grammar

[yǔ fǎ]

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Grammar (English: grammar ）, on fifth century By Kumarash As Sanskrit The translation of vyakara ṇ a Kong Yingda The syntax used is Linguistic aid Meaning of usage. Became English since the end of the 19th century grammar Translation of morphology + syntax 。^{[8 ]} Grammar is the most stable part of the three elements of language, which can best reflect the essential characteristics of language. The basic feature of Chinese grammar is to use word order and Function word To show Grammatical category 、 Sentence making Rules and sentence pattern Change.^{[9 ]}

Chinese name: grammar
Pinyin: yǔ fǎ
Phonetic transcription: ㄩˇㄈㄚˇ
English: grammar
Alias: The way of speech, the way of speech, the general rules of literary language, grammar, the way of speech, literature, longitude and latitude, the way of learning language, the rules of speech, Grammar, the style of words, the style of writing

Portuguese: grammática
German: Grammatik
Latin: grammatica
French: grammaire

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▪ Grammar of Modern Chinese
▪ Grammar of Modern Chinese

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In ancient Chinese literature, there are translations of scriptures Sanskrit Grammar（ Kumarash 402) Linguistic aid Grammar（ Kong Yingda 642), "grammar" with article practice（ Wu Ziliang 1257), or "syntax and grammar" of "sentence and auxiliary structure analysis in article practice"（ Wang Ruoxu 1243) are not the direct source of the subject term "grammar/grammar".^{[8 ]}

In the study of Chinese knowledge in Europe and the United States, scholars in the 19th century used terms such as "grammar, grammar, syntax, grammar" to translate grammar Etc. In the late 19th century, Chinese scholars translated grammar with terms such as grammar, speech rules, word patterns, and text patterns.^{[8 ]}

Japanese scholars used grammar and grammar to translate grammar in the late 19th century. Generally speaking, grammar is used for multi module research; Grammar is a dual module study. The so-called "literary classics" are typical works that focus on grammar and involve more knowledge of relevant disciplines. These words and forms are found in ancient Chinese books, but they have given value to new disciplines.^{[8 ]}

At the beginning of the 20th century, Chinese scholars studying in Japan introduced "grammar and grammar" into the study of Chinese knowledge. Most of the Chinese grammar books in the first half of the 20th century were titled "grammar" (although they were not multi module), and very few were titled "grammar". Some scholars have noticed that "grammar" can be used to study classical Chinese, and "grammar" should be used to study vernacular Chinese.^{[8 ]}

Although European and American scholars in history have focused on their own practical research contents, from the second century to the nineteenth century, the multi module gr á mmatik í/grammatica...... Grammar almost covered all departments of modern linguistics. In the middle of the 19th century, the two module grammar appeared in the English teaching grammar of American scholars, and then gradually became popular.^{[8 ]}

Multi module grammar is much richer than dual module grammar. On the contrary, dual module grammar is more specialized than multi module grammar. As history has said, as its branches leave one by one, only "morphology+syntax" exists in the concept matrix. The debate between grammar and grammar is ostensibly a debate between "literature" and "language", which in essence involves the number of research modules. The study of multi module reference (orthography/pronunciation+etymology/part of speech+syntax+prosody, etc.) should use "grammar"; Grammar should be used in reference dual module (morphology+syntax) research.^{[8 ]}

The ancient meaning of grammar

In the existing literature, the word "grammar" first appeared in the Chinese Buddhist scriptures. Eastern Jin Dynasty Yuanxing The first year（ 402 years ）， Chinese Buddhism Buddhist Sutra Translator Kumarash General Yu Chang'an Sanskrit vyākaraṇa（ transliteration Vajaro; Original meaning It refers to language analysis.

① He asked, "What is it?" bodhisattva What is the meaning of the sentence? Answer: Tianzhu grammar , many characters and idioms. For example, "Bodhisattva" is a word, and "Ti" is a word. If there are two disagreements, there is no language. If harmony is called "Bodhi", Qin's words are supreme wisdom. Sattva , or the name of all beings, or the big heart. For the supreme wisdom, the great heart is called Bodhisattva; May all living beings live in the supreme way and become famous Bodhisattva 。（《 Theory of great intelligence 》Volume 44)^{[2 ]}

Eminent Monk of Sui Dynasty Huiyuan (523-592)《 Mahayana Yizhang 》, there are similar explanations:

② Tianzhu grammar , many words are idioms, and many words are sentences. Words and phrases, etc., increase or decrease into differences. （《 Mahayana Yizhang 》Volume I)

In the Tang Dynasty, monks used Sanskrit knowledge to analyze Buddhist scriptures, and the word "grammar" was more common. Huayan Sect The actual founder of Master Fazang Date:

③ This article and the "Dousha Sutra": "This is the way to transform all living beings, not the Buddha who can transform". This long sentence is a Western language. It should say that "all kinds of bodies are cultivated" and "different living beings" are one sentence, and "what you see is also different" is another sentence, which can be interpreted as righteousness. In conclusion, we can know that the Buddha's divine power is the cause of gathering people. This article should be the first, but it follows the west grammar Therefore, it is argued here. （《 The Mystery of Huayan Sutra 》Volume III)^{[2 ]}

Like the "Indian grammar", "Western grammar" and "Western grammar" all refer to vy  kara ṇ a.

Scholar of the Tang Dynasty Kong Yingda （574—648） Annotations 《 Justice of Zuo Zhuan in the Spring and Autumn Period 》The word "grammar" was first used in Chinese Confucian classics:

④ "The father should not be abandoned, and the name should not be abolished. You should encourage him and follow each other." Justice: "encourage" is hard work. "I will encourage you". It is better to try to avenge now than to die at the same time. Illness is called healing, and it is also called victory and death. If you obey the pious saying that "mutual obedience is better than mutual death", then you will obey "mutual obedience" and make the members follow their words. grammar The interaction between two people is called " mutually "The only way to make the staff obey themselves is not to say" follow each other ". (Zuo Zhuan's Justice in the Spring and Autumn Period, Twenty Years of Zhao Gong)^{[2 ]}

This "grammar" is not equivalent to "Western grammar". Kong Yingda divided Chinese characters into Semantic class "(equivalent to Notional word ）And Linguistic aid "(equivalent to Function word ）There are two categories: "language" of "grammar" means language aid, and "law" of "grammar" means usage 。 "The usage of language aids (or function words)" is the focus or feature of the study of ancient Chinese traditional grammar.^{[2 ]}

Origin of Grammar

The "grammar/grammar" in the modern Chinese academic pedigree originates from the academic pedigree of English, so it is necessary to trace the changes of the term and its concept in the academic history. As the core concept of language research, the term comes from the following sources: English grammar < Middle English Gramere<Old French gramaire< Latin grammatica< Greek grámmatikí。 German Grammatik、 Portuguese grammática、 Spanish gramática。^{[2 ]}

Greek Gr á mmatik í. thus it can be seen, language knowledge Based on the use of words, written literature is the original research object. In other words, if there is no written language, it is impossible to spontaneously study language knowledge unless the scholars who master language knowledge record and analyze this language phenomenon. Historical facts show that the understanding of grammar is earlier than grammar. It is precisely for the sake of literal order that the ancients paid attention to the knowledge of reading and writing, and grammar emerged.^{[3 ]}

ancient Greek The earliest monograph on grammar and law is Dionysius T é chne Gr á mmatik é, according to the contemporary meaning of gr á mmatik í, should be translated as Reading and Writing Skills; For example, according to the post uprising of gr á mmatik í, it can be translated as Grammar Skills. Dionysius The opening part (§ 1 Πε ρ  τ ) writes:

Γραμματική ἐcτιν ἐμπειρία τῶν παρὰ ποιηταῖc τε καὶ cυγγραφεῦcιν ὡc ἐπὶ τὸ πολὺλεγομένων. Μέρη δὲ αὐτῆc ἐcτιν ἕξ πρῶτον ἀνάγνωcιc ἐντριβὴc κατὰ προcῳδίαv ，δεύτερονἐξήγηcιc κατὰ τοὺc ἐνυπάρχονταc ποιητικοὺc τρόπουc ，τρίτον γλωccῶν τε καi ἱcτοριῶνπρόχειροc ἀπόδοcιc， τέταρτον ἐτυμολογίαc εὕρεcιc，πέμπτον ἀναλογίαc ἐκλογιcμόc，ἕκτον κρίcιc ποιημάτων，ὃ δὴ κάλλιcτόν ἐcτι πάντων τῶν ἐν τῇ τέχνῃ.

Grammatik ist die auf Erfahrung beruhende Kenntnis des üblichen Sprachgebrauchs der Dichter und Prosaschriftsteller. Sie besteht aus sechs Teilen. Erstens：Geübtes Vorlesen unter Beachtung der Prosodie（Betonung，Behauchung，Silbenquantität）； zweitens：Auslegung der vorkommenden dichterischen Wendungen；drittens：geläufige Erklärung der seltenen Wörter und der Geschichten； viertens：Auffinden der Grundbedeutungen（Etymologien）der Wörter； fünftens：Darlegung der Regelmäßigkeiten（Analogien）； sechstens：Beurteilung der Dichtungen —dies ist von allem das Schönste in dieser Lehre. (K ü rschner 1996) 178-179 Grammar is an empirical knowledge commonly used by poets and essayists. It consists of six parts. First, practice reading aloud and pay attention to the rhythm (stress, breath, number of syllables); Second, poetic expression and interpretation; Third, the general explanation of obscure words and allusions; Fourth, explore the original meaning of words (etymology); Fifth, reveal the rules (analogy); Sixth, poetry review - this is the essence of teaching.]^{[3 ]}

Except for the category of "analogy rules", the rest are not in the 20th century grammar Within the range. However, this is the prototype of grammar. According to the text handed down, there are 20 sections, which can be divided into six parts.

Part I "Introduction": 1 On reading and writing (grammar). Part II "Reading": 2 Reading aloud; 3. Rhythm; 4. Key points (end point, middle point and minute point in reading). Part III "Poetry": 5 Rhapsody. Part IV "Letters and syllables": 6 Elements (i.e. alphabet); 7. Syllable (consonant and vowel combination); 8. Long syllables; 9. Short syllables; 10. Middle syllable. Part V "Words and Sentences": 11 Words (words are the smallest component for constructing sentences; sentences are combinations of words that convey a self-sufficient idea; sentences have eight components or parts of speech). Part VI "Eight Parts of Speech and Their Morphological Changes": 12 Nouns, five kinds of changes: sex, category (original, derived), form (simple, compound, decomposition), number, case; 13. Verbs, eight kinds of changes: mood, voice (active, passive, middle), category, form, number, person, tense, and displacement; 14. Displacement; 15. Word segmentation; 16. Articles; 17. Pronouns; 18. prepositions; 19. Adverbs; 20. Conjunctions.^{[3 ]}

350 years ， Imperium Romanum Of Donatus (Aelius Donatus, 320-380) Complete Latin Three volumes of Ars Grammatica: the first volume discusses pronunciation, letters and pinyin; The second volume discusses parts of speech; The third volume discusses grammatical errors, poetics and metaphor. The book provided a module for the study of Latin grammar, which was not replaced by orthography, prosody, etymology and syntax until the late Middle Ages.^{[3 ]}

about fourth century later stage, Eastern Roman Empire Written by Diomedes Grammaticus Latin Three volumes of Ars Grammatica: the first discusses parts of speech, case system and verb system; The second book discusses letters, syllables, correctness and style; The third volume discusses poetics, stress, poetic composition and poetry selections.^{[3 ]}

sixth century Early, Eastern Roman Prisian (Priscian, 512-560) Completed the Principles of Grammar (525). The book consists of 18 volumes. Volume I discusses phonetics and letters; Volume II discusses syllables and morphemes; Volume III discusses comparative level, highest level and reduced level; Volume IV discusses word segmentation; Volume V discusses sex, number, shape (simple or complex) and lattice; Volume 6 discusses nominative and genitive; Volume 7 discusses the first to the fifth cases of nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, deviant, and vocative singular and plural; Volume VIII discusses the tense, voice, category, form, person and number of verbs; Volume 9 and 10 discuss the first, second, third and fourth displacement methods of the past perfect tense; Volume 11 discusses the nature, tense, case, number and form of participles; Volume 12 discusses pronouns, personal pronouns and general pronouns; Volume 13 discusses the change of pronouns; Volume 14 discusses prepositions; Volume 15 discusses adverbs and interjections; Volume 16 discusses conjunctions; Volume 17 and 18 discuss structure, including noun and verb structure, specific word and pronoun structure, verb order, statement, command, wish, subjunctive mood and passive voice.^{[3 ]}

Principles of Grammar can be summarized into three parts: Volume 1 and Volume 2 discuss phonetics and morphemes; Volumes 3 to 16 discuss parts of speech and their morphological changes, and the last two volumes discuss sentence structure. The book has been used in Western European countries for hundreds of years, and there are still more than 1000 copies of it, the oldest of which can be traced back to ninth century 。^{[3 ]}

1481 ， Kingdom of Spain Salamanca University Professor Antonio Nebrija (1441-1522) published Introductions to Latin, including six parts: prosody, orthography, etymology (part of speech), syntax, rhetoric and vocabulary. This book is the blueprint of Duoming's Chinese language law.^{[3 ]}

fourth century reach fourteenth century Before the later period, grammatica mainly refers to " Latin The meaning of "grammar or rules of language" is limited to "systematic description of language rules and usage" appearing later.^{[3 ]}

Late Renaissance, French Arnault (Antoine Arnauld, 1612-1694) and Claude Lancelot (1615-1695) published Grammaire g é n é rale et raionn é e, 1660). The first part discusses voice and text. The second part discusses various forms of word meaning and their principles and rules, and analyzes parts of speech and their morphological categories to illustrate universal rationalism. Only the last section, "On syntax or combination of words", discusses the consistent relationship of morphology and the dominant relationship between words, as well as the dual-use, ellipsis, repetition and inversion of syntactic structure.^{[3 ]}

thereafter, britain The scholar John Henley (1692-1756) compiled The Complete Linguist, or an Universal Grammar of the Considerable Tongues in Being，1719—1721）， The German scholar Israel Gottlieb Canz (1690-1753) published the Grammatic ≮ universalis tenuia doctrine (1737), and the French scholar Nicolas Beauz é e (1717-1789) published the Grammaire, namely, the reasonable explanation of the essential elements of language as the basis for the study of all languages (Grammaire é n é rale, Ou Exposition raionn é e des é l é ments n é cessaires du language, pour servir defense à l 'é tude de toures les languages, 1767), and so on. The term "grammaire g é n é rale/universal grammar/grammatical ≮ universalis" used by these scholars is equivalent to " General Linguistics 」。^{[3 ]}

Until the 19th century, Grammatik/grammar still had "generalized grammar" or "generalized grammar" linguistics "Means" Comparative grammar "Means" Comparative linguistics "(also called" Comparative philology 」）。 German scholar Schleicher (August Schleicher, 1821-1868), and the British scholar Herbert Bendall translated the book into the Compendium der vergleichendenGrammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen, 1861-1862 （A Compendium ofthe Comparative Grammar of the Indo-European， Sanskrit，Greek，and Latin Languages，1874）。^{[3 ]}

Grundri ß der vergleichenden Grammatikder indogermanischen Sprachen (1886188918901893), written by German scholars Karl Brugmann (1849-1919) and Berthold Delbr ü ck (1842-1922), was translated into Principles of Comparative Grammar of Indo European Languages by J. Wright （Elements of the Comparative Grammar of the Indo-EuropeanLanguages，1888，1891，1892，1895）。^{[3 ]}

The study of grammar by British scholars started late. About 790 ， Alcun (Alcuin of York, 735-804) Latin Ars Grammatica, Volume I Donatus The other three volumes are orthography, rhetoric and dialect. 1755 , famous scholar Johnson (Samuel Johnson, 1709-1784) proposed at the beginning of the section "A Grammar of the English Tongue" in A Dictionary of the English Language:

Grammar, which is the art of using words properly, compares four parts; Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. (Johnson 1755) 42^{[3 ]}

1891 The English scholar Henry Sweet (1845-1912) separated orthography, etymology and prosody from New English Grammar: Logical and Historical, which only included voice （ Phonology ）、 morphology （ Accidence ）And syntax (Syntax) The three parts are close to the so-called "grammar" of later generations, so they are titled "New Grammar".^{[3 ]}

At the end of the 19th century, English Grammar: Past and Present (1898) by the British scholar John Collins Nesfield (1836-1919) was divided into three volumes: the first volume introduced modern English grammar and discussed the morphology and sentence analysis of modern English; The second volume introduces idioms and structures, and discusses the idioms of various parts of speech; The third volume introduces historical English: word formation and etymology, discussing various foreign words, sounds and symbols, spelling and stress, word formation, compound words, and words from Teutonic 、 the Romance group of languages and Greek Of prefix and suffix , Historical English Grimm's Law and verner's law 。^{[3 ]}

Nasfield believes that, rhythm 、 purism 、 synonym The grammar that does not belong to the strict sense should be placed in the appendix as a peripheral theme. The content of the English Grammar is complex, and the length of historical grammar is equal to the sum of the other two parts.^{[3 ]}

Grammar is the original work of changing from multi module "grammar" (orthography+pronunciation+etymology (morphology)+syntax+prosody+rhetoric, etc.) to dual module "grammar" (morphology+syntax) from the 19th century U.S.A English teaching grammar research.^{[3 ]}

1795 , American scholar Lindley Murray (1745-1826) published The English Grammar, Adapted to the Different Classes of Learners， Citation from 1848 edition). The first page of the text is defined as:

English Grammar is the art of speaking and writing the English language with propriety. It is divided into four parts，viz. Orthography，Etymology，Syntax，and Prosody. This division may be rendered more intelligible to the student，by observing，in other words，that Grammar treats，first，of the form and sound of the letters， the combination of letters into syllables，and syllables into words；secondly，of the different sorts of words，their various modifications，and their derivation；thirdly，of the union and right order of words in the formation of a sentence；and lastly，of the just pronunciation， and poetical construction of sentences. （ Murray 1848） 7

English grammar is the art of making English speaking and writing appropriate. It is divided into four parts, namely, orthography, etymology, syntax and prosody. Through observation, this division can make students easier to understand. In other words, grammar discusses these contents: first, the form and pronunciation of letters, letters form syllables, and syllables form words; Secondly, different kinds of words and varieties, and their derivatives; Thirdly, the combination and correct order of words in sentence formation; Finally, about proper pronunciation and poetic structure of sentences.)

The book is divided into four parts, still following the four part model of Samuel Johnson's English Dictionary (1709-1784).^{[3 ]}

1847 American grammarian Stephen Watkins Clark (1810-1901) published A Practical Grammar: In which Words, Phrases，andSentences are Classified According to Their Offices）， It pioneered the graphic method of sentence structure, and published 63 English versions from 1847 to 1877, which had a great impact on English teaching in the second half of the 19th century. The book is divided into four parts: language (general introduction), etymology (part of speech), syntax, prosody (poetics), which is still a simplified combination of multiple modules.^{[3 ]}

1850 , American scholar William Chauncey Fowler (1793-1881) published English Grammar, the English Language in Its Elements and Forms）。 Fowler believes that:

§236. Grammar... as a science，is a system of principles common to all languages. These principles relate to Articulate Sounds；to Letters；to Syllables；to Words；to Sentences. Grammar，as an art，is a system of roles for the practical application of these principles to language. These principles are deduced from the analysis of language， and are applied in its synthesis.§237. ... In the study of English Grammar，the end aimed at is，I. An acquaintance with those facts and principles which pertain to the science；II. A familiarity with the application of those principles to practice.（ Fowler 1850）231-232

(Translated as: § 236 Grammar, as a science, is a system of principles shared by all languages. These principles are related to clearly expressed speech, involving letters, syllables, words and sentences. As a skill, grammar is the role system that applies these principles to language. These principles are derived from language analysis and applied to the whole. § 237. The purpose of learning English grammar is to: 1 Master these scientific facts and principles; 2. Be familiar with the application of these principles in practice.)^{[3 ]}

According to the above discussion, Fowler has a clear understanding of the main content of "grammar" (pronunciation, words, sentences) (similar to the three parts of pronunciation, morphology and syntax advocated by Swett in 1891). But in fact, the book includes eight parts: the historical elements of English, phonetic elements, orthography, etymological forms, logical forms, syntactic forms, rhetorical forms, and poetic forms. The style is more like the traditional Latin grammar model (pronunciation+orthography+etymology+syntax+rhetoric+poetry).^{[3 ]}

Before that 1848 A Treatise on the Structure of the English Language; Or the Analysis and Classification of Sentences and Their Component Parts, published by Samuel S. Greene (1810-1883), President of Philip Grammar and Law School in Boston, USA, has taken on a new look. Greene mentioned the teaching content of English grammar twice in the book.

English Grammar teaches the principles of the English language. These principles refer to the formation of words or the formation of sentence. The first department embraces orthography and etymology，— the second， syntax and prosody. Note. Prosody relates to the formation of sentences into verse. Orthography treats of letters and their various combinations. Etymology treats of the different classes of words and their various modifications. Syntax treats of the construction of sentences. Prosody treats of the laws of versification.（Greene 1848） 203

English grammar teaches the principles of English. These principles refer to the formation of words or sentences. The first part includes orthography and etymology, and the second part is syntax and prosody. Note: prosody involves making general sentences into poetic sentences. Orthography discusses various combinations of letters. Etymology discusses different types of words and their morphological changes. Syntax discusses the structure of a sentence. Rhythm also discusses the principles of poetry.)^{[3 ]}

According to the above discussion, Grinney proposed two departments (orthography and etymology, syntax and prosody), but in fact, the book includes five chapters: the first type of elements (the basic elements of sentences such as subject and predicate and parts of speech); Category II（ phrase ）； Class III component (subordinate clause ）； Coordinate clause; Various properties of sentences. As the title of the book "Analysis and Classification of Sentences and Their Components" shows, Greene's research content has been equivalent to the "grammar" prevailing in the 20th century, and the content of traditional grammar, orthography, etymology, poetics, etc. are included in the appendix introduction. Therefore, it can be asserted that in the middle of the 19th century, grammar or bimodular grammar in a narrow sense had been formed, although there was still a birthmark of grammar.^{[3 ]}

To sum up, from ancient Greek (Dionysius Thrax approx 90 BC ）To nineteenth century At the end of the 20th century (Greene 1848), The general meaning of gr á mmatik í/grammatica/grammaire/Grammatik/grammar is: grammar (language structure and usage)=phonetic characters (letters, orthography, morphemes, word formation)+etymology (original meaning, parts of speech, morphological changes)+syntax (phrases, sentences, structural types, types of speech, voice)+usage (diction, rhetoric, poetics, and work reviews). Although different scholars from different countries in history have focused on or selected from their actual research contents, the gr á mmatik í/grammatica of multiple modules (6-4 modules) Grammar undoubtedly includes the general content of modern "linguistics".^{[3 ]}

Grammar's Translation Source

The concept of "grammar/grammar", which appeared in the 19th century and was popular in China in the 20th century, is an imported product, or " Western learning spreads to the East The spread of this concept can be traced back to sixteenth century advanced. Through the works on Chinese knowledge written by European scholars in history, we can understand the spread of grammatica (La)/grammaire (France)... Grammar (English) and its Chinese translation trajectory.^{[4 ]}

The earliest research on the teaching of Chinese knowledge to provide Chinese knowledge for its people is Kingdom of Spain Duoming, I will Huishi (whose base was in the Philippines at that time Manila , preaching in Fujian, China), that is, the "Duoming My Grammar School" in the history of Chinese language law in Europe.

To learn the Chinese language, High mother envy (Juan Cobo, 1546-1592) compiled Arte de la Lengua China (Chinese Language Skills, 1592). Later, there were Arte de la Lengua Chio Chiu (Zhangzhou Dialect Skills, written after 1620), Arte de la Lengua Mandarina (Mandarin Skills, about 1635) of Li Yufan (Juan Bautista de Morales, 1597-1664), Xu Fangji (Diaz, Pater Francisco Diaz, 1606-1646), Artede la Lengua Chi ∨ - chiu (Zhangzhou Dialect Skills, 1641, published in 1730), and Arte de la Lengua Mandarina (Mandarin Skills, 1682, published in 1703) of Wan Jiguo (transliteration of Varo, Fran ç oisVaro, 1627-1687).^{[4 ]}

In the title of Duomingwo School Spanish Arte (art), inheriting the traditional term ars (art) of Latin grammar, means that language knowledge research is a superb skill, which can be translated as "grammar".^{[4 ]}

Italy Missionaries in China Wei Kuangguo (Martinus Martint, 1614-1661) Grammatica Sinica (Chinese Grammar, 1645), compiled by referring to Xu Fangji's grammar book and dictionary, is the first book in Chinese grammar Latin grammatica。 And Wan Jiguo 1684 Grammatica Linguae Sinensis (Chinese Grammar, 1835), the completed Latin manuscript, also uses grammatica.^{[4 ]}

eighteenth century Early Chinese in France Huang Jialuo (Arcade Hoang, 1678-1716, a native of Putian, Fujian Province, whose Chinese name is Huang Risheng, and whose Christian name is Jialue, a transliteration of Arcade) and French scholars jointly wrote Grammaire Chinoise (Chinese Language Law, 1716) French grammaire。 In a letter to the French royal family, Huang Jialuo wrote: "Far officials are industrious day and night, and they want to repay with their thoughts. I have compiled a book and a husband's book to help Western scholars learn Chinese language, customs and etiquette." Therefore, the Chinese language was called "Chinese" at that time.^{[4 ]}

Translations by scholars from Europe and the United States

Early European Chinese grammarians, although occasionally had their own Chinese titles, did not appear with grammar Chinese words translated in pairs. Until the beginning of the 19th century, there was no Chinese translation of Grammar (English)/Gramm á tica (Portuguese)/Grammatik (German) in the title of the book.^{[4 ]}

(1) The way of speech/the way of speech.

1811 , British Morrison (Robert Morrison, 1782-1834) completed A Grammar of the Chinese Language (published in 1815), named the book "Law of Common Chinese Language", and translated grammar into "Law of Language". 1814 , UK Marshman (Joshua Marshman, 1768-1837) published Elements of Chinese Grammar, which was self determined. At the beginning of the 19th century, the English called the Chinese language "Chinese" (with the official enjoyment of the Manchu and Qing Dynasties Mandarin Status (e.g Mandarin riding and shooting ）Of Manchu language Different).^{[4 ]}

(2) Common examples of written language.

1823 , Morrison published A Grammar of the English Language, with its own Chinese title Yingguo Wenyu Fanli Zhuan. The author defines "common examples of literary language" as "the way of using words".^{[4 ]}

(3) Grammar.

1829 ， Portugal Joaquim Afonso Gon ç alves (1781-1841) published Arte China, constant de alphabeto e gram á tica, with his own title of Chinese Character Grammar. This is the first book on Chinese grammar titled "Grammar". In other words, Jiang Shawei first translated Gramm á tica with "grammar".^{[4 ]}

(4) Phrase.

1857 , UK Weilie Yali (Alexander Wylie, 1815-1887)《 Shanghai Serial 》"New Books" (Vol. 1, No. 10, page 11) was published on Ajoser Works of:

Mr. Ajoser has lived in China for nine years. He traces the origin of the study of phonology and distinguishes the essence. All the mortals who came from different provinces continued to discuss. He wrote a book in English called Guanhua Huofa, which enabled the British to learn from Chinese. At that time, Aijun once wrote the "Living Method of Shanghai Tubai", which was comprehensive.

In the middle of the 19th century, the British used "Chinese" to refer to the Chinese language (since then, "Chinese, Chinese" has been used). In this article, "living method" is now called "grammar". "Live" should be the form of "words" that causes mistakes. According to the "New Books", the famous book A Grammar of the Chinese Colloquial Language, Commonly Called MandarinDialect， Its Chinese title should be "Guanhua Dialect".

Morrison and Marshall's "speech method" is based on the law of classical Chinese, while Joseph's "speech method" is the law of official language.^{[4 ]}

(5) Grammar.

1857 ， Ajoser (Joseph Edkins, 1823-1905) published the Biography of Bernini (No. 12, Volume I of Liuhe Conglun), introducing encyclopedic writers in ancient Rome Pliny the Elder (Gaius Plinius Secundus, 23-79) and its Natural History. "Berlini is a northerner from Italy... who also wrote books and essays, and spoke grammar." This "grammar" refers to the method of composition, and this "grammar" refers to the method of language structure. Although this "grammar" is not the title of the book, it can be seen in the writings of European Chinese grammarians for reference.^{[4 ]}

(6) The usage of literary/colloquial words.

1869 ， U.S.A Ren Tarleton Perry Crawford (1821-1902) and Zhang Ruzhen (1811-1888) co wrote "Mandarin Grammar", and translated "literature" with Grammar. The Preface says:

Literature is a book that explains the usage of words. Western countries, each has this book, is a long history of literary books. There are more than 2000 kinds of dialects and more than 20 kinds of shapes in the world. All of them depend on the literature of each place to deduce the theorem of "Hu Hua" and carefully investigate the use of "Hu Hua", so that it does not involve two things on the wall.

The so-called "literary book" is "grammar book"; "Literature written in Mandarin" means "Mandarin grammar book".^{[4 ]}

(7) Latitude and longitude.

1881 ， Germany Chinese Grammatik by G. von der Gabelentz (1840-1893) has its own title, "Chinese Jingwei", which is a free translation of "Jingwei".

「 Longitude and latitude "Is a crisscross thread in weaving, and the author uses it to metaphor the language structure. Chinese structure "Is also a metaphor:" knot "is a knot of thread, and" structure "is a frame of wood. And " writing The original meaning of "interlaced painting", " language The original meaning of "cross talk". "Longitude and latitude", "structure", "text" and "language" all have interlaced meanings.^{[4 ]}

Among the above translations, grammar and grammar have been handed down so far, and the rest have been lost in history. Perhaps the reason is that the form of "grammar, grammar" is found in ancient Chinese books, and the meaning is similar. It is a normal way to change words and phrases to endow new concepts with historical word forms, which can be regarded as a means to realize sinicization by borrowing source words.^{[4 ]}

Translation by Chinese scholars

That is, in the second half of the 19th century, the English translation of grammar appeared in grammar books compiled or written by Chinese scholars.

(1) The method of learning language.

1874 Cao Xiang (1844-1923), a native of Shanghai, published Introduction to English Characters, which is the first English grammar book compiled by Chinese scholars. In the "Key to Learning Language", he said: "The English way of learning language is also called Grammar, so learning grammar (the way of composition - quotation) is ingenious, and the sentence is also consistent."^{[5 ]}

(2) Grammar.

In 1878, Guo Zansheng, a native of Guangzhou, published the First Grammar, which was the first English grammar book compiled by the Chinese. The basic version was An English School Grammar, which was translated into grammar.

According to the search, An English School Grammar: With Very Copious Exercises and A Systematic View of The Formation and Derivation of Words, Marshall，& Co.，1866）， It was influential at that time.

next year, Yuan sum Ren Wang Fengzao (1851-1918) compiled English Examples according to Simon Kerr's (1829-1876) ACommon School Grammar of the English Language (1866). The General Theory says:

"When a person has an idea, he has a language; when he has a language, he has a writing, whether spoken or written, and the use of it is clear. Grammar is a book, so it shows the standard of language and writing, and this is the standard of those engaged in English."

The main body of the book talks about parts of speech and combinations of words, phrases and sentence making, as well as error correction and embellishment.^{[5 ]}

(3) Conversation rules.

In 1895, Zhang Deyi (1847-1918) compiled and printed the English Rules. Translate grammar as "speech rules".^{[5 ]}

(4) Grammar.

1898 ， Dantu Ma Jianzhong (1845-1900) made a general comment in Ma Wentong French Grammaire is transliterated as "Grammaire". "Grammaire" in Wentong Example: "Grammaire is the original Greek pronunciation, which is used to explain the word pattern, and is also used to learn the formula of literature". Grammaire in French is derived from Greek, which can be translated as "word pattern", that is, "the formula of literature".^{[5 ]}

(5) Wen Fan.

1908 ， Xinhui people Wu Guangjian (1866-1943) published Outlines of English Grammar, an English textbook approved by the Ministry of Education at that time.

Except that "Granma" is a transliteration word, "the method of learning language" is used phrase Translate and use the rest terms Translate English grammar 。 The "rules, forms and models of words" emphasize the standardization of language and characters. And "grammar" has been translated by Guo Zansheng and Wang Fengzao, which indicates that the most acceptable thing for Chinese scholars is to use the traditional word "grammar".^{[5 ]}

The word "grammar" refers to the provisions of laws and decrees in the Qin and Han Dynasties. Officials who are familiar with laws and decrees are called Grammarian In the Song Dynasty, people began to use "grammar" to refer to "writing practice". Southern Song Dynasty Wu Ziliang (No. Jingxi, 1198-1257) Hanliu Grammar Zu's Records of the Historian.

① Returning to "Huolin Jie", it said: "Those with horns, I know that they are cattle; those with hyenas, I know that they are horses; dogs, rags, jackals, milu deer, I know that they are dogs, rags, jackals, milu deer, but Lin is also unknown", syntax According to Gaizu's Records of the Historian, the Biography of Lao Tzu, "Confucius said to his disciples," Birds, I know they can fly; beasts, I know they can walk; fish, I know they can swim. Those who walk can be fools; those who swim can be fibers; and those who fly can be weapons. As for dragons, I do not know they can ride the wind and clouds to heaven. "Zihou's" Journey to the Yellow River " As the saying goes, "The Jin Dynasty in the north, the Bin Dynasty in the west, the Wu Dynasty in the east, and the Chu Yue border in the south, where the mountains and rivers are famous and the states are the best in a hundred, and the Yellow River is the best." syntax Yizu's "Records of the Historian, Biography of the Southwest Barbarians" said that the number of the rulers of the Southwest Barbarians is the largest, and Yelang is the largest; from the north of Yunnan, the number of the rulers is the largest, and Qiongdu is the largest（《 Occasionally under the Jingxi Forest 》）

Wu Ziliang's "grammar" and "syntax" refer to "writing method", "sentence making method", or writing procedure.^{[2 ]}

Wang Ruoxu (1174-1243) used the terms "grammar, syntax, grammar" and so on in the "Collection of the Elderly in Southern Hunan". For example:

② "The Danyang Hongshi's note on the Korean language says," There is a law in every word, and there is also a law in every word, like Zuo and Sima Qian. "The words given to the Zuo family are consistent with the law. What can Sima Qian do for them? Grammar If you are careless, don't change it. " (Wen Bian II)

③ "Now the word" slave "belongs to me syntax It belongs to that. " (Discrimination of Historical Records 11)

④ With grammar The old saying is that law is long. " (The Analects of Confucius I)

⑤ "Therefore, although the interpretation of scriptures is high, it is based on the literary potential grammar Those who do not follow the plan will not be able to follow the plan. The situation is not high. " (The Analects of Confucius II)

Although these involve the analysis of language structure, they are generally the methods of "article practice", such as the method of writing posture, the method of making sentences, the method of language aid, or the method of "sentence and language aid structure analysis in article practice", and are not systematic. Zhizhang Xuecheng (1738-1801), whose General Meaning of Literature and History "distinguishes false papers", mentioned " Grammar There is a great deal of change, but it is still "the way of writing".^{[2 ]}

Translation by Japanese scholars

Meiji Restoration Japanese scholars during the period (1868-1912) mostly translated English grammar into "grammar", and very few translated it into "grammar", while their books were called "scriptures". These words are all from Chinese ancient books, that is, Japanese borrowed words from historical Chinese.

The so-called "grammar" goes from the method of the original article to the auxiliary use of language, and then turns to the general rules of language knowledge; The so-called "grammar" is transferred from the original auxiliary usage to the narrow sense of the rules of language structure; The so-called "literary classics" refer to the model works mainly based on grammar and involving relevant subject knowledge from the original book to the composition dictionary.^{[6 ]}

Edo period (1603-1868) Lu Yiwei It was started under the influence of Yuzhu (first carved in 1324). Twenty Years of Wanli in the Ming Dynasty（ 1592 ）, Zhejiang bibliophile Hu Wenhuan Re engraved Yuzhu, renamed Xinkezhuyuci. The book was introduced into Japan in the 14th year of Chongzhen（ 1641 ）It was engraved by Fengyue Zongzhi. Tianhe Three Years（ 1683 ）Meicun Miyouweimen is also carved with "Aotou Zhuyuci".^{[6 ]}

Thereafter, Matsui Cola's "Zhuyu Translations" (1719) was attached with "Grammar Essentials and Short Ends". Ogyu Sorai (1666-1728) proposed that "Wen Li" is the method of word placement; "Syntax" is to talk skillfully and clumsily on one sentence. Zhi Hongzhai, Ishikawa Ying (1833-1918), delving into the second volume of Detailed Essay on Grammar (1884) Auxiliary character , so it is the focus of grammar.^{[6 ]}

In the 1870s, "Literary Book Mandarin" (published in Dengzhou Prefecture, Shandong Province in 1869) was introduced to Japan. Nine Years of Meiji（ 1876 ）In May, Japan Dengzhou Mansion Yantai A consulate was set up, and when someone saw "Literary Books and Mandarin", they took it to Japan.^{[6 ]}

In the 10th year of Meiji (1877), Jinguzhao Training Center《 Qing Dynasty Scripture 》And Take precautions (1847-1928) The interpretation of the Annals of China was published almost at the same time. Jin Guzhao's Example (in Chinese) says:

① Recently, in the shop, we got a copy of the Chinese and Turkish grammar book, which is called Mandarin Grammar. It has sound theory, word theory, syntax, grammar, and even the usage of words, chapter interpretation and sentence analysis. We have prepared the theory one by one, and nothing left. In fact, the book is the beginning of the theory of grammar in that country. (Qing Dynasty Scripture, page 1)

Take precautions The Example (Japanese) says:

② This book, the original text, the text of the Zhina Mandarin, the text of the elegant text, the text and the grammar of the Zhina Mandarin The text is different from the text. The original book, or the foreigners who have learned Chinese, are the ones who have written, studied, and written by foreigners. ラムム, レドモモ, ノヲイフハハ, ヲㄜ, ケルノほ, ケイフ, ジ, or ゎケケょ, ほ. This book was originally published in China, and is entitled "Literature Book Mandarin"... that is, the grammar book of the Chinese Mandarin is not elegant classical Chinese, but its grammar is not very different from classical Chinese. The original book is either written by foreigners who study Chinese, and if it is written by foreigners, it is often analyzed with foreign grammar, which may be far fetched. However, those who used to speak the Chinese language only talked about its style, or only explained the use of auxiliary words and empty words.)

Both translate grammar into the traditional term "grammar"（ letter + written words + morphology + syntax + rhetoric ）, and the title is "Scripture". Since then, the "Annals of China" (1893), published by Hideki Murakami, has been a popular textbook adapted from "Literary Books and Mandarin".^{[6 ]}

In 1887, Gang Sanqing (whose birth and death are unknown) wrote "Gangshi's Zhina Scripture" based on English grammar grammar Translated as "grammar" (morphology+syntax). Gang Sanqing opened with the following words:

③ This book is a pink copy of the book, a Japanese book written in English, a Japanese book written in English, a Japanese book written in English, a Chinese book written in English, and a Chinese book written in English. ノキハハノノニノニニニフモモモモ𞟲𞟲𞟲ハゅノノニゆ, ゎゎヲシニ, ニ, ニ, ニ, ヲヲニ, ニ, ニ, ニ, ニ, ニ, ニ, ニ, ニ, ニ, 124 The Chinese version of the Chinese version of the Russian version of the Chinese version of the Chinese version of the Chinese version of the Chinese version of the Chinese version of the Chinese version of the Chinese version of the Chinese version of the Chinese version of the Chinese version of the Chinese version of the Chinese version of the Chinese version of the Chinese version of the Chinese version of the Chinese version of the Chinese version of the Chinese version of the Chinese version of the Chinese version of the Chinese version of the Chinese version of the Chinese version of the Chinese version of the Chinese version of the Chinese version of the Chinese version of the Chinese version. ("Gangshi's Hina Scripture - Edition")

At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, modern Chinese textbooks published in Japan, such as the Hina Language Grammar (1896) compiled by Shifu Sugo, the Mandarin Grammar (1905) co edited by Zhang Tingyan (a native of Beijing and a teacher of Tokyo Higher Business School at that time) and Tanaka Keitaro, and the Hina Language Law (1908) compiled by Fukuji Ishiyama, all follow the traditional "grammar" The term.^{[6 ]}

The works that focus on grammar and involve more knowledge of relevant subjects are called "literary classics", such as the "Hanwen Dian" (1898) by Takeshi Hiroshima, the "Hanwen Dian" (1902) by Kenjiro Kishima (1866-1931), and the "Hina Literary Dian" (1902) by Hiroki Chijiulang (1866-1938). In the appendix of Hiroki Chizuro's revised version of the Hina Scripture (1905), there is a "Table of Contents for Reading the Hina Scripture" (1906), in which it is written in Chinese:

④ I heard that Taixi's grammar originated in Greece, but in ancient China, I never heard of Sixue. As for the transition between Li Tang and the Southern and Northern Song Dynasties, scholars have gradually made some comments In the Tokugawa era, literature flourished in China, and grammar books began to emerge from the world. (Appendix to the Annals of China)

Hiroki Qianjiulang uses the traditional term "grammar" and links "grammar books come from the world" with "literature boom".^{[6 ]}

Since the Meiji era, the traditional Japanese term "Tang dialect", which refers to "Chinese language", has gradually disappeared. When compared with "Heyu" (Daiwa, Japanese) and "foreign language/foreign language" (Western languages), Chinese was called "Chinese language/Hina language/Mandarin/Qing language". Generally speaking, "Chinese/body" refers to ancient Chinese or classical Chinese, and "Chinese" refers to modern Chinese or Mandarin. The term "grammar" is still used in the study of ancient and modern Chinese.^{[6 ]}

Gang Sanqing translated grammar into "grammar" when referring to English grammar. The "Literary Mandarin Book" calls "grammar" "literature", and Hiroki Chihiro also has the theory that "the literature of China is booming, and the grammar book originated from the world".

This "literature" (which has a different meaning from the current "literary works") comes from English philology Or German Philologie (<French/Latin philologie<Ancient Greek philologia). In the third century BC, the " Philology "(or philology), known as the" king of disciplines "in ancient Europe. 1777 From F. A. Wolf (1759-1824) to University of Gottingen To apply for "Classics", the school set up a new major and named it after Philologie. Classics is different from traditional philology, but there is an internal connection - we must first master the knowledge of ancient Greek language and the methods of collation and textual research.^{[6 ]}

At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, the Japanese "canon study" originated from the《 Qing Dynasty Scripture 》And take precautions against the Zhina Scripture explained by Wenyan. Such works can be divided into three modes.

The first is the recent grammar (orthography+syntax) model in Europe and the United States, and the representative work is Okazaki's Okazawa Scripture (1887).

The second is grammar and primary school Combined with the mode of (orthography+syntax+primary school knowledge), the representative work is the Chinese Dictionary (1898) of Konosuke Pig Shou.

The third is the traditional European grammar (pronunciation+morphology+syntax+organization+rhetoric, etc.). His representative works are Kenjiro Kijima's Chinese Dictionary (1902) and Continuation of Chinese Dictionary (1903). These two books include: literary dictionary (words, phonology, exegesis), literary dictionary (morphology), literary dictionary (article practice, genre, word use, sentence formation), and dictionary repair (literary quality, literary disease, syntax, and text).^{[6 ]}

Japanese "canon study", especially the third model, had a significant impact on the Chinese academic circles at that time.

On the one hand, Wang Kechang translated the "Chinese Dictionary for Teaching and Learning" (1902 issue) from the "Chinese Dictionary" written by Kongsuke Zhushou; Najima Xianjiro's "Chinese Dictionary", translated by Ding Yongzhu into "National Dictionary" (1905). Lai Yuxun's "Chinese Dictionary" (1906), a literary dictionary, includes three volumes: "Ziyou", "Zitong" and "Zipin"; The article dictionary includes four volumes: grammar, formula, style and literary theory.

On the other hand, published Lin Chuanjia (1877-1922) "History of Chinese Literature" (1904, published in 1910), Liu Shipei (1884-1919) "Chinese Literature Textbook" (1906, including primary school, word class, syntax, organization, composition, ancient and modern style, literary selections) and other works.^{[6 ]}

Lin Chuanjia The draft is 1904 stay Beijing Normal University The content of the handout and the publication includes words, phonology, exegesis, rhetoric, the style of Qun Jing, the style of various histories, and the style of various scholars. between which, Lin Chuanjia In 1905, he went to Japan for investigation, and referred to Japanese works in the revision of the manuscript. The content of the cited "Hanwen Dian" by Kenjiro Kijima focuses on grammar, rhetoric, and literature. In addition, Lin indicated that it was a book imitating Sasakawa Shoro's "History of Chinese Literature" (1898), and pointed out that "its origin also came from Europe and the United States." philology 。 Such "literary history/literature" is actually "Chinese classical history/Chinese traditional philology".^{[6 ]}

European Tradition Philology Grammar is inherently eclectic. ancient Greek Dionysius (Dionysius Thrax, about 170-90 BC) defines "grammar" as "practical knowledge about the use of language by poets and writers", including six parts: phonology, explanation of words, explanation of idioms, discussion of etymology, induction of analogy rules and evaluation of literary works. It can be seen that both "Chinese classics" (the second and third models) and such "literary history" inherit the spirit of European philology and grammar. In Japan at that time, "grammar" was not the same as "grammar", and "scripture" was more similar to a complete set of Chinese knowledge.^{[6 ]}

Although Guo Zansheng (1878) and Wang Fengzao (1879), who compiled English grammar books, used grammar to translate grammar, the term "grammar" used by Chinese scholars in Chinese works in the early 20th century began with scholars studying in Japan.^{[7 ]}

1902 ， Lai Yuxun (1873-1962) Joined the Japanese Hongwen Academy, criticized the Japanese literary classics for "being non apprentice, restraining many errors", and wrote the "Hanwen Dian" (1906) after returning to the country, the third volume of the literary classics, explaining parts of speech; Grammar of the first volume of the article dictionary, explaining morphology (grammar, adjective, analysis, addition and modification, etc.), syntax (relationship, style, stanza, etc.), composition and discourse.^{[7 ]}

In 1905, Zhang Shizhao (1881-1973) entered Tokyo Zhengzheng School to study English. Inspired by the "strictness of English grammar", 12 female students studying in Japan from Hunan Province were taught the "Ancient Chinese Lexicon" at the Industrial Women's School with English grammar knowledge. During hospitalization due to illness, the lecture was reorganized into the "Primary Chinese Dictionary" (the Commercial Press renamed the "Medium Chinese Dictionary", 1907), which called grammar "grammar".^{[7 ]}

In 1908, Liu Jindi (1878-1952) wrote "Grammar Association", which was listed in the "Reference Book of Chinese Language for Middle School Teachers" the next year and published as the first Chinese book titled "Grammar" published by Chinese scholars.

In 1918, Sun Yat sen (1866-1925), who had lived in Japan for many times, also placed high hopes on "grammar" in the third chapter of Sun's Literature Theory - Making Difficulties (Psychological Construction)

It is hoped that our country's studious and thoughtful people will extensively search the latest grammar books of various countries and select the essence to be a Chinese grammar, so as to demonstrate the common language today and improve it. If you have grammar to regulate speech and make the country learn common knowledge, then you can learn grammar from speech. If you learn from grammar to see the writings of the ancients, then you will be promoted into the room. If you have a wrong hand, then the consistency of writing can also be restored.^{[7 ]}

Since the Republic of China, there have been more than 30 kinds of textbooks and treatises entitled "Grammar": Wang Mengzeng Synopsis of Chinese Middle School Grammar (1913), Synopsis of Middle School Grammar (1917) by Wu Minghao, Stylistic Grammar by Li Zhi (1920), Synopsis of Vernacular Grammar by Chen Junjie (1920) Wang Yingwei Practical Mandarin Grammar (1920) Liu Fu General Theory of Chinese Grammar (1920) Hu Shi Introduction to Mandarin Grammar (1921) Xu Dishan Outline of Chinese Grammar (1921) Chen Chengze The Draft Law of Chinese Language and Culture (1922) Jin Zhaozi Research on Chinese Language Law (1922) Li Jinxi New Chinese Grammar (1924) Yi Zuolin Four Lectures on Mandarin Grammar (1924) distinguished linguist and strong supporter of language reform Chinese Ancient Prose Law (1927) Zou Chichang An Outline of Mandarin Grammar (1928), Huang Jieru's Grammar and Composition (1930) Liu Fu Speech on Chinese Grammar (1932) Li Jinxi Comparative Grammar (1933) Zhao Zukang Mandarin Grammar (1933) distinguished linguist and strong supporter of language reform A Preliminary Study of Chinese Civil Law (1936) Yang Bojun General Interpretation of Chinese Grammar and Language (1936), Wang Longzu Research on Chinese Grammar (1937) Tan Zhengbi National Grammar and National Grammar (1938) What a shame On Chinese Grammar (1942) one of the founders of the scientific study of Chinese grammar and a supporter of fundamental language reform Essentials of Chinese Grammar (19421944) Chen Wangdao Compiled A Collection of Chinese Grammar Reform (1943) Liao Shuqian Spoken Language Grammar (1946) Zhao Jingshen Speech on Chinese Grammar (1946) Cao Bohan Mandarin Grammar (1947), Sun Nuchao's Interpretation of Mandarin Grammar (1947), Liming's Mandarin Grammar (1947), Cao Pu's Preliminary Chinese Grammar (1948), etc.^{[7 ]}

The origin and development of the present meaning of grammar

Chinese scholars first used "grammar" to refer to grammar Gay, who specialized in linguistics at Imperial University of Japan from 1909-1912 Hu Yilu (1888-1917), written by《 Initial creation of Chinese philology 》(1913) was the first to construct the modern Chinese grammar system.^{[7 ]}

There is no grammar book in our country, but Ma Jianzhong's Wentong, which explains ancient Chinese, and takes Latin grammar as the principle, not modern grammar, especially pure Chinese grammar. Case in point: Grammar books should be divided into three parts: sound, word quality, and sentence, and each should be an inherent explanation. It is not necessary to hang on one case of Indian Germanic grammar to force myself to follow it.

In the following year, Hu Yilu advocated in On Translated Names (1914) that Japanese neologisms should not be totally excluded, nor should they be used by those who "do not conform to our language".

The first one who wrote under the title of "grammar" was Yang Shuda (1885-1956)《 Outline of Chinese Grammar 》（1920）、 Sun Lianggong (1894-1962).

Yang Shuda studied in Japan from 1905 to 1911, and studied in Kyoto No. 3 University. During this period, he wrote Chinese grammar books referring to Japanese and English grammar. Sun Lianggong, who was also a native of Hunan Beijing Normal University Learning may be influenced by Yang Shuda. These two books both teach grammar in vernacular, so it is not appropriate to use "grammar" (Yang Shuda (1930) and "Advanced Chinese Grammar", which focuses on grammar in classical Chinese). The term "grammar" used by them is neither from the translation of Kumarashi (402) nor from the interpretation of Kong Yingda (642), which seems to be related to Ajoser The introduction of (1857) is also out of the question, and it is more likely to come directly from Japanese terms at that time.^{[7 ]}

In the 1930s and 1940s, there were only a few works titled "grammar": Wang Li's《 Modern Chinese Grammar 》(1943), Theory of Chinese Grammar (1944), Outline of Chinese Grammar (1946) and Gao Mingkai's Theory of Chinese Grammar (1948). The reason lies in the influence of Yang Shuda's Outline of Chinese Grammar, a textbook approved by the Ministry of Education.^{[7 ]}

From 1920 to 1927, Yang Shuda was once the dictionary editor of the Preparatory Meeting for the Unification of Chinese Language of the Ministry of Education, professor of the Department of Chinese Language and Culture of Beijing Normal University, chief editor of the Ministry of Education, and professor of the Department of Chinese Language and Culture and the Department of History of Tsinghua University. Wang Li joined the Academy of Chinese Studies of Tsinghua University in 1926. His postgraduate thesis was Ancient Chinese Prose Law (1927), so he naturally understood Yang Shuda's research. It can be seen that Yang Shuda and Wang Li used "grammar" to study classical Chinese, and "grammar" to study vernacular Chinese.^{[7 ]}

twentieth century In the 1960s, Chinese grammarians debated the terms "grammar" and "grammar".

Advocates of grammar, such as Chen Wangdao 、 Fu Donghua The reason is that in history, "grammar" is the correct name and "grammar" is the alias. "Wen" means "language organization", "grammar" means "language organization rules", and "grammar" only means "language rules", so "grammar" has a concise meaning.^{[1 ]}

Those who advocate grammar, such as Feng Zhiwei , Wang Futing Rao Changrong The reason is that the word "grammar" is ambiguous, the early study of classical Chinese tends to eulogize the ancient, while the vernacular has become the main content of the study of idiom. Grammar research cannot be separated from spoken language. Only by using grammar can we accurately describe the research object.^{[1 ]}

Since then, "grammar" has become a common term, and only Chen Wangdao's "A Brief Discussion on Grammar" (1978) and others have remained the same. In addition, Zhao Yuanren (1968), who taught in the United States, wrote the book Grammar of Chinese.^{[1 ]}

Chinese grammar

Announce

edit

If we consider vocabulary and pronunciation comprehensively, we will make some mistakes and cannot take full account of the characteristics of grammar. For the division of the history of Chinese grammar, we should pay more attention to the grammatical characteristics as the standard of division.

Analyzing the grammatical characteristics of each period, the history of Chinese grammar can be divided into four periods: ① the ancient times (Yin, Shang, Yi, Qin and Han Dynasties), ② the middle ages (Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, Tang and Five Dynasties), ③ modern times (Song to early Republic of China), and ④ modern times (early Republic of China to the present). Every period will have a transition period, for example, the Eastern Han Dynasty is a transition period from ancient times to medieval times, the Five Dynasties is a transition period from medieval times to modern times, and the late Qing Dynasty is a transition period from modern times to modern times.

Grammar is the most stable part of the three elements of language, and the development of grammar can best reflect the essential characteristics of language development. The basic feature of Chinese grammar is to use word order and function words to express grammatical categories, sentence making rules and sentence pattern changes. This basic feature was established as early as the Shang Dynasty. The Shang Dynasty Chinese language has relatively mature characters and written materials. The study of the history of Chinese grammar generally starts from the Shang Dynasty. From the Shang Dynasty to the present, Chinese grammar has developed greatly, producing many new grammatical forms and grammatical elements.

The following is a brief talk about the changes and development of Chinese grammar in various historical periods. According to the four periods, the grammatical changes and development characteristics of each period are as follows.^{[9 ]}

Grammar of Ancient Chinese

1、 Ancient times (from the era of stock traders to the pre Qin and Han Dynasties)

Mass unearthed oracular inscriptions on tortoise shells and bones It reflects the basic features of the grammar of the Shang Dynasty and provides reliable materials for the study of the grammar of the Shang Dynasty. Oracle bone inscriptions are not too complicated in morphology and syntax.

(I) part of speech

The words in oracle bone inscriptions can be divided into noun 、 verb 、 adjective 、 numeral 、 classifier 、 pronoun 、 adverb 、 preposition 、 conjunction 、 statement label designator 、 interjection Etc. The development of various parts of speech is uneven, some are rich in content, and some are just conical.

(II) Sentence element

The main components of a sentence are subject 、 predicate and object 。 Besides complement 、 attribute and adverbial 。 These sentence elements in oracle bone inscriptions are already available, but not very developed.

(III) sentence pattern

Most of the sentences in oracle inscriptions are simple, and the subject and predicate are simple: a small part are complex sentence The subject and predicate are complicated. It can be mainly divided into: ① subject+predicate. The predicate can be a verb or an adjective. ② Subject+predicate+object. ③ Subject+(its, not) object+predicate. ④ Master+action+double guest. ⑤ Predicate+object. ⑥ (No, its) object+predicate. also verbal expression in series ， Concurrent statement 、 Complex sentence wait.

On the whole, the grammar reflected in the oracle bone inscriptions of the Shang Dynasty is obviously still in the early stage of Chinese development.

First, Function word It is an important means of Chinese grammar, and oracle inscriptions are not very rich.

Second, word order It occupies an important position in Chinese grammar. The subject precedes the predicate, the object follows the verb, and the attribute and adverbial modifier Head language Before. These rules have been generally formed in divination, but they are not strictly followed. It is often found that the object is in front of the verb and the subject is behind the verb.

Third, the basic sentence pattern in oracle script is quite simple, nothing complex sentence and Compound sentence 。 After the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, the means of Chinese grammar became richer and the grammatical structure became more complicated.^{[9 ]}

Grammar of Middle Chinese

（1） The Development of Copula "Shi" and "Shi" Sentences

Judgement word "Yes" has matured in spoken language Judgmental sentence The Chinese word "shi" has been widely used and has begun to replace the typical subject predicate continuous sentence in ancient times.

(II) disposal construction Development of

The disposal mode was completed in this period. It also opens a new situation in the relationship between verb and object. It refers the object, especially the long object, to the verb by the preposition "ba".

(III) Passive sentence Development of

During this period, the passive sentence of the word "bei" developed maturely, and its structure became more complex, resulting in the combination of the word "bei" with the complement, and the omission of the agent of the word "bei".

（4） Chinese passive sentences have developed greatly in the Middle Ages

In addition to the form of "Wei... Zhi...", the passive sentences without the word "Bei" in ancient times can still be seen at this stage, and some of them are frequently used.

（5） The Development of the Structure of "De"

In ancient times, "de" is a verb, which means to obtain, and also an auxiliary verb, which means to allow objectively. After the Six Dynasties, "de" became empty structural auxiliary word , which can represent both the result and the possibility. In the Tang Dynasty, especially in the Song Dynasty, the structure and form of the word "de" also diversified. The predicate can be Disyllabic words , the object can be phrase In addition to the definite object, there are complements, which can be placed forward or backward.

（6） The development of complement in medieval times

The verb complement form in the Middle Ages inherited the ancient usage, but in directional complement 、 resultative complement And Quantitative complement There are also some new developments.

（7） Interrogative sentence development

Some interrogative sentences without interrogative words have appeared, and some new interrogative pronouns such as "that" have also appeared.^{[9 ]}

Grammar of Modern Chinese

(I) classifier In modern times, a large number of classifier , some new verb classifier , quantifiers show a tendency of polysyllabic, and quantifiers overlap increasingly

（2） Entity auxiliary word The wide application of "Lai" and the emergence of "Lai Dai"

The substantive auxiliary word "lai" originated in the Middle Ages and represents a recent experience. However, the Yuan and Ming dynasties were the heyday of Lai, which was widely used in vernacular works. It can also be combined with entity auxiliary words to express a more complex tense aspect meaning.

（3）「 get up 」

The trend verb "get up" came into being in the late Tang Dynasty and early Song Dynasty, and was widely used in the Yuan and Ming Dynasties

（4）「 down 」

"Go down" means to continue the action. Directional verb "Xia xia", which originated in the song dynasty, is used after a verb to indicate the movement from high to low or from upper to lower. It is very common in modern times.

（5） Numerals

It has been used since ancient times and continues to be widely used in modern times base The denotation of divisors with "ba", "duo", "comings and goings", "up and down", "outside and outside" added after the base number is modern.

（6） The Development of the Ends of Nouns and Pronouns

Before the Tang Dynasty, there was no difference between Chinese nouns and pronouns in number, and the singular and plural can only be understood from the context. Pronouns and nouns began to appear in the Tang Dynasty to express plural Suffix 。

（7） Adverb

Many new adverbs have emerged in modern Chinese. Some of the adverbs produced in or before the Middle Ages have disappeared, and most of them remain, becoming a part of the modern adverb system. This makes adverbs in modern Chinese very rich. There are more than 600 adverbs in modern Chinese. Among the new adverbs, a few are monosyllabic words, and most are polysyllabic words. There are three kinds of polysyllabic words:

One is that two synonymous monosyllabic adverbs are used together and solidified into polysyllabic adverbs, with the same meaning as monosyllabic words;

The second is to use a monosyllabic adverb as the main word, and use another monosyllabic word with different meanings to limit it to form a new polysyllabic adverb with similar meanings;

Third, monosyllabic adverbs with suffix become additional polysyllabic adverbs.

（7） Complement

Adjective predicate or some verbs with "de" complement of degree , appeared in the Yuan Dynasty, and gradually developed after the Ming and Qing Dynasties. The complement of this kind is "very, tight, very, powerful".

（8） There is no corresponding verb disposal construction

It appears in the dialogue with a strong emotional color. The speaker stops without finishing speaking, and gradually becomes a fixed sentence pattern.

（9） The Development of Passive Sentences

In modern Chinese passive sentences, many prepositions expressing passive meanings have emerged.

（10） The positions of complements and objects tend to be unified, resulting in diversified forms of complements and new degree complements^{[9 ]}

Grammar of Modern Chinese

After the May 4th Movement, especially after the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, great changes have taken place in Chinese society, resulting in many new grammatical rules, which, to a certain extent, have been influenced by English.

（1） Change of pronouns

After the May 4th Movement, English personal pronouns he 、 she 、 it The third person pronouns in Chinese written language also have sexual differences. The masculine uses "he", the feminine uses "she", and the neuter uses "it" or "ground". In addition, the English third person pronouns, whether masculine, feminine or neuter, all use "they", while in Chinese, they are written as "they", "they" and "they" according to the singular inference.

（2） The development of verb tense

Chinese verbal tense Category began to emerge in the middle ages and has basically formed in modern times. After the May 4th Movement, influenced by English, people consciously applied it and developed it, which made this grammatical category more clear. The most prominent surface is now Dynamic auxiliary The application of "holding".

（3） The division and unity of the auxiliary words "de", "di" and "di"

auxiliary word "De", "Di" and "Di" have existed since the middle ages. In modern times, "De" has been written uniformly. After the May 4th Movement, under the influence of English, "de", "di" and "di" were divided again in written language. "De" is used to describe the attribute of sex, "Di" is used to lead the attribute, and "Di" is used as adverbial.

（4） New word order

Some word orders that were not used or seldom used in the vernacular of the Ming and Qing dynasties were widely used after the May 4th Movement. The new word order in a single sentence is more obvious in the position of attribute and adverbial. Attributive, adverbial first, Head language After. also Postposition attribute The situation of. For the need of rhetoric, adjectives act as attributives, adverbs act as adverbials, and sometimes they can be located behind the head, usually separated by commas.

（5） The emergence of new prepositional structures

The use of the conjunction "and" and "if" is expanded; The scope of adverbial is expanded; Emerging common usage; Xinxing Ba sentence; The new application of classical Chinese grammar.

（6） Sentence complexity

The sentence structure of modern Chinese is unprecedentedly complicated. Some are simple sentences, but each sentence element often has different modifiers, or there are many complex subjects, predicates, attributes and adverbials formed by complex sentences. Some of them are complex sentences, and several clauses that are already quite complex form multiple repeated sentences together. The whole sentence is more complicated.^{[9 ]}

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