Cognitive psychology, a psychological trend and research direction that rose in the west in the mid-1950s.Broadly speaking, it refers to the study of human advanced psychological processes, mainly cognitive processes, such as attention, perception, representation, memory, creativity, problem solving, speech and thinking.Narrow equivalent to contemporaryInformation Processing Psychology。That is, the cognitive process is studied from the perspective of information processing.Its historical background can be traced back to the ancient Greek times 2000 years ago.At that time, some outstanding philosophers and thinkers, such as Plato and Aristotle, thought about such cognitive processes as memory and thinking.In addition to the influence of philosophy, it can also be examined from the development of psychology itself and the influence of cross penetration with some neighboring disciplines.[1]
Cognitive psychology is one of the latest branches of psychology, which was developed from 1950's to 1960's and becameWestern PsychologyThe main schools of.1956 is considered as an important year in the history of cognitive psychology.In this year, several psychological studies have reflected the information processing perspective of psychology.For example, Chomsky's language theory and Alan Newell and Herbert Alexander simon's "general problem solver" model.The first publication of "cognitive psychology" was Ulrich Neisser's new book in 1967.The book Perception and Communication published by Donald Broadbent in 1958 laid an important foundation for the orientation of cognitive psychology.Since then, the focus of cognitive psychological orientation has been on the cognitive information processing model pointed out by Donald Broadbent -- a model of thinking and reasoning with mental processing.Therefore, the operation of thinking and reasoning in the human brain is similar to that of computer software in the computer.Cognitive psychology often talks about the concepts of input, representation, calculation or processing, and output.
Research object
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Cognitive psychology
Cognitive psychology is a psychological trend of thought that rose in the west in the mid 1950s, and it has become a major research direction of western psychology since the 1970s.It studies people's advancedPsychological process, mainly cognitive processes, such as attention, perceptionappearance, memory, thinking and speech, etc.
AndBehaviorist psychologyOn the contrary, cognitive psychologists study internal mechanisms and processes that cannot be observed, such as memory processing, storage, retrieval andmemoryChanges.
withinformation processingThe research on cognitive process is the mainstream of modern cognitive psychology. It can be said that cognitive psychology is equivalent toInformation Processing Psychology。It regards people as an information processing system, and believes that cognition is information processing, including the whole process of encoding, storage and extraction of sensory input.According to this view, cognition can be divided into a series of stages, each stage is a unit that performs certain operations on the input information, and reaction is the product of this series of stages and operations.Each component of the information processing system is connected with each other in some way.With the development of cognitive psychology, this sequential processing view is increasingly influenced by the parallel processing theory andCognitive NeuropsychologyThe challenges of related theories.[2]
Research characteristics
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Cognitive psychologists are concerned with the psychological mechanism as the basis of human behavior, whose core is the internal psychological process between input and output.However, people cannot directly observe the internal psychological process, and can only speculate by observing the input and output.Therefore, the method used by cognitive psychologists is to infer the unobservable psychological process from the observable phenomenon.Some people call this method convergence proof, that is, to gather data of different natures together and draw conclusions.andCognitive Psychology ResearchUsually experimentsCognitive neuroscience, cognitive neuropsychology, computer simulation and other aspects of evidence support, and this multi-directional research is increasingly favored.Cognitive psychologists want to reveal the essential process of cognitive activity by studying the brain itself, rather than just inferring its process.The most common way is to study the difference between the cognition of patients with brain injury and that of normal people to prove the existence and specific mode of cognitive processing.
research method
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Cognitive psychologists tend toInformation processing processIt is decomposed into several stages, that is, the whole process from stimulus input to response.They often use the reaction time method.That is, by measuring the time required for a process, we can determine the nature of the process and its relationship with other processes.
Suppose a person looks at the letter E projected on the screen. If the projection time is very short, such as one millisecond, then the person will not see anything, which indicates that perception is not instantaneous;If the projection time is longer, for example, five milliseconds, then the person will see something, but I don't know what it is, which means that perception has occurred, but discrimination has not yet occurred;If the projection time is long enough to make people see that the letter is not O or Q, but not E or F or K, then the person has partial discrimination.From this one can determine the time required for complete discrimination, partial discrimination or just seeing something.All this shows that perception is cumulative and includes several specific stages.
Reaction time method
The reaction time method is also a proof of convergence.Cognitive psychologists use reaction time more than reaction timeSimple reaction time。Because the selection of reaction can provide more information about the internal state.
Computer simulation and analogy
Computer simulation and analogy is a special method adopted by cognitive psychologists.To make computers think like humans, computer programs should conform to the mechanism of human cognitive activities, that is, conform to somecognitive theory Or model.The expression of a cognitive theory as a computer program is called computer simulation.Therefore, computer simulation can first be used to test a certain theory, find its defects, and then improve it.
The output provided by computer simulation can be compared withHuman behaviorCompare.If the theory is correct, then the output should be similar to that given by human beings when solving the same problem;If the output of the program is different from that of people, then finding out the difference will also find the basis for correcting the theory.Computer simulations can also predict complex behavior.Although we understand some concepts and can turn them into procedures step by step, when the sequence of steps is long, complex and requires a lot of contacts, we often cannot predict the results.In this case, computer simulation can sometimes yield surprising results.
Some cognitive psychologists often use flow charts of information series to describe the main characteristics of computer programs.However, this flow chart does not have the details of actual computer operations, but only provides the outline for the preparation of computer programs, which can be further transformed into computer programs, and this part of work is often implemented by computer software experts.
Oral record
Oral record(Thinking aloud) is also a common method used by cognitive psychologists, especially those who study thinking.This method can produce good results when combined with other objective methods.
Main points
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In a broad sense, cognitive psychology includes constructivist cognitive psychology represented by Piaget, psychological psychology andInformation Processing PsychologyIn a narrow sense, it is information processing psychology, which studies people's cognitive processes of receiving, storing and using information from the perspective of information processing, includingPerception, attention, memory, mental image(that is, representation), thinking and language.The main research methods are experiment, observation and computer simulation.
The main representatives of cognitive psychology include American psychologist and computer scientist Alan Newell (1927) and American scientist Herbert Alexander simon (1916), one of the pioneers of artificial intelligence.Their main theoretical viewpoints are:
1. Think of human brain as an information processing system similar to computer
They believe that the information processing system of the human brain isreceptor（receptor）、Reactor(effector), memory andprocessor(or control system) (processor) consists of four parts.First of all, the environment inputs information to the sensory system, that is, receptors, which transform information;The transformed information must be reconstructed, distinguished and compared by the control system before entering the long-term memory;The memory system stores the symbol structure for retrieval;Finally, the reactor reacts to the outside world.
2. Emphasize that the existing knowledge and knowledge structure in the human mind play a decisive role in human behavior and current cognitive activities
Cognitive theory believes that perception is the process of determining the meaning of the stimulus that people receive, and this process depends on the information from the environment and from the perceivers themselves, that is, knowledge.The complete cognitive process is a series of circular processes, such as orientation - feature extraction - comparison with the knowledge in memory.Knowledge works through schema.The so-called schema is a psychological structure used to represent our internalized knowledge units about the external world.The icon is activated when it receives external information suitable for it.The activated diagrams enable people to generate internal perceptual expectations, which are used to guide sensory organs to purposefully search for special forms of information.
3. Emphasize the integrity of cognitive process
Modern cognitive psychology believes that human cognitive activities are a unified whole of cognitive elements interacting with each other, and any kind of cognitive activities are completed with the cooperation of other cognitive activities associated with them.
On the other hand, context is very important in people's cognitive process.It not only includes the context of the language materials that people are exposed to, the up and down, left and right, and the order of the objective things, but also includes the relationship between the original knowledge of the human brain, the original knowledge and the current cognitive objects.
4. Production system
The concept of production system originates from mathematics and computer science and has been widely used in psychology since 1970.It explains the procedure when people solve problems.In a production system, a series of events generates a series of activities, that is, condition activity (C-A).The conditions are general, and the same conditions can produce the same kind of activities;Secondly, conditions also involve some internal purposes and internal knowledge.It can be said that the conditions of production include not only external stimuli but also information stored in memory, reflecting the generality and internality of modern cognitive psychology.[3]
Development history
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The Classification of Knowledge in Cognitive Psychology
Cognitive psychology is the result of the development of psychology, which is also related to western traditional philosophy.Its main feature is that it emphasizes the role of knowledge and believes that knowledge is the main factor determining human behavior.This idea can at least be traced back to British empiricist philosophers such as Bacon and Locke.Descartes emphasizes the role of deduction, and cognitive psychology attaches importance to hypothetical deduction.Kant The concept of schema has become a major concept in cognitive psychology.
Cognitive psychology also inherited the earlyExperimental PsychologyTradition.The reaction time method proposed by Helmholtz and Dongdes in the 19th century is widely used by cognitive psychologists today, and has undergone new development.
VontHe is the founder of modern experimental psychology. Cognitive psychology is very close to his views on the object and method of psychology.He believes that the object of psychology is experience, the content of consciousness, and the method is introspection under control.Some psychologists say that cognitive psychology has returned to Wundt's psychology of consciousness, but the difference is that the method is more reliable and sophisticated.James' reference to two kinds of memory, namely, primary memory and secondary memory, has become the basis of memory research in cognitive psychology today.
Gestalt PsychologyThe impact on cognitive psychology is obvious.It is famous for the study of perception and advanced psychological processes, emphasizing the principles of Gestalt organization and structure, and opposingBehaviorist psychologyThink of people as passive stimulus reactors.These views have a significant impact on cognitive psychology, such as cognitive psychology defines perception as the organization and interpretation of sensory information, and emphasizes the initiative of information processing.
In terms of methodology, Gestalt psychology advocates the study of direct life experience and the integration of direct lifeExperience materialsIn combination with experimental data, for example, we attach importance to the direct description of the content of our own perception by the observer, and call this method phenomenological method.This view is different from that of Vonte andTitchener It is also different from behaviorism that only pays attention to laboratory experiments, but it is consistent with the basic view of cognitive psychology.
Cognitive psychology is against behaviorism, but it is also affected by it.From behaviorism, cognitive psychology has accepted strict experimental methods, operationalism, etc.Cognitive psychology has not focused on the study of internal psychological processes, but also paid attention to the study of behavior.It is generally believed that people use information obtained from the environment, combined with things stored in memory, to guide future behavior and shape the living environment.
The subjects were assigned to present two letters, which could be shown to them at the same time, or inserted into a short time interval. The subjects were asked to point out whether the two letters were the same, press the key to react, and record the reaction time.There are two types of letter pairs used. One is that the two letters have the same pronunciation and writing, that is, the same letter (AA);The other is that two letters have the same pronunciation but different writing (Aa).In both cases, the correct response is "the same".
2. Clark and Chase Sentences Picture Matching Experimentsubtractive method Examples of experiments
Show the subject a sentence and the following picture, such as "the star is above the cross", and ask the subject to judge as soon as possible whether the sentence really explains the picture, make a yes or no response, and record the reaction time.The prepositions used in the experiment are "above" and "below", the subject is "star" and "cross", the statement of the sentence is positive (in) and negative (not in), and there are 8 different sentences in total.Clark and Chase envisioned that when a sentence appears between pictures, the completion of this sentence and picture matching task would go through several processing stages, and proposed some parameters to measure the processing duration.
3. Sternberg's Additive Factor Experiment on Information Extraction from Short term Memory
The test subjects were shown 1 to 6 numbers (memorizing items), then another number (testing items), and started timing at the same time. The test subjects were asked to answer whether the test number was just memorized, press the key to respond yes or no, and the timing stopped immediately.In this way, it can be determined whether the subjects can correctly extract and the required time is the reaction time.Through a series of experiments, Sternberg identified four factors that have independent effects on the extraction process from the change of reaction time, namely, the quality of test items (high-quality or low-quality), the number of memorizing items, the type of reaction (positive or negative) and the relative frequency of each reaction type.Therefore, he believes that the information retrieval process of short-term memory includes four corresponding independent processing stages, namely, stimulus coding stage, sequence comparison stage, alternative decision-making stage and response organization stage.
4. Letter conversion experiment ("window opening" experiment)
Give the subjects 1-4 English letters and mark a number after the letters, such as "F+3", "KENC+4", etc.When "F+3" is presented, the subjects are asked to say the letter "I" at the third position after F in the English alphabet. In other words, "F+3" means that F is converted into I, and the correct answer to "KENC+4" is "OIRG". But the four conversion results should be said together. This should be true when there is more than one stimulus letter, that is, only one response should be made.Taking "KENC+4" as an example, four stimulus letters appear one after another, and the subjects can see the first letter K by pressing the key themselves and start timing at the same time. Then the subjects make a sound conversion, that is, say LMNO, and then press the key to see the second letter (E), and then make conversion, and so on until all four letters are presented and answered, the timing stops.The beginning and end of sound conversion are marked in the time record.According to the reaction time data of this experiment, it can be clearly seen that there are three processing stages of completing the letter conversion task: (1) The encoding stage is the time from the time when the subject looks at a letter by pressing a key to the time when the voice conversion starts. The subjects code the letter they see and find the position of the letter in the alphabet in memory;(2) The time taken by the subject to carry out the specified conversion is the conversion stage;(3) The time from the end of voice conversion to the time when the subject presses the key to see the next letter is the storage stage, and the subject stores the conversion results in memory.
5. Peterson and Peterson's experiment on forgetting process
Present three consonant letters to the auditee each time, such as KBR;In order to prevent repetition, a three digit number, such as 684, is presented immediately after the letter is presented. The subject is required to quickly subtract 3 from the number and say the result of each operation, that is, report 681, 678, 675, etc. until the main test sends a signal to recall the three letters he just remembered.The time interval between letter presentation and recall, that is, the time for subjects to continuously subtract 3, is divided into 6 types: 3s, 6s, 9s, 12s, 15s and 18s.But each time the subjects did not know how long the calculation would take in advance.This is a delayed recall test with different time intervals, during which additional interference tasks are performed.The experiment was carried out many times, and the letters and numbers used each time were different. The subjects of the experiment were college students.Results: When the delay time was only 3s, the average correct recall rate of the subjects was as high as 80%, and almost all of them could remember three letters. However, with the extension of the interval, the correct recall rate dropped sharply, and when it was extended to 6s, the correct recall rate dropped to about 55%;When it was extended to 18s, the correct recall rate of the subjects was only about 10%.This experiment proves that short-term memory keeps information short, and if it is not repeated, it will be quickly forgotten.
6. The experiment of Waugh and Norman attempts to separate trace fading and interference
The subjects are presented with a series of numbers, such as 16 numbers, and the last number is presented with a high frequency pure tone. This last number is called the detection number, which has only appeared once before.Once the subjects heard the sound, they had to recall the number behind the position where the detection number appeared in front.If the number series presented is 3917465218736528 * (star indicates pure tone), the detection number is 8, which appears at the 10th position in the previous series, and the subject should report the number 7 behind this position.From the last number of the numbers that should be reported to the last number, it is called interval number, that is, the number of its interference effect. The time used to present these interval numbers is called interval time. This experiment uses different numbers of interval numbers and interval time.Two digital rendering speeds are applied: fast rendering is 4 numbers per second, and slow rendering is 1 number per second.In this way, the interval time can be changed under the condition that the interval number remains unchanged;The interval number can also be changed under the condition that the interval time remains unchanged.Results: Whether the numbers were presented quickly or slowly, the correct recall rate decreased with the increase of interval numbers or interference items. That is to say, the correct recall rate did not differ greatly due to the difference in interval time caused by the different speed of number presentation. This result supports the interference theory, which proves that the main reason for short-term memory forgetting is interference rather than memory trace fading.
7. Podgoray and Shepard's Visual Localization Experiment - Verifying the Equivalence between Representation and Perception
The experiment was divided into three groups: (1) perception memory group. The experimental material was a 5 × 5 grid, and some of the squares were painted with black into an English letter, such as I, L, F, E, or the letter combination IF;There is another same 5 × 5 grid, and blue dots are drawn in any of the squares as test points.In the formal experiment, the subjects were first presented with a grid coated with a letter or a combination of letters by a tachograph, and then presented with a grid with a test point. While maintaining high accuracy, the subjects were required to determine as soon as possible whether the blue test point fell within or outside the presented letter, and then made a key press reaction with their left or right hands, respectively, to record the reaction time.A letter or letter combination shall be tested for many times. The test points shall appear at least once in all 25 squares in a random order. The number of test points arranged inside and outside the letter is also equal.(2) The experimental procedure of the image group with grid is basically the same as that of the perception memory group, but there is a significant difference.In this group of experiments, the above letters and letter combinations were not formed by blackening some squares.In the experiment, a tachograph was first used to present an identical but empty 5 × 5 grid. At the same time, the experimenter gave the subject an oral instruction, asking him to imagine some English letters or letter combinations using some specific squares. These letters and their positions in the grid were the same as those in perception memory, and asked him not to change the positions of the letters in the grid.After the letter is visualized by the subject, the same grid with test points is displayed by the tachistoscope, and the rest of the experimental procedures are the same as before.(3) For the image group without grid, the experiment of this group is different from that of the image group with grid, that is, the grid with test points only draws the outermost outline, and the internal grid is not drawn.The purpose of this is to avoid subjects inferring the position of letters in the grid after the test point is presented, and other programs are the same as before.
8. Paivio's experiment: verifying that representation is two cognitive systems parallel and related to speech
Show the subjects some cards, on which there is a pair of pictures or a pair of printed words (see Cognitive Psychology, Wang Su, Wang AnshengPeking University PressP212 Figure 7-6 Two picture pairs and two word pairs), asking the subjects to determine which of the two things drawn or marked by printed words is larger in the original impression (not the size of the drawing, but the actual size of the two things in the original impression), and record the reaction time.Paivio made the following hypothesis: if the long-term memory only contains information encoded by language, then the subjects would be slower to make a decision on the picture material than to respond to words, because before making a decision, they need to convert the picture into words;On the other hand, if long-term memory also contains visual representation or visual coding information, then the subjects' response to pictures will not be slower than that to words, because visual representation can be obtained directly from memory without any further conversion.This experiment not only provides experimental evidence for the existence of representation, but also puts forward some characteristics of representation different from language.
9. Artificial Concept Formation Experiment (81 Card Experiment) - Concept Formation Process of Hypothesis Test Theory
The experimental material is a card with graphics. The shape, color, number and number of borders of graphics are the four dimensions that constitute each specific card.Each dimension is divided into three levels, that is, each has three attributes or values.For example, the shape dimension has three attributes: cross, circle and square;The colors are green, black and red;There are also 3 values for the number of drawings and 3 values for the number of frames.Each card has one attribute of these four dimensions, so each card is different from any other card in 1-4 dimensions (attributes).So there are 81 different cards (3 × 3 × 3 × 3) as experimental materials.The experimenter has specified in advance that an attribute of a certain dimension (such as red) or attributes of several dimensions (such as red circle) are unique attributes of an artificial concept, that is, these dimensions and attributes form an artificial concept. They are called relevant dimensions and relevant attributes, and others are called irrelevant dimensions and irrelevant attributes.All cards with specified relevant attributes are conceptual examples or positive examples, otherwise they are negative examples.However, the experimenter did not tell the subjects about an artificial concept (i.e. its relevant attributes) in advance.At the beginning of the experiment, the main experimenter told the subjects that there was a specific concept in the experiment, which was composed of a certain attribute or some attributes. The subjects were required to discover the concept through the experimental process;Then, the experimenter first takes out a card of positive examples to the experimenter, and clearly tells him that it is a positive example. The experimenter should select other positive examples of the concept from all the cards in front of him according to his own ideas, one at a time. After each selection, the experimenter should give feedback, pointing out whether he chose right or wrong.The experiment went on like this until the subjects found this concept, which means that they can correctly select all positive examples and tell what this concept is.
10. Four Card Problem - Authenticity and Falsification
Adult subjects were shown four cards, two of which had a letter on the front, one had a vowel (E), the other a consonant (K);There is a number on the front of the other two cards, one is even (4), and the other is odd (7).At the same time, the subjects were told that each card has a letter on one side and a number on the other side, and a rule was proposed: "If one side of the card is a vowel, the other side is an even number".The subjects were asked to tell which cards they had to read in order to verify the authenticity of the rule.[4]
Related science
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Cognitive psychology is also psychology and neighborhoodInterdisciplinaryPermeation products.First, linguistics has a great influence on the development of cognitive psychology.ChomskyThe combination of linguistics and psychologypsycholinguisticsIt can be said to be a branch of cognitive psychology.
Cybernetics, information theory and computer science have a profound impact on the development of cognitive psychology.The combination of computer science and psychology has produced a frontier discipline, artificial intelligence.Artificial intelligence is closely related to cognitive psychology. The emergence of computers has enabled people to find a new way to analyze people's internal psychological processes and states.
Early experimental psychologicalPsychologismThe direction has been cut off by behaviorism for nearly half a century. Today, cognitive psychology continues this direction while maintainingNew behaviorismThe machine simulation method is added to the strict hypothetical deduction method of.This expands the research topic in the analysis of cognitive process.
TuringThe mathematical system, which was published in the 1930s and later called "Turing machine", also had an impact on psychology.Quantitative logic and Turing machine make people think that human cognitive system can also be regarded as symbol application system.Some human concepts can be represented by symbols, and these symbols can be transformed through certain symbolic operation processes.These thoughts play an important role in cognitive psychology not only in theory but also in concrete research.
One of the basic viewpoints of cognitive psychology is that computers can be used to simulate the internal psychological process of people.The computer accepts symbol input, codesCode inputMake decisions, store and give symbolic output.This can be compared to how people receive information, how to code and remember, how to make decisions, how to transform internal cognitive state, and how to compile this state into behavioral output.This analogy between computer and cognitive process is only a horizontal analogy, that is, to describe the internal psychological process at the computer program level. It mainly involves the information processing process of people and computers, and is an analogy in performance, rather than the analogy between computers and human brain hardware and operation methods.
The rise of cognitive psychology isWestern PsychologyA huge change in development.Some people say it is a new school, others say it is a new direction, and more people agreeKuhnIt is a new "paradigm".Kuhn called the replacement of old and new paradigms in sciencescientific revolution。It is in this sense that some American psychologists believe that the emergence of cognitive psychology is the second revolution in the development of American psychology.(The first revolution was the rise of behaviorism)
The emergence of cognitive psychology shows that American psychologists have changed their views on such basic issues as the objects and methods of psychology.Behaviorism has dominated American psychology for 40 years, and its influence is deep-rooted, while cognitive psychology opposes the basic view of behaviorism.
stayPsychological researchIn terms of objects, behaviorism advocates studying explicit and observable behaviors, regardless of internal psychological processes;Cognitive psychology has shifted its focus to internal psychological processes.stayresearch methodOn the one hand, behaviorism emphasizes strict laboratory methods and excludes all reports of subjective experience;Cognitive psychology attaches importance to both laboratory experiments and reports of subjective experience.For cognitive psychologists, changing external conditions is not an end, it is only an auxiliary means to reveal the structure of knowledge.
Cognitive psychology attempts to unify all cognitive processes. It believes that attention, perception, memory, thinking and other cognitive phenomena are intertwined. Understanding one group of phenomena helps explain another group of phenomena.Because of their interdependence, it is likely to find a unified processing model of human cognitive process.
Cognitive psychology should not only unify the cognitive process, but alsoGeneral PsychologyAll fields should be unified, that is, they should be studied and explained from a cognitive perspectiveemotion, motivation, personality, etc.The perspective of cognitive psychology has further expanded tosocial psychology, developmental psychologyPhysiological psychology、Engineering PsychologyAnd other fields.
Cognitive psychology attaches importance to the comprehensive view in psychological research, emphasizing the interrelation and mutual restriction between various psychological processes. Cognitive psychology is expanding its research on specific issuesPsychological research methodsAll aspects have made contributions.The research results of cognitive psychology also contribute to the development of computer science.
A Brief History of Cognitive Psychology
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1. Aristotle proposed the rule of learning and memory.
2. Plato, the Greek philosopher, compared human memory to a birdhouse, and memory is like capturing the bird from the birdhouse for inspection.
3. In 1879, Vont founded the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig, making psychology independent from philosophy and physiology.
4. Wundt proposed that psychology should use a technique called introspection, which means that trained observers carefully and carefully pay attention to their own feelings, accurately identify these feelings, and report these feelings as objectively as possible.
Wundt's careful and strict method is similar to today's cognitive research in many aspects.However, Wundt especially pointed out that such advanced psychological processes as thinking, language and problem solving are not suitable for research with introspective techniques.
5. German psychologist Ebbinghaus constructed more than 2000 meaningless syllables.(Saving method)
6. The first psychologist in American historyWilliam JamesHe published Principles of Psychology, which is described as "probably the most important psychological discourse in America".
7. American psychologist Watson initiated behaviorism.Behaviorism is an approach that only relies on objective and observable responses. It emphasizes that the environment of behavior is decisive, not the psychological process.Behaviorists believe that introspection is too subjective, unscientific, and too vague to study properly.In fact, the emphasis on observable behavior makes behaviorists reject any nouns related to psychological events, such as attention, appearance, concept or thinking.However, behaviorism regards attention as a concept of mentalism, and believes that attention should not play a role in scientific psychology.
8. In Europe, the important new schools areGestalt PsychologyThis school emphasizes that people have a tendency to organize what they see."The whole is greater than the sum of parts" is a famous argument of Gestalt psychology.
Gestalt psychologists emphasize the importance of insight in problem solving.When you try to solve a problem, the parts of the problem initially seem unrelated to each other.However, with a sudden "flash of insight", various parts will work together to produce solutions.
Most of the early research on problem solving was done by Gestalt psychologists.
9. Some psychologists identified September 11, 1956 as the birthday of cognitive psychology, and many important researchers attendedMassachusetts Institute of TechnologyA seminar of.
