of the Hittites held a royal meeting, and formulated a plan to take Kadir stone as the center, guard the key points, wait for fatigue with ease, lure the enemy in, and smash the Egyptian army's attempt to move north scheme of operations 。 To this end, Hittite gathered more than 20000 troops, including 2500-3500 chariots (each equipped with one driver and two soldiers), and concealed them inside and outside Kadesh Castle to lure the enemy into the ambush circle and wipe them out at one stroke. Ramesses II led his army to command in the morning of the next day after spending a night in the highlands near Kardashi Main force Attack Kadesh, intending to capture the castle before dusk. Ramesses II led the Amun Legion to charge ahead, and the Lai Legion and the Putah Legion followed behind. The Saite Legion stayed in Arum due to its slow action, and it was difficult to reach the battlefield for a while.

When Amun When the regiment reached the Sabutuna Ferry, 8 miles south of Kadesh, it intercepted two "fugitives" of the Hittite army. These two Bedouin nomads, who were actually the "dead room" of Hittite, lied that the main force of Hittite was still far away from Aleppo, a hundred miles north of Kadesh, and pretended that the morale of the Kadesh garrison was low, the strength was weak, and they were afraid of the Egyptian army, especially the Syrian princes and marquises had long wanted to return to Egypt. Ramesses II believed it and immediately commanded the Amun Corps to cross the Orent River from the Sabutona Ferry and go deep into the city of Kadesh alone. After hearing the news, Muwatar secretly transferred Hittite's main force to the east bank of the Orent River, forming an encirclement circle and surrounding the Egyptian army. Ramesses II knew the plot from the captured Hittite prisoners, and immediately sent an urgent envoy to urge the Lai Corps and the Putah Corps to come to help urgently. When the Lai Legion arrived in the jungle south of Kadesh, the Hittite chariots that had been stationed here unexpectedly attacked its flanks. The Lai Legion suffered heavy losses. Then, the Hittite army launched a fierce attack on the Amun Legion of the Egyptian army with 2500 chariots. The Egyptian soldiers were ready to collapse and scattered for their lives. Under the cover of guards, Ramesses II, trapped in a tight encirclement, broke out from left to right and fought hard, He also prayed for the blessing of Amun and released the lions to protect him. Pharaoh hold one's ground Later, the soldiers of the vassal states, who were very important to the Hittite army, could not help but confuse the formation with the temptation of the booty in the Egyptian military camp. At this critical moment, a force that had stayed in Amru when the Egyptian army went north for an expedition arrived. The support army is in a three line configuration, and the front line is dominated by combat vehicles, Light infantry Under cover, the second front was infantry, and the third front was half infantry and half chariots. Suddenly, they appeared behind the Hittite army, attacked the Hittite army, and rescued Ramesses II from the danger. The battle was very fierce. The Hittites lost a lot of chariots and the Egyptian infantry lost their combat power. If the stalemate persists, both sides will only lose. Ramesses withdrew and returned to Egypt. Due to the loss of chariots, the Hittites could no longer pursue the pharaoh. Although they missed the best opportunity, they destroyed half of Kadesh Egyptian Army Soon after, the Hittites recaptured Arum and Aba, namely Damascus.

In the 16 years since then, the war has continued, but the scale is relatively small. Ramesses II learned the lesson of underestimating the enemy's advance in the battle of Kardashi, changed to the strategy of steady progress, and once returned to the Orent River. However, Hittite adopted the strategy of sticking to the castle and avoiding the battle, and neither side could achieve a decisive victory.

In about 1259 BC, the Hittite King Hattusili (who reigned from 1275 to 1250 BC), who succeeded his brother Muwatari, proposed that the two sides conclude a peace treaty with the consent of Ramesses II. Hatuxili wrote Silver plate The draft of the peace conference was sent to Egypt, on which Ramesses II drew up his own draft and sent it to the Hittite King. The full text of the treaty was inscribed in hieroglyphics on the walls of the temples of Karnak and Latin America Sium (Thebes) in Egypt. It is a copy of the original. The original manuscript may be written in Hittite and the Babylonian cuneiform script that was commonly used internationally at that time. Babylonian cuneiform script was found in the archives of Hatushash, the capital of Hittite Clay tablet a duplicate copy. The treaty stipulates that the two sides will achieve permanent peace, "there will never be any more hostilities", and always maintain "a good peace and a good brotherly relationship". The two sides will implement mutual military assistance to jointly defend against any invading enemy. Both sides promise not to accept each other's fugitives, and have the obligation to extradite fugitives. After the signing of the treaty, King Hittite married Ramesses II as his wife with his eldest daughter, and further consolidated the alliance between the two sides through political marriage. The war of hegemony between Egypt and Hittite , is ancient Middle and Near East Important events in history. Ramesses II was the last powerful pharaoh of the ancient Egyptian military empire, and Hittite was also in its heyday at that time. The decades long military rivalry between the two sides has seriously weakened their strength. Egypt has not recovered Asia For the purpose of belonging to the motherland, the successors of Ramesses II are increasingly facing the situation of internal and external difficulties. From Asia Minor in the Aegean Sea Swept in The migration tide of "sea people", echoing the invasion of Libyan tribes, increasingly shook the rule of the pharaoh, and once powerful New Kingdom Gradually fall into disintegration.

perish

At the end of the 13th century BC, the Hittite Empire fell into civil war, and the Assyrians and the "Sea People" (Cimmerians, Kaskas, Phrygians, Bryges Lydia People) rushed to the split Hittite from multiple directions, and the "sea nation" swept across the east Mediterranean region Under the leadership of Ashur I, the Assyrians occupied a large area of the western part of the Hittite Empire. But there are still some remnants of Ruvi language in Chirikiya and northern Syria Hieroglyphics The Hittite small city-state. In the 8th century BC, the remaining Hittite Kingdom was Assyrian Empire Is extinguished.

Mythological religion

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myth

Hittite myth It is the main literary expression of the Hittites, including the works adapted from the creation and flood legends of the ancient Sumerians, and the religion of Hittites is also copied Mesopotamia Of Polytheism 。 religious activities Including divination to sacrifice , fasting and praying, without ethical significance. Hittite Cuneiform Describe yourself Indo European The Hittite cuneiform language was created. Hittite has another set Hieroglyphics , used for inscriptions and seals, which may be primitive Pictorial text and Egyptian Hieroglyphs Impact. But so far, these hieroglyphs have not been interpreted successfully. The most outstanding cultural achievements of Hittites are legal system 。 With《 Hittite laws 》The Hittite law represented by Babylon, Cuba The laws of the Assyrians are more humane, and there are not many crimes for which the death penalty is imposed, not to mention those in Assyrian laws such as skinning Palace execution , nailing stakes and other torture. Hittite Artistic talent Not very good. But their sculptures are novel and vivid, especially the reliefs on the stone walls. There are usually huge and vivid sculptures beside the city gate and the palace gate stone lion 。 Their building materials are mostly boulders, which are obviously superior to Two river basin Of Adobe 。 Hittite civilization Its historical achievement lies not only in the discovery and use of iron, but also in the fact that it acts as a common west Asia The intermediary of cultural exchange in the western region. There is no doubt that some cultural elements are spread from Mesopotamia to Canaanites and Hixos, and possibly also to Aegean Islands The Hittite civilization is Egyptian civilization 、 Civilization of the Two River Valley and aegean sea One of the main links between civilizations in the region.

Religion

Hittite Empire

The goddess Arina and the god Tielepin played an important role in the gods of Hittite. Alina is one of the most important gods they believe in. She is praised as the Queen of the Earth, the Queen of the Land, and the patron saint of Hittite and monarchy. When the country was in danger, the king always prayed to her for help first. When the national war was victorious, he would also send a lot of booty to her temple. Her husband is the god of thunderstorms. Tieleping, known as the god of agriculture, is the son of the god of thunderstorm. He plays the role of the wine officer at the dinner table and delivers wine to the gods. Wheat bead PULL The goddess was often treated as the sun goddess by the Hittite king. The Hittites also believe in gods: Helios Einstein, Karl throne God, God Halmasuita, God Bilva, God Tasiment, Hu Mithra , Kate, Hashamari, and the old inner Lord Carter Hash God Ma, God Charianu, God Chashhapuna, God Inar (the patron god of Hatusha City), God of War Wushkat, God Wurusem, God Kambiwat, God Karmali, God Taulit, God Hatushali, God Tutti, God Zitouhei, God Zilipuli, God Zisha Su Shen , Julia, the moon god Kashku, Hapantari, the sun god shepherd, the sun goddess Katahazpri and the god Huzia. These gods perform their own duties, appear on different occasions, and play their own roles. In the Nuentalyashhashi Festival, the main gods worshipped are the Hatti gods, such as the sun goddess Arina, Kambiwat, Zitria and Inar, and other 14 gods.

Among the Hittite gods, the god in charge of introductions is Lervani, and the goddesses Ishtushtaya, Papaya and Shiwat are also part of the Hittite Hell Gods. They are worshipped in a special place, the "Hesti" Temple.

Every New Year, they celebrate the Prussian Day. The Ashhashi Festival of Lauentali is one of the most grand and grand festivals of the Hittites, which was held after the return of the king from the expedition. The religious activities of Hittite are mainly concentrated in the cities of Alina, Nerik, Zepalanda and Hatusha Shicheng was held. Among them, Arina City and Neric City are the most important places for Hittite to hold sacrificial activities. The former is worship goddess Alina's place, which is dedicated to Tieleping, the god of agriculture. The city of Zepalanda is also an important place for Hittite sacrificial activities.

Antaheshu Festival

Antaheshu ⑩ Festival (EZEN AN. TAH. UM) is an important event held by Hittite Kingdom religious festival One (11), it is held in spring and lasts for 38 days (12). According to the literature, "if the king winters in Hatu Sha City... but if the king winters in other places, when spring comes..." (13) and "for Antaheshu Festival, in every spring" (14), it can be specifically identified as the early spring period of each year. Antaheshu Festival Time structure In days, most of the activities start in the morning and end in the evening. Antaheshu Festival is mainly held around Hatusha, the capital of the Hittite Kingdom, and some surrounding cities (15). It follows a specific rule: take Hatusha City as the center, and hold festival celebrations in several other cities along the route from north to south. In addition, from the point of view of the location structure inside the city, a building named "Harengtu House" (16) plays an important role. It is the only way for the king and queen to go to the inside of various temples or other houses.

The whole Antahshu festival Basic activities The process is as follows: the king and queen take a carriage to tour between different cities, and there will be corresponding ceremonies before, at the gate of and after entering the city. In different temples, houses, palaces and other buildings in each city, the king and his wife need to dress up and set out, accompanied by others, to complete the cleaning, offering sacrifices and other ceremonies, and then start the activities of offering sacrifices and alcohol offerings. The toast is the core activity of the festival. The king and his wife need to toast to the gods of Hittite Play music Dancing and other activities. At the end of the festival, people left the temple, house or palace and closed the gate. But this basic process is not fixed. It may be adjusted to different degrees in different historical periods, which shows us the changing side of Antaheshu Festival.

The activities of Antaheshu Festival can be classified into ritual activities and sacrificial activities according to their nature. These two types of activities are not completely different. They exist independently of each other and are intertwined with each other. Ritual activities start from the beginning of the festival, and accompany and serve the sacrificial activities. The sacrificial activities are the core subject of the whole Antaheshu festival. To some extent, it can even be said that ritual activities are just sacrificial activities Preparatory activities It is also an essential part in the process of sacrificial activities, which to a certain extent plays up the sacrificial activities.

Although there are many people in Antakhshu Festival, the rulers of Hittite countries represented by the king, queen and prince are the core and main body of the whole festival. Administrative officials, religious personnel and Other personnel It is not only the assistant of festival activities, but also the participant of festival activities. Therefore, the whole Antaheshu Festival has a strong official color, and there is almost no folk participation in festival activities. Under the joint action of various personnel, the whole festival went on orderly.^[4]

Iron smelting technology

Hittites are the first invention in Western Asia and even in the world Ironmaking And the countries that use iron ware are also the first nations in the world to enter the Iron Age. Archaeological evidence shows that the production of iron ware can be traced back to at least the 20th century. He is famous for smelting iron. King Hittite regards iron as a patent, which is not allowed to be spread outside. Even iron is as expensive as gold, and its price is brass 60 times. Hittite Iron weapon Once made Egypt Such countries are afraid of it. The most effective weapon for Hittites to attack the enemy is the chariot; On the battlefield, they drove the armored horse drawn chariots into battle, which was invincible and made the coming enemy afraid.

It was not until the destruction of Hittite around 1180 BC that Hittite blacksmiths scattered all over the country to smelt iron Technology diffusion It spread to India about 800 years ago.

Imperial lineage

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Old Kingdom

Kusal Dynasty

The first known king in the first half of the 18th century BC

18th century before Anita middle period

A ruler whose name is lost

1680 BC - 1650 BC

Rabbana II 1650-1620 BC

1620-1590 BC

Talipinus

1590-1560 BC

1560-1550 BC

1550 BC - 1530 BC

1530-1525 BC

Railway alignment 1525-1500 years ago

Some researchers believe that there are no following 6 people.

Aruvanna

Tahurwairi

Hantiri II

Chidanta II

Huzia II

Muwatari I

Middle Kingdom

With regard to the Middle Kingdom, no information has been preserved. But some researchers listed the last six monarchs of the ancient kingdom as Middle Kingdom The ruler of.