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Language is human communication Expression 。 Language is not only a tool for human communication, but also an important carrier of culture.^[2] According to the Handbook on Linguistics and Language Communication Tools published in Germany, there are 5651 languages identified in the world.

Chinese name: language^[1]
Foreign name: English: Language, French: Language
Time of occurrence: About 300000 years ago

Features: Deliver information
Chinese Phonetic Alphabet: yǔ yán
Chinese phonetic symbols: ㄩˇ ㄧㄢˊ

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▪ language family
▪ Nine major language families in the world
eight Capacity improvement
nine Language disappearance
▪ General
▪ Situation in China

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Language is accompanying labour The language is Sociology Since language is the product of society, it will inevitably develop with the development of society. This is because the development of language needs to communicate with each other. One person is isolated from the society, and there can be no language development. "It develops and transforms itself through production, creates new forces and new ideas, creates new ways of communication, new needs and new languages".

nature

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Language is a way of communication between people. People can't communicate with each other without language. Although people's thoughts can be conveyed through pictures, actions and expressions, language is the most important and convenient medium. However, people all over the world use different languages. It is difficult, even impossible, to talk directly with each other. Even if there are different dialects in the same language, the degree of difference is not the same. Some dialects can basically understand each other, while others are very different, which seems to be another language that Beijing people cannot understand Cantonese Is a good example.

Broca area en211

There are different languages and dialects not only in different regions, but also in the same region social stratum People of different ages will have special words to express their unique feelings, which makes it difficult for people of other classes or ages to understand.

In a Language environment Although you can also learn another language or several other languages or dialects after mastering a certain language in, it is difficult to completely change the accent of the original language or dialect, which always leaves a certain degree of accent of the original spoken language. Those who are familiar with language can often distinguish the speaker's hometown, identity and professional characteristics from these subtle differences.

Language is an important part of culture. Even if there is no language, there can be no culture. Only through language can culture be passed down from generation to generation. Language is an important means to maintain a lifestyle. Almost every cultural group has its own unique language.

Language is produced in a specific environment for the needs of life, so the specific environment will inevitably mark the language with a specific brand. In addition, language is the medium for people to exchange ideas, so it will inevitably have an impact on politics, economy, society, science and technology, and even culture itself. Language Cultural phenomenon It is constantly developing, and its current spatial distribution is also the result of past diffusion, change and development. Therefore, only in the space-time environment can we comprehensively and deeply understand its relationship with natural environment and cultural environment Relationship. Language is also a bridge between different species.

Directivity Language has directionality. The directionality of language enables the meaning description of language to point to the corresponding things and things. Such as: trees, people, superior, etc. The fact that the directivity of language is recognized artificially. For example, "person" can represent the real "person", but if it is not recognized that "person" converts to another character, the language directivity will be converted to another character.

descriptive The descriptive nature of language is the embodiment of language meaning, and the descriptive nature of language is an important embodiment of language communication. The descriptive nature of language is changed by the directionality of language. Such as: people/adults/small adults, people/people/people, etc.

Logicality Language is structured and regular Command system 。 The logic of language is changed by the description of language. For example, I am a Chinese/I am like a Chinese, 1+1=2/1 * 1=1, this is an apple/this is a car, etc.

Communicative nature of language : The communication between substances needs to establish a certain connection, regardless of whether it is related or not. However, two unrelated substances must be connected in a certain way. and Language communication It adopts a set of uniform Encoding and decoding Standard voice (image) command output, so that biological (human) and biological (human) communication.

Communication : Language communication needs to adopt a set of unified Encoding and decoding Standard audio (image) commands. But unified Encoding and decoding Standard voice (image) commands are not innate to living beings. Therefore, humans need to acquire them through learning, and the process of human learning language is the process of language transmission.

Inheritance (unlimited communication) : Language can be spread, which makes language have the ability of infinite spread. Infinite spread of language enables two creatures (people) in different time and space/different regions to obtain the same set Encoding and decoding Standard voice/image commands. Therefore, in theory, language can be spread and preserved by public consensus. But in fact, language is evolving all the time. More than 2000 years ago, both voice and characters changed a lot with language. And the species with special communication behavior/language in different regions also have their own special communication behavior/language. But modern language is based on ancient language. Therefore, it can be said that modern language is derived from ancient language through infinite transmission (inheritance) and evolution at the same time. The infinite spread of language is both an illusion and a fact (the inherited fact).

Species（ nationality ） : One Species evolution The special communication behavior is unique to a species. The communication behavior will be different due to different countries and regions. There are many different languages in the world. Even in the same country, there are differences in different languages in different regions. Even if there are different dialects in the same language, the degree of difference is not the same. Some dialects can basically understand each other, while others are very different, which seems to be another language. The inability of Beijingers to understand Cantonese is a good example. Not only in different regions, but also in different languages and dialects, that is, in the same region, different social strata and people of different ages will have special words to express their unique feelings, which makes it difficult for people of other strata or ages to understand. For example, black people in the United States, although they also use English, their English also has its own characteristics, even known as Black English 。

Symbolic and systematic

6S Language Training Mode

First of all, language is a symbol of social convention to express ideas, and the essence of the symbol is social. To some extent, it wants to escape the consciousness of some small groups and circles in society. This is the main feature of language. Language is a kind of social contract A society accepts one means of expression and rejects another means of expression Collective consciousness The habit of. Or it can be said that there is no good or bad, the key is which expression to use.

Linguistic sign It is an entity with two sides. On the one hand, language means the name of things, so any language is the image of concepts, that is, it has referential; In addition, language should rely on sound, which is a medium to express the signified. Therefore, language is also a reflection of sound. Sound is another aspect of language, that is, language has Signifier Sex.

Arbitrariness and linearity

The so-called arbitrariness refers to the sum of linguistic signs and literal signifiers Signified There is an arbitrary connection between them (which is not demonstrable). Even though some can be demonstrated, in a general sense, they are still non demonstrable. This is one of the reasons why there are so many languages in the world.

The so-called linearity means that the signifier of language is completed by sound, so it can only spread in the one-dimensional sound space, and cannot break through the range and ability of sound. So when analyzing language, language enablers can be completed horizontally according to the sequence of words, which also creates the limitations of language use and expression, but the voice of language, It determines that the linearity of language is an inevitable result that cannot be eliminated.

Invariance and variability

Language is a continuous Movement change development In the system, each element of the system has certain stability and variability. Stability is language system The existing premise of language is also the necessary condition for language itself to be studied and used on a large scale. The variability is not only the result of the continuous derivation and development of language as a system, but also the manifestation of the inheritance of language. Everything is constantly moving, changing and developing. New things are constantly emerging and old things are constantly dying. The same is true of language. Although the change of language system is not very obvious and the speed is not very fast, it is driven by the use and affected by many factors such as society and culture. Language itself is constantly moving towards economy, conciseness, practicality, inclusiveness expressiveness Strong trend development.

Each component of language has different ways and forms of change, and the speed of change is also different. However, in previous studies, more and more laws have been gradually mastered to explain and predict language changes. This not only reflects people's concern for linguistics and the achievements they have made in their exploration, but also shows that the variability of linguistics is still based on evidence and laws.

Inheritance and communication

In a sense, language is an effective carrier for the inheritance and storage of human culture. Therefore, in its own development, it gradually reflects a strong inheritance and communication.

The so-called inheritance refers to that language attracts or urges people to directly or indirectly influence relevant people, or spread to other wider areas, through the tool of language, consciously or unconsciously in their life and production. Achieve the effect of inheritance. In addition, language in human beings social development Among them, not only between people, ancient people and modern people, Chinese people and foreigners have stored the essence of civilization information, bearing the bridge of civilization development, but also because of the strong communicative function of language itself, it shows a unique communicative function , respond to various changes in rich communication, and produce more Expressiveness Language, produce more practical meaning based on life and production.

Human language symbols and other animal communication methods such as cry 、 dance There are essential differences, mainly reflected in the following aspects:

1. Arbitrariness.

2、 Of units clarity : Human language is realized through Articulatory organ One by one, and the so-called "language" of animals is inseparable, which expresses a certain meaning by shouting or dancing in a lump.

3. Two layers of structure : Human language is divided into Phonology Layer and symbol layer (or syntax layer).

4、 productivity : Also called creativity or Openness 。

5. Teachability.

6. It is not limited by time and geographical environment.

Intelligent

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ChatGPT The methods and applications of language intelligence technologies, such as, have brought some challenges to the traditional linguistic theories, and also brought opportunities for the innovation of linguistic theories. Massive real language data, large-scale data analysis and machine learning technologies have all brought new resources and methods to linguistics and provided an important foundation for the innovation of linguistic theories.^[3]

Language production

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overview

1、 The production of language refers to people's speaking or writing out the ideas they want to express through the activities of language organs or hands. It includes two forms: speaking and writing. Language production units mainly include: phoneme , syllable morpheme , words, phrases, sentences.

2、 Language production can be divided into different stages. For example: Tectonic stage : Determine the thought to be expressed according to the purpose; Transformation stage: application Syntactic rules Transforming ideas into the form of language; Execution stage: speak or write out the information in language form.

physiological mechanism

1. Pronunciation mechanism of language: respiratory organ 、 Larynx And vocal cords, mouth, nose and Pharyngeal cavity 。

2. Linguistically active Central mechanism ： Broca area 、 Wilnik District 、 Angular gyrus 。

(1) Caused by lesions in Broca's area aphasia Usually called Motor aphasia or Expressive aphasia 。

(2) Wilnick area lesions will cause Wernicke's aphasia , this is a language Agnosia 。 Cutting or damaging the connection between Wilnick area and Broca area Nerve fiber bundle - The bow beam will have the same effect.

(3) Corner turn realizes the conversion of spoken and written languages. Damage to the angular gyrus will cause semantic aphasia.

3. Language in Cerebral hemispheres Side advantage and language activities. （ Sever the brain The study confirmed that language activity is mainly the function of the left hemisphere of the brain, but the right hemisphere of the brain language understanding It also plays an important role.

voice

1. Phonological physical property : pitch intensity of sound 、 Sound length And voice.

2、 Phoneme It is the smallest phonetic unit that can distinguish meanings in a language. Phonemes are divided into vowels and consonants. Phonemic Distinguishing feature It helps to explain people's perception of voice. The factors that affect speech perception are: speech similarity, speech intensity, noise masking, context, syntax and semantics.

3. Factors affecting vocabulary understanding: word location information, orthographic rules, letter length or stroke number, font structure Frequency of use The function of pronunciation, context and semantics.

4. Factors influencing sentence comprehension: sentence types word order , context Syntactic analysis and semantic analysis 。

5. Factors influencing discourse understanding: inference, context, and the role of schema.

structure

Structure of language: Phoneme 、 morpheme , words, phrases, sentences, full text, words.

For the invention of characters, the ancients thought it was a great event. 《 Writings of Prince Huainan 》Li said, "When Cang Jie wrote a book in the past, it rained heavily, and ghosts cried at night." The most powerful symbol of words is the symbol, which is equivalent to the incantation in spoken language. The general characters are also stained with superstition. The paper with characters cannot be thrown around“ Respect and cherish the calligraphy paper ”Label the container, accumulate and burn. Of course, there are also taboos in the text. Names that cannot be said in the mouth cannot be written on the paper; You have to write, you have to borrow Homophone , or one sum is missing. Although language can be the basis of writing words, language is not equal to words after all. Despite the great efforts made by the scientific and religious circles of various countries, half of the world's languages do not have corresponding words.

Reference It is one of the characteristics of language and the expression of language signs. There is no natural connection between the name and the object being referred to. Language, as a sign, is referential, which determines the difference between words. The reason why words have different meanings is that they have different directions. Without this referential nature, there is no language.

translate

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Translation is a kind of language activity, which is to convert one language into another without changing its meaning. There are both oral and written translations.

The original meaning of translation originally refers to the translation between different languages. Later, it is often used to refer to the modern translation of ancient Chinese between the same language. But there is a clear difference between the two: the modern translation of ancient Chinese in the same language is mainly used to overcome the barriers of ancient and modern heresy, only including ancient and modern time factor Therefore, it is sometimes called annotation or Translation and annotation ； Translation between different languages is inclusive Regional factors Of. The translation here refers to the latter.

In China, such translation dates back to《 Zhou Rites 》It is recorded in. There is a passage in Zhou Li, Qiu Guan, Si Kou: "Like Xu Zhang, barbarians and raccoons in Fujian non-Chinese peoples of the north and west The envoy of his country, who is in charge of the king's words, tells him what to say and is kind to him. If you join the guests at a certain time, you should agree with them on etiquette and words. " It means that Xiang Xu is responsible for dealing with the surrounding barbarians, Min raccoons, Rong Di, etc Vassal state The officials of communication affairs should be responsible for conveying what the king said to make the surrounding vassal states understand, so as to close the relationship between the king and vassal states. If an envoy comes to the kingdom, he should coordinate the etiquette and translate the language.

What is said in the article is "to translate with words", which means modern "translation". "Xiang Xu" is the earliest translator, and "Xiang" is the earliest term used to express the meaning of translation. It was only the language of the neighboring vassal states that was translated at that time.

At that time, in addition to "Xiang Xu" and "Xiang" used to express the meaning of translator and translator, there were some other names, which were recorded in the Book of Rites in more detail. 《 The Book of Rites · Kingship 》He said, "People from five directions can't speak well and have different appetites. To reach their aspirations (to express their meaning) and desires (to understand their ideas), people from the east call Ji, people from the south call Xiang, people from the west call Di 鞮 (d ī), and people from the north call translation." This "Ji", "Xiang", "Di 鞮" and "Yi" is the name of the translation official responsible for translating the languages of the East, South, West, and North nationalities at that time, It can also be used as a translation term. Collectively“ Elephant mail Translation ”It is also used to refer to translation, or called "Xiang Ji", "Xiang Zhi", "Xiang Yi", "Yi Xiang", "Yi Xiang", "Yi Zhi", etc.

Among them, "Xiang" and "Yi" were the most widely used terms, which were commonly referred to as the main meaning of translation at that time. Like "Xiang Xu", translation officials were also called "Yi Xu", and later "Yi Guan". "Translation" was originally "Yi" Sound training ， Jia Gongyan In the book "Zhou Li, Qiu Guan, Xu Guan", "Northern Yue Yi" said: "Translation is easy, which means changing words to make mutual understanding." Therefore, "translation" refers to the activity of language transformation.

Translation with written records in China began Martial Emperor The translation of Buddhist scriptures after the Western Regions, namely ancient India Sanskrit translation. However, as far as the literature is concerned, the earliest "translation" use case is Southern Dynasty Liang Hui Jiao The "First Shamen Method" in the Biography of Eminent Monks, Translated Sutra Part II, Buddha Tuoshi Simhala It has obtained the Sanskrit version of Missariat and has not been translated ". At that time, there were also those that only used "turn", such as Northern Zhou Dynasty Yu Xin "Records of Buddhas Shading over Hu People, Chinese translation of scriptures" in "Offering Hefa Feast and Responding to the Imperial edict". This "translation" is "translation", which is "translation".

From the history of Buddhism, the first person to translate Buddhist scriptures was ancient India eminent monk Kasyapa matanga 。 He is in Emperor Ming of the Han Dynasty In the 10th year of Yongping era (67), with another Indian monk Pig flange , invited to White Horse Carrying Sutra When I came to Luoyang, the next year I built the White Horse Temple , Co translation《 Chapter 42 Classic 》。 This is the beginning of Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures. Since then, more than 100 people have come from India and Pakistan Scholars from other countries are engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures, among which the most famous one is from qiuci (qi Lu c í, the name of the country in the Western Han Dynasty, modern Xinjiang Kuqa One Belt) Kumarash , he translated《 Saddharmapundarika Sutra 》And《 Vajra Sutra 》And other important Buddhist scriptures.

Some local monks who go west to seek Dharma are also engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The most famous one is Eastern Jin Dynasty Faxian and Datang Xuanzang 。 It took fifteen years for Faxian to travel westward to seek the Dharma. In 412 AD, when he was in his seventies, he brought back a large number of classics and devoted himself to the translation of Buddhist scriptures. Xuanzang returned to Chang'an in 645 AD and specialized in translating 75 Buddhist scriptures and 1335 volumes, becoming a master in the history of Buddhist translation.

Therefore, the formation of the word "translation" is closely related to ancient Indian Buddhism. The main content of early Chinese translation was Buddhist scriptures. Until late Ming Dynasty Western learning spreads to the East Only then did they begin to turn more to European translation of new technologies such as astronomy, geometry and medicine. China after the May 4th Movement New Literature Movement The rise of translation is also inseparable from translation.

In ancient times, there were some different ways of writing "translation", such as Song Dynasty Lu You 《 Southern Tang Script ·The "translation of" Fu Tu's Biography ", and《 The Story of the Hero and The Sisters; Two Sisters Marry the Same Man 》In the first round, "Can you test Yiyi", "Yiyi", etc.

purpose

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Cang Jie (2 sheets)

Language is the basic way of communication in human life. To a large extent, human daily life is language life. All kinds of activities related to language can be included in the category of language life. Li Yuming The language life is divided into the macro language life at the national level, the meso language life at the regional level of various industries, and the micro language life at the individual family level. It is believed that "the language life at the micro level is closely related to the survival and development of individuals and the normal operation of basic social cell organizations, and should be concerned, guided, and helped".^[4]

Language classification

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Type of language: dialogue language monologue Language written language Words Internal language 。

As far as the brain is concerned, language is divided into "brain language" and "mouth language". Brain language is what we always produce in the brain called "thinking" or "thinking" or "thinking". Brain language expressed by the mouth is called "mouth language". Brain language and mouth language are not the same thing. First, brain language and mouth language are distorted in expression; Second, mouth language is not the only brain language Expression , because brain language can also pass Muscle group To express: it is our behavior. Language is an important part of a person's ability.

Language is divided into“ first language ”And“ Second language ”。

A person naturally learns and skillfully applies it to communication and communication through contact with other members of the same language group (such as parents, relatives and people around) thinking process Language in. Native language Or mother tongue is generally said to be the first language of an individual and also the main language.

The language that people first master and use after birth is called the first language. The second language refers specifically to the non-native language of the country. In the world, the second language is often used at the same time as the first language.

Linguistic genealogical classification Also called“ Genesis Classification "is one of the language classifications. It is based on the relationship The language is divided into several language families. Under the language family, there are several language families according to the distance of kinship. Under the language family, there are several language branches. Under the language branch, there are languages.

The relationship is as follows:

Language family → language family → language branch → language

A language family divided according to the genealogical classification, consisting of languages with common historical origins, such as Sino Tibetan language family ， Indo European Etc. The same language family can be divided into several language families according to the distance of kinship between languages, and the same language family can be divided into several language branches according to the distance of kinship. For example, Indo European language branch Iran 、 Germanic , Rome, Slavic, etc. Slavic languages It is also divided into East Slav, West Slav Yugoslavia And so on.

because World Language It is very complicated. The division of language families is not the same among linguists, and the names are also different.

language family

In the 19th century, European Comparative school Having studied nearly one hundred languages in the world, we found that some of the pronunciation, vocabulary rule of grammar There are corresponding relations between them, and there are some similarities between them. They classify these languages into one group, called cognate languages; Because there are some corresponding relations between some families, which are also grouped together, they are called homologous languages, which is the so-called pedigree relationship between languages. There are seven major language families in the world:

Indo European It is the largest language family, divided into India, Iran Germanic 、 Latin , Slavic, Baltic, etc. Indic include Sanskrit 、 Hindi 、 Pali Etc. Iranian languages include farsi 、 Kurdish language 、 Pashto Etc. Germanic languages Including English, German Dutch 、 scandinavian peninsula All major languages. The Latin language family includes French, Italian Spanish 、 Portuguese and romanian 。 Slavic languages include Russian Bulgarian 、 Polish 。 Baltic group include Latvian and Lithuanian 。

Sino Tibetan language family It is divided into Chinese and Tibetan Burmese, Zhuang Dong, Miao Yao and other language families, including Chinese, Tibetan Burmese 、 Karen , Zhuang, Miao Mian language Etc.

Altaic Lower score Turkic language subfamily 、 Mongolian Branch 、 Manchu-Tungusic Branch Three language families. Turkic languages include Uzbek 、 Uighur 、 kazakh 、 Azerbaijani and Chuvashi Mongolian languages include mongolian and Daur language The Tungusic language family includes Manchu language 、 the Xibo language and Russia Domestic Evanki 。

The Semitic language family is also called Asian African languages 。 Lower score Semitic branch And contain language families. The former includes Arabic , Hebrew, etc., the latter includes ancient Egyptian 、 hausa Etc.

Dravida language family Dravidian languages 。 South India All languages belong to this language family, including Bihar 、 Telugu 、 Tamil 、 Malayalam Etc.

Caucasian family The languages of this language family are distributed in the Caucasus. The main languages are Georgian 、 Chechen Etc.

Uralic languages Lower score Finland Language family and Ugric language family. The former includes Finnish 、 Estonian Etc., the latter includes Hungarian , Mansi, etc.

In addition, there are some language families, such as Africa Of Niger - Congolese 、 Shari Nile languages (Nile Saharan) Koyi Sanshi ， America Eskimo - Aleutian languages And some Indian Language family, Oceania Of Malay Polynesian languages and Micronesia Language family (Some also combine the two into Austronesian language family Of), Indochina Peninsula Of Austro-Asiatic language family 。 It should be pointed out that there are some languages in the world, Not belonging to any language family , such as Japanese 、 Korean Wait, it's an independent language 。

There are also some languages of unknown origin, such as those distributed in northern Spain and southwest France bordering Spain Basque , used in ancient two river basins Sumerian language Etc.

So, how did these different languages and language families originate? How did the community of residents speaking the same language family come into being? Are different language families and their inhabitants related to each other in ancient times? Whether there is one of the thousands of languages spoken by billions of people around the world Common origin What about? These questions could not be answered accurately in the past, and were once regarded as "forbidden areas" of science. But over the past 20 years, with molecular biology , Human Population genetics and archaeology With the development of linguistics, we finally see the dawn of hope to understand these "century riddles". This is the mutual penetration of various sciences, new research method And the results of continuous improvement of research methods.

Nine major language families in the world

In addition Nine major language families ,

The languages of the world are divided into nine language families:

（1） Sino Tibetan language family ；

（2） Indo European ；

（3） Altaic ；

(4) Semitic languages;

（5） Uralic languages ；

（6） Caucasian family ；

（7） Austronesian language family ；

（8） Austro-Asiatic language family ；

（9） Dravidian languages 。

In addition, there are some African and American languages and some Unknown pedigree Language.

Sino Tibetan language family (The largest number of speakers). This language family takes China as the center and radiates slightly to the southwest. The speaking population accounts for World population A quarter of, but geographical distribution More concentrated. It is divided into four language families, namely, Chinese family Tibeto-Burman Branch 、 Zhuang-Dong group 、 Miao Yao Language Group 。

Indo European:

Indic（ Hindi 、 Urdu , Bengali Gypsy Etc.).

Iranian languages （ farsi 、 Kurdish language 、 Pashto Etc.).

Slavic languages (Russian Serbian , Polish Czech , Bulgarian, etc.)

Armenian Ethnic group (mainly in Armenian)

Baltic group （ Lithuanian 、 Latvian Etc.)

Germanic languages (German, English Danish 、 Swedish 、 Dutch Etc.)

Latin languages（ Romans ）(French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese romanian Etc.)

Greek (with Greek Mainly)

Celtic languages (with irish Mainly)

Albania Language family (with albanian Mainly)

Altaic 。 The border between China, Russia, Kazakhstan and Mongolia Altai Mountains It is widely distributed in the desert and grassland areas in the hinterland of Asia. There are three language families, namely Turkic language subfamily 、 Mongolian Branch 、 Manchu-Tungusic Branch 。

Hamito-Semitic family of languages 。 Distributed on west Asia North Africa The region is divided into two language families, namely, West Asian Semitic branch , North African languages.

Bantu language family 。 Distributed in the whole sub Saharan African region, it has thousands of languages, most of which are tribal languages. Representativeness The language is Swahili.

South Island (Malay Polynesian) language family 。 Widely distributed in Southeast Asia Of Malay Peninsula and Indonesia Islands and countries in Oceania. China Taiwan Island The language of the Gaoshan ethnic group belongs to the South Island language family.

Other languages And the Daropitu language family（ Indian subcontinent Southern), South Asian language family (southern Indochina Peninsula), Finnish Ugric language family (mainly in Finland and Hungary ）、 Ibero Caucasian （ Caucasus Mountains One belt), the distribution area is narrow and small World exchanges Has limited influence.

Different divisions in other parts of the world

A: Massachusetts Institute of Technology College classification, by region

African language family: North African language family, South Africa Language family, East African language family, West Africa family of languages

Asia Language family: North Asia family of languages, South Asia family of languages, East Asia Language family, West Asian language family, Central Asia Language family

Australasian: Australia and the pacific ocean Islands.

North America Language family: North America National languages, including indigenous Indian languages.

South American languages: South America National languages, including indigenous Indian languages.

European language family: Germanic language family, including English, German, Dutch scandinavian peninsula All major languages. Latin language family, including French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese and Romanian. Slavic languages include Russian Bulgarian , Polish, etc. Baltic languages include Latvian and Lithuanian.

B： Australia national standard Language taxonomy:

Nordic language family: 5 language families, 16 language branches

Southern Europe Language family: 5 language families, 16 language branches

Eastern Europe Language family: 7 language families, 25 language branches

Southwest Asia North African language family: 3 language families, 21 language branches

South Asian language family: 5 language families, 16 language branches

Southeast Asian language family: 3 language families, 23 languages

East Asian language family: 4 language families, 15 language branches

Australia Vernacular Language family: 8 language families, 56 language branches

Other language families, 7 language families, 41 language branches

C： Peking University Xu Tongqiang And Professor Hu Jicheng Language classification There are 13 language families and 45 language families.

This classification is based on ethnic origin language development Start with other factors and summarize Soviet Union Language classification experience formation,

It is consistent with the language family commonly used in the world. The language family is classified as follows:

Sino Tibetan language family

Indo European

Caucasian family

Uralic Altaic

Dravidian languages

Austro-Asiatic language family

Austronesian language family

Hamito-Semitic family of languages

Niger- Kordofan Language family

Nilo-Saharan Family

Khoisan family

North American Indian languages

New World Dictionary English Learning en211

D: Himon University (Simon) adopts the genetic classification method, classified as

Eurasian languages , including Sino Tibetan language family, Indo European language family

Pacific and African languages, including languages of other countries except Eurasia and North and South America

North American: Native Indian languages of North America

South American languages: South American natives Indian language

Ranking of users (the world population used in the following data is 7.5 billion)

The number of Chinese speakers (the sum of the first language and the second language) is about 1.6 billion, accounting for 21.33% of the world's population

Spanish The number of speakers of the first language is about 437 million, accounting for 5.82% of the world population; The total number of first and second language users is nearly 570 million, accounting for 7.6% of the world population

More than 360 million people use English as the first language, accounting for 4.8% of the world's population

Arabic as the first language is spoken by more than 260 million people, accounting for 3.47% of the world's population; The total number of first and second language users has exceeded 440 million, accounting for 5.87% of the world population

The number of Hindi speakers as the first language is about 422 million, accounting for 5.63% of the world's population; The total number of first and second language users is about 722 million, accounting for 9.62% of the world population

Capacity improvement

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overview

Language ability Specifically, it means that the words are accurate, the meaning is clear, the structure is appropriate, and the sentences are concise, Literacy The language is simple, standard, and can express objective concepts clearly, accurately, coherently and appropriately Speech disease 。 However, it is not easy to achieve the above points. Here's how to improve our Language expression ability 。

Skillfully use pictures to express

Most texts in primary school Chinese textbooks are equipped with corresponding illustrations. These pictures have a certain purpose of arrangement, which reflects that primary school students Thinking in images The main characteristics. Moreover, they have bright colors, vivid images and strong appeal, which are easy to arouse students' emotional resonance. In teaching, teachers should guide students to observe carefully according to the characteristics of these illustrations, stimulate students' desire to express, and enrich the content of expression. Teaching《 Serve the people 》At the time of writing, students had a vague understanding of the profound ideological connotation of "serving the people wholeheartedly". In order to overcome this difficulty, I asked students to exchange extracurricular materials, understand Zhang Side's ordinary deeds in combination with illustrations, and experience his spirit of "serving the people wholeheartedly" from these ordinary deeds. By connecting the profound truth with the concrete pictures, the students' interest and desire in speaking will naturally be aroused, and their language expression will be more rich and specific. From the description of students, we can see that their observation is meticulous, their imagination is rich, and their thinking is active. This kind of training of looking at pictures and speaking can help students understand Thinking ability , and spoken English Expressiveness All of them play a very important role.

Understanding key personality expression

《 Chinese Curriculum Standards 》It points out that "reading teaching is a process of dialogue among students, teachers and texts." Effective dialogue can create wonderful classroom. To talk with the text and understand the language is to grasp the key parts and sentences in the text to repeatedly chant, understand, speculate and taste. For example, if we grasp the "topic eye", we can understand the main idea of the article; Grasp the central sentence paragraph, transitional sentence paragraph, key and difficult points, and be able to grasp the author's writing ideas and layout skills; Grasp the special expressions such as metaphor, personification and rhetorical questions in the text, and be able to understand the differences in expression and meaning of characteristic expressions; Grasp the wonderful sentences or the deepest feelings, and be able to understand the vivid, accurate and subtle words and sentences of the author; Grasp the different usages of punctuation marks, be able to understand sentence meaning, distinguish tone, and understand the content of the text; Grasp the expression, action and Psychological activities I can understand the development of the story and the character characteristics of the characters... In teaching, I pay attention to guiding students to taste key words, and at the same time, I train students in oral English. In The Enlightenment of Fishing teaching process I guide the students to find out the key words, words and sentences first, and then make a careful understanding Perch I realized my father's resolute and indisputable serious attitude in the face of moral choices; Then I encourage students to debate "yes" and "no" around "release" and "stay", to understand father's opinion on the author Moral practice The significance of putting forward strict requirements...... Students can grasp key sentences to carry out dialogue and speculation, and can feel in reading, talk in feeling, and reflect personalized understanding in dialogue. Therefore, in teaching, based on the teaching materials, communicating with students in terms of ideas, knowledge, ability, etc., and speaking out their unique understanding and feelings boldly can make the classroom a stage for students to show their personality.

Formal imitation transfer expression

Distribution of official languages in African countries

To help students feel the unique language of the text Expression To improve the standardization and flexibility of language expression, teachers should be good at grasping the transfer point of language training in the classroom, so that students can understand the rules of speaking and writing from the text, so as to make flexible and colorful language expression become rule-based. In teaching, we should carefully design speaking and writing exercises for students with the help of special language forms in the text to improve students' language expression ability. When teaching the article "Bird Paradise", students can practice speaking with the sentence pattern of "at first... later... then..." "everywhere... everywhere... some... some...", so that students can learn to express dynamically and statically, and master the usage of parallelism. Teaching《 the Great Wall 》When writing a passage, ask students to practice speaking in the sentence pattern of "standing... watching... holding... naturally remembering...", and guide students to express in a coherent and orderly way in the order of "what they see, what they hear, what they feel". At the same time, according to the characteristics of different grades, our training should reflect Hierarchy And progressivity:

From the simplest Training content , such as parody , make sentences, change words, imitate sentences, to the more difficult common sentence patterns Segmentation mode The training is from simple to complex, from easy to difficult. In the training, students' thinking is activated, their interest is improved, their imagination is enriched, and their expression ability is realized from simple operation to complex simulation migration and creation, which improves Language expressiveness , realized the application Languages A leap of ability.

Imagination situation expansion expression

Einstein said: "Imagination is more important than knowledge, because knowledge is limited, and imagination summarizes everything in the world and promotes progress Knowledge evolution " Rich imagination, beautiful artistic conception and vivid stories can arouse students' interest most. It can not only deepen students' understanding of the text, but also effectively improve students' language expression ability. The famous works in Chinese teaching materials contain the author's spiritual thinking, which is a combination of reading, speaking and writing that allows students to expand their imagination. In teaching, teachers should base on the text, create an atmosphere of language expression, actively guide students to imagine, and encourage innovation in thinking. Such as teaching《 Mom's bill 》One article, teachers can design such imagination Outward bound training "If you were Little Peter, what would you think and say to your mother at this moment?" Student role Exchange and express your feelings. Teaching《 Venka 》After a text, let students imagine what will happen after Fanka wakes up and what they want to say to Fanka, and then ask students to continue to write the story of Fanka according to their own imagination. Through these extended imagination training, students' thoughts can fly freely and express Content and form It is also wonderful.

Language disappearance

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General

according to UNESCO The newly released Atlas of Endangered Languages shows that there are 7000 languages in the world, more than half of which will die out in this century, and 80-90% will die out in the next 200 years. On average, one language disappears every two weeks. According to statistics, 80% of the world's people speak 83 major languages, and the vast majority of the remaining 6000 languages have never been recorded in writing. There are no dictionaries or books, and no information about them can be found in any library or database. All information is only stored in people's memory, so it is particularly fragile.

Situation in China

Although China is not a hot area where languages are endangered, more than half of the 129 languages in China are low in vitality. At least 20 or 30 languages are endangered, such as the Anu language in Yunnan and the northeast Hezhen language , Xinjiang's Tata language, Gansu's Yugu language , Middle Tujia language Etc.

Cause

Language usually dies in two ways: 1. The people who speak this language disappear; 2. People who speak this language give up their mother tongue and use another language instead. In the past 200 years, Colonialism Is the biggest destroyer, Europe Colonist More than 150 species have been eliminated in Australia indigenous language More than 300 indigenous languages have been swept away in North America; yes globalization , economy and social pressure Forcing people to move from villages to cities, their mother tongue is always in dominating language Under the suppression of.

Take Africa for example, except Arabic (That's because they are widely used and are not easy to be eliminated) In addition to other sporadic local languages, most other countries use English, French Portuguese And other European languages official language Although many countries in eastern Africa still use local languages as their official languages, most of them are also official languages with European languages.

Scholars' viewpoints

Language endangerment is a global phenomenon, but it deserves everyone's attention. protect national language And rescue endangered language Is to protect diversity national culture At the same time, it is also to ensure the equal rights of members of all ethnic groups. This is just like well-known Chinese scholars Zhou Haizhong It was pointed out that some national languages are facing the impact of globalization, industrialization, the Internet, etc., and are in danger of disappearing. Relevant departments, institutions and the linguistic community should take active and effective measures to protect the vulnerable national languages and rescue the endangered national languages. This is beneficial to human civilization The inheritance and development of National unity Social stability.

Related quotes

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1. As a moving force, language The beauty of beauty comes from the accuracy, clarity and beauty of words—— Golgi

2. Not language How correct, powerful, or beautiful it is depends on the power of thought it embodies—— Goethe

three language It is the carrier and important component of human culture; Each language Can express the world view of the user's nationality Mode of thinking , social characteristics, culture and history are precious intangible heritage of mankind—— Zhou Haizhong

4. If the kind feelings are not formed in childhood, you can't cultivate them at any time. Because the formation of people's sincere feelings is the understanding of the most important truth in the initial contact, as well as the understanding of the motherland language The experience and feeling of the most exquisite place are linked together—— Suhomlinski

5. It's hard to believe that a person born with language Organisms with unknown basic properties can learn language Structure of. Children are born with a kind of learning language The ability of language Learning mechanism. This mechanism is inherited from the human brain, and it is the mechanism that the human brain has to understand and create sentences. This mechanism distinguishes man from animals, which is a kind of species attribute—— Chomsky

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