In 1888《Communist Manifesto》In the English version of, Engels added a special note to clearly define the concept of the bourgeoisie: "The bourgeoisie refers to the modern capitalist class that owns the means of social production and uses wage labour."[1]
According to Marx and Engels, the predecessor of the bourgeoisie was the free residents in the early cities from the "medieval serfs", whose life foundation had already exceedednatural economyA new type of workshop for inertial practicehandicraft industryProduction and corresponding commercial activities.[2]
The bourgeoisie first appeared in the Middle AgesItalyAt that time, people living in villages began to become richer than people living in the nearby countryside.Therefore, they can gain relatively more power and influence, and gradually move away from the civilian class.They can quickly have a significant influence on the local economy and can express to the rulersveto power。
The bourgeoisie firstItalyOfVenice、FlorenceThe reason for the emergence of such cities is that Italy has close ties with the two business worlds in Europe.Italy not onlymediterranean seaGain benefits from trade, andWestern Europe、Northern EuropewitheastThe middlemen in the trade of various countries have benefited from it.Nurtured by commodities and trade activities, the commodity economy of some Italian cities and towns flourishedThe rudiments of capitalismConditions are provided.
After that, the bourgeoisie, a new class, rose in Central and Western Europe and gradually formed an independent class.
ColonialismThe broad world market opened up is the objective premise for the development of the bourgeois big industry, which has also greatly promoted the rapid expansion of the commercial market in the maritime industry and the railway industry, which has made the capital expansion of the bourgeoisie unprecedented, which is the fundamental foundation for the bourgeoisie to surpass all other classes in the old society and become the ruling force.[2]
stayMarxismThe bourgeoisie is defined as the class that owns the means of production and the labor of workers in the society that produces goods, andcapitalistIt actually means the same thing.Marxism believes thatproletariatIn essence, (wage earners) and the bourgeoisie are hostile to each other. For example, workers naturally hope that the higher the salary, the better. However, capitalists hope that the lower the salary (i.e. the cost), the better.In other words, capitalists exploit labor.
If the ownership of production tools is defined as that a person has complete control over a specific production tool, then in the 21st centurymodern societyThere are very few bourgeoisie left.In contemporaryMarxismIn terms of language, the bourgeoisie refers to those who control the company's institutions. The methods of control include controlling most of the company's sharesOption、trust, funds, intermediaries or public statements on market business.So“capitalist”It refers to people whose wealth is mainly obtained through investment, and they do not need to work to survive.
In modern AfricaMarxismIn Chinese, the bourgeoisie (or Bourgeois) andGeneral public(PRO comes from Proletarian) It is often used to refer torich personAndpoor peopleIt does not necessarily refer to people who own or do not own production tools.
Historical position
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Production mode
Marx and Engels said that different from the old mode of production in the past "various times", the survival and rule of the bourgeoisie is not based on the principles of slave owners and feudal ruleReal estateThe inertia practice of (land) keeps its own mode of production "intact" in the process of recycling, but on the basis of the exchange of "movable property" (money) that is constantly changing in the market, actively and consciously causes "constant changes in production, continuous shocks in all social relations", which is an endless comprehensive "revolution",Has become the premise of the existence of bourgeois society itself.[2]
social relations
Secondly, at the level of social relations, not only the original farmingnatural economyThe feudal patriarchal relationship and autocratic hierarchical structure existing in the inertia practice "crossed" in the tide of commodity economy, because the monetary relationship field in the economic materialization would "flatten" all noble low quality and all unequal relations, and then, the bourgeoisie createdeconomic relationsTyping, which has not yet been fixed, will immediately become "obsolete", which makes the internal nature of the new society become a fast changing field, and the bubble style utilitarian fashion becomes the basic style of life shaping.[2]
world market
Third, bourgeoisworld marketIt has created a broader living space for social orientation and development.This is also an affirmative description of the object dimension.In order to make money, "the bourgeoisie has to travel around the world if it needs to constantly expand the market of its products. It has to dig everywhere, settle everywhere, and establish contacts everywhere". However, when it "squeezes the markets around the world", it virtually "the bourgeoisie has dug up the national foundation at the foot of industry",The objective result is that "production and consumption in all countries have become global".[2]
Chinese influence
Chinese historyThe upper bourgeoisie is divided intoComprador bourgeoisieandNational bourgeoisie。The comprador bourgeoisie acted as an imperialist exploitation and plunderChinese proletariatThey are not only dependent on imperialism, but also in collusion with the Chinese landlord class. They oppress the workers and peasants as well as the urban petty bourgeoisie, harm national interests, hinder the development of productive forces and social progress. They are reactionary and decaying classes, and are the object of the Chinese democratic revolution.The national bourgeoisie was formed and developed in the process of the disintegration of China's feudal system and the invasion of foreign capitalism. It is a bourgeoisie with less connection with imperialism.It has duality: on the one hand, it is oppressed by imperialism and fettered by feudalism, and has the revolutionary nature of anti imperialism and anti feudalism;On the other hand, it is inextricably linked with imperialism and feudalism. It is weak economically and politically, and its anti imperialism and anti feudalism are not thorough and compromise.Therefore, China's national bourgeoisieChinese nationIn the period of democratic revolution, we cannot be the leading class, but can only be the ally of the proletariat;During the socialist revolution, some people exploited workers for profits, while others supported the Constitution and were willing to accept itsocialistThe transformation side.
Internal contradiction
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"The productive forces owned by the bourgeoisie can no longer promote the development of the ownership relationship of the bourgeoisie; on the contrary, the productive forces have grown to a point that this relationship cannot accommodate, and the bourgeois relationship has hinderedproductivityDevelopment of;When the productive forces first broke through this barrier, the entire bourgeois society fell into chaos, and the existence of bourgeois ownership was threatened. "[2]
class relations
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feudal society
Statues of Marx and Engels in Berlin
The objective basis for the emergence of the bourgeoisie is the substitution of the structure of the phasing of industrial production and the new type of commodity exchange relations for the structure of agricultural production organizations and patriarchal relations. All the production relations and communication modes of the bourgeoisie are also based onfeudal societyIt was bred and generated internally, but after the rapid development of large industrial production and commercial markets ("communication means"), the old "feudal agricultural and manufacturing organizations" immediately becameproductivityOf“Shackles”Is completely broken.[2]
proletariat
The bourgeoisie and the proletariat are not completely isolated and antagonistic. They are still interdependent and inseparable. Some members of the bourgeoisie have to pay for both capital and labor. Although the proletariat mainly relies on labor, it can also occasionally obtain capital gains, which also shows that the complexity of capital forms has led to the complexity of class existence,Capital operation has entered an era where part of the proletariat can enjoy capital gains and further stimulate the enthusiasm of workers.[1]
Third, as a bourgeois societygravediggerThe proletariat.Marx and Engels pointed out that it is under the bourgeois wage labor system that is different from those that can be bought and sold at one timeslaveOnly then can workers become "selling themselves sporadically", and make their labor (force) become a trading object that can increase capital.[2]
sense of worth
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Individualism
Extreme individualism is the same asMoney worship、hedonismMutual causality constitutes the essential characteristics of capitalist core values.The idea of advocating individual freedom and individual rights has objectively promoted the bourgeois revolution and the development of capitalist society.[3]
In terms of theoretical interpretation, bourgeois thinkers demonstrated the value categories of freedom, democracy, equality and human rights based on the theory of natural rights.This kind of theory, which breaks away from the social and historical conditions and explains human social survival with human natural attributes and natural rights, is a typical onehistorical idealism。In terms of institutional nature, the core values of capitalist countries are based onprivate ownershipTo ensurePrivate property is sacred and inviolableAs a prerequisite, the interests of the bourgeoisie are inviolable.staycapitalUnder the guidance of logic, freedom is the freedom of the property to exploit the proletariat, while the bourgeoisie isdemocraticEquality is confined to the bourgeois group,human rightsThey completely ignore collective human rightsIndividualismLabel for.[3]
There is no doubt that the slogan "natural human rights" has played a very revolutionary role in history.It was under the banner of "natural human rights" that the bourgeoisie denied the divine rights, monarchical rights and hereditary privileges once considered inviolable, cut off personal attachment and destroyed the feudal old world.Under the slogan of "natural human rights", the bourgeoisieEgoismNature was established as a sacred and inviolable legal principle, which established a kingdom of free competition and equality of commodity owners, thus creating more and larger productive forces than all previous generations and all the wonderful things of the bourgeoisie.In a word, under the slogan of "natural human rights", the bourgeoisie has created a world for itself according to its own appearance.[4]
Political form
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capitalist society The realruling classIt is a financial aristocrat and a land aristocrat.Financial aristocracy includesbankerSome industrial and commercial bourgeoisie associated with bankers and some bourgeois landowners.[5]
dominance
First, the dominant position of financial aristocracy and land aristocracy in French society.In the "Three Books of French History", Marx distinguished the inner part of the bourgeoisie, separating the financial aristocracy and the land aristocracy from the middle bourgeoisie.MarxIt pointed out that "in the Louis Philips era, it was not the French bourgeoisie that dominated, but only a group of the bourgeoisie: bankers, exchange barons, railway barons, owners of coal, iron ore and forests, and some land owners associated with them, namely the so-called financial aristocracy.[5]
deprive
Second, the financial aristocracy and the land aristocracy against FranceproducerDeprivation of class.Financial nobles seek to become rich by cheating others' existing property instead of production, and "the wealth obtained by speculation naturally needs to be satisfied, so pleasure becomes dissolute, and money, filth and blood are first-class. Financial nobles, whether in terms of the way they get rich or in terms of the nature of pleasure, are just hooligansproletariatThe rebirth in the upper class of bourgeois society is just a matter.[5]
Public power
Third, the financial aristocracy and the land aristocracy against FrancePublic powerControl of.The state machinery has become a means for the financial aristocracy and the land aristocracy to carry out the second exploitation of the people in addition to the direct economic exploitation.CentralizedBureaucracyIt was "created by the bourgeoisie, initially as destructionFeudal systemAs a means to suppress producersworking classThe liberation of the means required.[5]
military concept
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Concept introduction
Concept introduction
Military thought is the general term of the basic views of the bourgeoisie on the nature of war, the laws of war, military construction and operational guidance.It is a summary of the experience of the bourgeoisie's long-term military practice andTheoretical summaryIt has a theoretical guiding role for all fields of bourgeois military science and bourgeois military practice.
developing process
With the development of bourgeois military thoughtCapitalist mode of productionIt was gradually established in some European countries and evolved with the development of society.
In the 15th century, Italian thinkersMachiavelliIt is proposed that the monarch should concentrate on the war and grasp military power to consolidate his power.This is the earliest beginning of military thought.
As a theoretical system, bourgeois military thought was gradually formed only at the end of the 18th century and the first half of the 19th century.Among them, Napoleon I was perfecting the military organization and establishing new fighting methodsaspectHas made significant contributions.ClausewitzOn War andjomini Of《Introduction to War Art》It is a foundational theory and masterpiece of military thought.
From the middle of the 19th century to the end of the Second World War, bourgeois military thought was further developed.
After the Second World War, the development of bourgeois military thought entered a new period.The United States put forward its nuclear strategy, emphasizing the struggle for world hegemony by virtue of advanced technical weapons, especially nuclear weapons, maintaining a strong deterrent force and military advantage.The "air ground integration" combat theory founded by the United States in the early 1980s reflects the growing emphasis on the study of campaign theory.
China
China's bourgeois military thought from the end of the Qing DynastyWesternization FactionToRevolution of 1911afterBeiyang Warlord, and withChiang Kai shekThe military theories of the Kuomintang, represented by the Kuomintang, bear the imprint of western bourgeois military thought.The bourgeois military thought has historically promoted the development of world military science, but because it serves the policy of plundering and expansion of capital, coupled with the limitations of methodology, it involves social relations andclass struggleIn terms of substantive issues, it is always impossible to give an objective and practical explanation.
primary coverage
The main contents of bourgeois military thought include:
1. About war
The bourgeoisie believes that war is an eternal phenomenon of human society.In war andPolitical relationsOn,ClausewitzHe emphasized that war must obey and serve politics, but Ludendorf believed that politics should be subordinated to strategy and politics should serve war.
2. About the military
The bourgeoisie believes that the military is a supra class, politically irrelevant and nationwide organization, and advocates universal implementationCompulsory military serviceThe selection and training of military personnel is not limited by their birth level. The military system and the composition of the military arms should be changed according to the development of weapons. Emphasis should be placed on training and military mental state.
3. About operational guidance
Common principles are: purpose and task, conciseness, unified command, attack, maneuver, concentration of forces, force saving, suddenness, combat support of the army, etc.
Revolutionary history
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The growth of any class is accompanied by the introduction and innovation of the old system, as well as the revolutionary movement.
Bourgeois war
From the 17th century to the 18th century, the world history inherited the great turning points and changes of the previous period and developed in a deeper and broader direction.In Europe and North America, with the decline of the feudal landlord class, the foundation of feudalism was impacted,bourgeois revolutionThe time has come.After the Netherland Revolution, the bourgeois revolution broke out in BritaincapitalismThe establishment of the system has opened the way.The main feudal countries in the European continent also carried out reforms in succession, implementing the policy of enriching the country and strengthening the army, which objectively promoted the development of capitalism.During this period, European countries further accelerated the pace of colonial expansion.After fierce struggle, Britain finally became the largest colonial country in the world.In the tide of social upheaval, Europepolitical thought The field appearsenlightenment campaign, providing a set of political ideas for capitalist society.In France, a grand bourgeois revolution broke out, destroying the feudal autocracy and opening the way for the bourgeoisie to take power.stayBritish North American ColoniesThe emerging bourgeoisie represented by Washington launched and led the North American War of Independence and established the emerging United States of America.
In the revolutionary history of the asset stage, the milestones areBritish bourgeois revolution、French bourgeois revolutionAnd the American bourgeois revolution.
British Revolution
New route openingLater, the main trade routes and trade centers in Europe were transferred from the Mediterranean region to the Atlantic coast.The British used their favorable geographical position to expand foreign trade and carry out colonial plunder.During this period, textile industry, etcWorkshop handicraftIt has been greatly developed, and there have also been pastures and farms adopting capitalist management methods.The emerging bourgeoisie, composed of factory owners, businessmen, bankers and farmers, grew up.Although some nobles retained the title of nobility, they also engaged in some capitalisteconomic activity, they are called the new nobility.
In the 17th century,King of EnglandHe tried his best to carry out feudal autocracy, advocated "divine grant of monarchical power", and believed that the power of the king was granted by God and could not be disobeyed.The interests of the bourgeoisie and the new nobility were violated, and they used Parliament to fight against the king.
Representative events include:
(1) In 1649,charles i Pushed to the guillotine, Britain established a republic.
The Bill of Rights and the Law on Succession to the Throne establishedBritish constitutional monarchyThe basic principles of the British monarchy rule out the possibility of Catholics inheriting the British throne.It stipulated the rights of parliament and the authority of the king. Although the king was retained, the power of the king was largely restricted by legislative means to ensure that the real power of the country was firmly in the hands of the bourgeoisie and the new nobility. This political system was historically called constitutional monarchy.Because of this overthrowRestoration DynastyOur rule is bloodless without the participation of the peopleCourt Coup, so it is called by bourgeois historians“Glorious Revolution ”。
French Revolution
On July 14, 1789, the revolutionary masses in Paris conqueredBastille, marked the beginning of the French bourgeois revolution, and later issued important documents in the history of the French revolution《Declaration of Human Rights》；On September 21, 1792,French RepublicEstablishment;In 1793, the French bourgeois revolution reached its peak,RobespierreIn power, kingLouis XVIBeing pushed to the guillotine;On July 27, 1794, the famousThe Thermidor reactionBurst,French Revolutionend;1799NapoleonLaunched a coup to establish the First Empire of France.
American Revolution
Also known as the American bourgeois revolution“North American War of Independence”“American Revolutionary War”。In the second half of the 18th century, Britain established 13 colonies on the Atlantic coast.Each colony was ruled by a governor sent from England.At that time, the colony had developed a large number of plantations, established textile, iron smelting, mining and other industries, and its economy was relatively prosperous.
In order to increase the financial revenue, the British government continued to increase the tax revenue of the colonies and brutally squeezed and exploited the colonies.In 1765, the British came up with a new pattern: stamp duty.They stipulated that all official documents, contractual contracts, licenses, newspapers, magazines, advertisements, receipts and wills must be stamped with tax stamps to become effective and negotiable.This aroused great anger among the colonial people.
As a result, secret anti British organizations such as the "Son of Liberty" and the "Communication Committee" have emerged one after another, and anti British events have occurred everywhere, such as boycotting British goods, driving away tax collectors, burning tax receipts, and armed resistance.All this caused panic in the British government, which immediately sent troops to suppress.On March 5, 1770, the British armybostonShoot unarmed citizens, killing 5 citizens and injuring 6, which shocked North America“Boston massacre ”。Anti British anger burned in the hearts of the colonial people, and a war for independence and freedom burned on the North American continent.
