Westward Movement refers toU.S.AThe migration of eastern residents to the western region began at the end of the 18th century and ended at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century.However, with the westward movement, a large number ofIndianBeing slaughtered, the survivors are forced to move to the more desolate west“Reserve”。The forced migration of Indians is also known as the "blood and tears road" of Indians.The American civilization in its infancy was destroyed, and the Indians, as one of the major human races, were basically extinct as a whole.[1]SeeAmerican Carnage 。
After the independence of the United States, there was a century long westward movementimmigrantMoving to the west for different reasons has objectively easedbourgeois classInternal contradictions have expanded the domestic market and destroyedFree StateAndSlave owning stateBalance of, forCivil WarLay the foundation for our victory.While studying the westward movement, some scholars downplay the other aspect, that is, the aboriginesIndianThe barbaric massacre.
The westward movement is an aggressive act of the United States to expand its territory and annex land. It has developed the western region of the United States today and eliminated manyIndian CivilizationAt that time, the land in the west was owned by Indian tribes.A group of pioneers explored the west and established good relations with Indian tribes untilthe pacific ocean, isMexicoOne Belt.Later, a large number of people, including the government and the army, poured into the west to develop the western region by plundering, inducing, deceiving and killing Indians.
Chinese name
westward movement
Foreign name
Westward Movement
Alias
The road of blood and tears、Western Development
Time of occurrence
From the end of the 18th century to the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century
As early as the colonial period in North America, the westward migration began.SouthernSlave ownerLand speculators and industrial capitalists in the north, usurers and ordinary people all hope to obtain land in the west.
In order to restrict the colonial people to places that can be controlled, the British government issued a ban on immigration in 1763Appalachian MountainsThe announcement order of the west.andAmerican Revolutionary WarThis provision has been smashed.
In the peace settlement agreed by Britain and the United States in 1783, Britain extended the Appalachian Mountains west toMississippi RiverThis large area of Indian owned land was opened to the United States.
In May 1830, the seventh president of the United StatesAndrew Jackson Passed《Indian Migration Act》, moving Indians west of the Mississippi River.After that, the army was sent to escort the Indians out of the area east of the Mississippi River, and the colonial cause developed rapidly in this area."Old Southwest" (including today'sKentucky、Tennessee、Alabama、Missouri、Mississippi、Arkansas、LouisianaThe land of Zhuzhou is mainlyPlantationIt was occupied by slave owners and became the main production area of cotton."Old Northwest" (including the present OhioIndiana、Illinois、MichiganWisconsin) was rapidly developed due to the land regulations passed in 1785 (selling public land at a low price) and the Northwest Territory Regulations of 1787.
At the beginning of the independent revolution, there were only a few thousand Frenchmen here. In 1810, there were more than 270000 immigrants, and in 1860, there were 6.93 millionChicagoThe urban population is one million.This is an area rich in grain and developed in breeding industry.
In 1803, the American MultiplierNapoleonBusy in dealing with the European war, he bought theLouisianaIt covers an area of 830000 square miles.
The United States won from Spain in 1810 and 1819Florida；
In 1846, Britain was forced to contract, extending the boundary line of the United States at 49 degrees north latitude toAtlanticAlong the coast, the British people in this area were displaced.
In 1846 and 1853,US Mexico WarAfter the outbreak and victory, it purchased a large area of Mexican territory, totaling about 950000 square miles.
By 1853, the United States had pushed its border to the Pacific coast, covering an area of 3.03 million square miles (about 7.85 million square kilometers), more than seven times the size of its territory when it declared independence.
The population to the west of the Mississippi River was very small before 1840. In the 1940s, immigrants began to increase, especially in 1848CaliforniaThe discovery of gold deposits is a great impetus to the development of the west.After 1850, the immigration and economic development of this region played an important role in the development of the United States.
In addition, the United States continued to expand westward to areas not adjacent to its mainland.In 1867, it purchased from Russia at a price of 7.2 million dollarsAlaskaIts area is twice that of the original 13 states of the United States;In 1894, the United StatesHonoluluoverthrowKingdom of Hawaii, which broke out in 1898Spanish American WarLater, it mergedhawaiian islands。
The Change of American Territory from the 18th Century to the 1860s
The United States continues to expand its territory, attracting a flood of foreign immigrants.There were more than 5 million foreign immigrants from 1790 to 1860, and 27 million from 1861 to 1913.Appalachian Mountains The population to the west only accounted for 3% of the total population of the country in 1790, but it has grown to 49% in the 19th century.Immigrants from abroad have played a huge role in the development of the west and the rapid development of the entire American economy.Immigration enabled the United States to carry out large-scale agricultural production and develop its rich industrial resources with great strength and scale, which soon destroyed Britain's industrial monopoly.
The United States government ordered the army to move westward immediately from the day when the army was formally established.Since the founding of the First Regiment of the United States Army, its basic task has been to suppress Indians.This brutal killing and suppression by the regular US federal army and militia,[1]From 1803 (1811 when the regular army officially started fighting) to 1892, it lasted almost a whole century.See others for detailsAmerican Carnage 。
In the colonial history of North America, the term "Indian Massacre" is often used to describe Indians who were killed on a large scale by the European people.In theory, the term "massacre" should be used to kill non combat civilians or prisoners of war.However, in practice, the word is used at random, and is sometimes used to describe an overwhelming military failure.Therefore, "killing" and "fighting" are often confused.
It is very difficult to determine how many people were killed in these massacres.In the book "The barbaric border: atrocities in the American Indian War from Jamestown colony to the" wounded knee ", amateur historian William M. Osborn tried to record every atrocity before the final formation of the American border. From the first contact (1511) to the formation of the border (1890), about 7193 people died in the hands of white people.
However, other historians have different statistical results. The most reliable figure is that 21586 people from both sides died, were injured and captured between 1850 and 1890.Other scholars believe that 45000 Indians were killed during this period, including women and children killed on both sides.Other data range from 50 million to 500000.But there is no doubt about the barbarism of both sides in the war - the destructive military action launched by the Americans.
In 1779,George WashingtonWhen instructing Major General John Sullivan to attack the people of Iroquois, he said: "(If) waste (referring to Indians) is placed near all settlements, the whole country will not only be overrun, but will be destroyed." During the process of killing and exterminating Indians,Washington also instructed his general to say: "Don't listen to any peaceful suggestions until all Indian reservations are effectively destroyed." In 1783, when Washington compared Indians and wolves, his anti Indian sentiment was undoubtedly exposed: "Both are predators, only different in shape."Washington's extermination policy was implemented after his troops massacred Indians again and again.The sergeants skinned the dead bodies of the Iroquois, "from the hips down, so that they can make high boots or boots that can grow with legs together."The Indians who survived the attack changed the name of the first president of the United States to "Town Destroyer"。Most Senca towns were exterminated within five years.
One of the "many outstanding democratic leaders in the United States at that time" who actively participated in and promoted the "brutal expulsion of Indians" was the United States, which put forward the theory of "all people are born equal"《Declaration of Independence》The main drafter of, the third president of the United StatesThomas Jefferson。The United States bought it from Napoleon in 1803Louisiana(that is, the vast area from the west bank of the Mississippi River to the foothills of the Rocky Mountains). With the territory marching westward, a series of events of mass expulsion and massacre of Indians began during Jefferson's presidency.
In 1807, Thomas Jefferson instructed his war department to say: "If the Indians resist the Americans to acquire their land, then the resistance to the Indians will be countered with a hatchet," Jefferson continued,"If we restrain ourselves from raising guns to meet these tribes, we will not lie down quietly or be driven out of the Mississippi River before these tribes are extinct." Jefferson continued: "In the war, they will also kill some of us, but we will kill all of them!"Americans must "pursue the extermination of Indians or drive them to places where we do not want to go."
1814, USAJames MadisonThe government refers to the massacre committed by the colonial councils in North America in 1703IndianThe reward regulations of.The law stipulates that for every Indian (no matter men, women, young and old, or even infants) who turns in their head cap, the U.S. government will give a bonus of 50 to 100 dollars (50 dollars for killing Indian infants under 12 years old and female Indians, and 100 dollars for killing Indian men over 12 years old).
1960s to 1990s, especially after 1865 (after the end of the American Civil War)[2]In accordance with Lincoln's Homestead Act, Americans slaughtered Indians to a climax, and many Indian villages became ghost lands overnight.With the cooperation of the local militia, the regular federal army of the United States adopted tactics such as separate and joint attacks, launched more than 1000 military operations of different scales, and basically completed the task of exterminating the Indians by the 1890s.
In 1862, President Lincoln ordered the hanging of 38 chiefs of the Dakota Sioux tribe in Mankato, Minnesota.Most of the people hanged were clergy and political leaders of their tribes.None of these chiefs has ever committed the crimes they were accused of by the United States government,President Lincoln deliberately created the largest unjust death penalty in American history.
Hero of the American Civil War, a federal army who once carried out the "Three Light Policy" against the rebellious southern states of the United StatesWilliam Sherman The general commented on this: "If we kill more this year, there will be fewer people to kill next year - anyway, they will have to be killed, or they will be kept as a poor breed."
When American historians described this history in their works, they wrote: "When the United States pushed westward, southward, and northward, it not only pushed out the countries that prevented it from advancing, but also brutally crushed the resistance of the original owners of these lands, the Indians.This cruel expulsion of Indians is one of the most shameful stains in American history, and many outstanding democratic leaders in the United States also actively participated in this action at that time. "
What is the result of such a long period of military campaigns and massacres?
According to the calculations made by some honest and rigorous scholars in the United States from the late 1980s to the early 1990s based on historical data, when Columbus "discovered" the New World of America in 1492, the total population of Indians living in the United States today was between 30 million and 100 million.By the 1970s, how many Indians were left in the "reservations" that the United States was forced to gather in the remote areas of the country?According to the official statistics of the United States, there are less than 800000 people.Mexico, which has a much smaller land area, has more than 10 million.
The United States government carries outgenocideIt enables the US government to throw off the heavy burden and responsibility that it should bear at one stroke, and to expropriate their millions of square kilometers of real estate and countless natural resources for free, so that the US can develop its economy without any burden.
It is a regrettable historical fact that the American civilization in its infancy was destroyed, and the Indians, as one of the major human races, were basically extinct as a whole.
Chronicle of Indian Massacre
Jamestown Massacre on March 22, 1622: The Powhatan tribe killed 347 British settlers in the Virginia colony.
On May 26, 1637, Mystic Massacre: British colonists and allied forces of Mohegan and Narragansett tribes attacked a village in Connecticut along the Mystic River, killing 500 villagers.
On February 8, 1690, Schenectady massacre: France and Algonquin tribes destroyed Schenectady in New York, killing 60 settlers, including 10 women and at least 12 children.
On February 29, 1704, Deerfield Massacre: a force composed of Abenaki, Kanienkehaka, Wyandot and Pocumtuck tribes, led by the French Canadian military team, destroyed Deerfield in Massachusetts, killed 56 civilians and captured dozens of people.
In August 1757, William Henry Castle Massacre: With the fall of William Henry Castle, about 70-180 British people and prisoners were killed by the French Indian Allies.
On September 14, 1763, Devil's Hole massacre: Seneca ambushed British supply trucks and soldiers several times.
In September 1763, the killing of Paxton Boys: Pennsylvania settlers killed 20 peaceful Susquehannock tribesmen to avenge the rebellion of Pontiac.
On July 26, 1764, Enoch Brown School massacred: 4 Delaware tribesmen killed a headmaster, 10 pupils and a pregnant woman.
On July 3, 1778, the Wyoming Valley Massacre: after a battle, the allied forces of the Iroquoi tribe opposed to independence arrested and killed the fleeing resisters, and tortured and killed those who surrendered.
On August 31, 1778, Stockbridge Massacre: a battle involving the American Revolutionary Army was called a massacre by the rebels.
November 11, 1778, Chery Valley Massacre: more than 30 settlers were killed.
On March 8, 1782, Gnadenh ü tten massacred: about 100 non combatant Delaware Indian residents, most of them women and children, were killed when the Pennsylvania militia hammered their heads.
August 15, 1812, Fort Dearborn Massacre: American settlers and soldiers were ambushed and killed in Fort Dearborn (Chicago, Illinois).
On January 22, 1813, River Raisin massacred: about 30-60 Kentucky militiamen were killed after they surrendered.
On August 18, 1813, Dilbone massacre: three settlers were killed in Miami County, Ohio.
On August 30, 1813, Fort Mims massacred: Alabama's militia killed 400 civilians and stripped 250 scalp after a battle.This action led to the Creek War.
In the spring of 1817, Claremore Mound fought: Cherokee Indians destroyed the Osage Indian tribe led by Chief Clermont.
On April 22, 1818, the US military attacked a non hostile village in the first Seminole War, killing 10-50 men, women and children.
On May 20, 1832, Indian Creek massacred: Indians, mostly from the Potawatomi tribe, kidnapped two girls and killed 15 men, women and children.
On August 1, 1832, Bad Axe fought: about 300 men, women and children were killed by white soldiers in Wisconsin.
In the spring of 1833, Cutthroat Gap massacre: Osage Indian tribe destroyed a village of Kiowa Indian tribe.
On May 19, 1836, Fort Parker Massacre: six men were killed by Indians in Limestone County, Texas.
On October 5, 1838, Killough Massacre: Indians massacred 18 members and relatives of a family.
On November 29, 1847, Whitman Massacre: Dr. Marcus Whitman, Ms. Narcissa Whitman and 12 other people were killed by Cayuse and Umatilla Indian tribes in Walla Walla, Washington, triggering the Cayuse War.
In the spring of 1850, the Blood Island Massacre: US troops killed 200 Pomo tribesmen because two settlers who abused and murdered Pomo tribesmen were killed.This incident led to a series of killings against the aborigines of Northern California.
On August 17, 1854, Kaibai Creek massacred: 42 men, women and children of the Winnemem Wintu tribe were killed by white settlers.
On August 20, 1854, Ward Massacre: 20 members of Alexander Ward Party were attacked by Shoshoni Indian Tribe in West Idaho, and 18 of them were killed.
On August 17, 1855, Grattan Massacre: 29 American soldiers were killed by the Brul é Lakota Sioux Indian tribe.
On February 26, 1860, Gunther Island massacred: at least 100 Wiyot Indians, most of them women and children, were killed by white settlers.
From August to September in 1862, the Battle of Dakota in 1862: 300~800 white settlers were killed in Minnesota.
On January 29, 1863, Bear River Massacre: The regiment led by Colonel Patrick Connor killed at least 200 Indian men, women and children.
On April 19, 1863, Keyesville massacre: white settlers killed 35 men from the Tehachapi tribe.
On November 29, 1864, Shahe Massacre: Militia killed at least 160 Cheyenne Indians.
On July 2, 1867, Kidder massacred: Indian soldiers of Cheyenne and Sioux tribes ambushed and killed 11 soldiers of the 2nd Cavalry Division and their Indian guides.
November 27, 1868, Washita Massacre: GA. Colonel Custer's 7th Cavalry Regiment killed 103 Indian soldiers and captured 53 women and children.
On January 23, 1870, Maria massacred: white people killed 173 members of the Piegans tribe, most of whom were women, children and the elderly.
On December 29, 1890, the "wounded knee" massacre: about 300 men, women and children of the Sioux tribe were slaughtered by the US military.
Trail of Tears
The land policy of the US government has accelerated the development of the west.The expansion and development of the United States to the west has a significant impact on the political and economic life of the United States.It has greatly expanded the area of cultivated land, and is located in the climate zone suitable for cultivation, making agriculture develop rapidly;The development of the west has driven the construction of large-scale railways and the influx of large numbers of immigrants, which has formed a vast domestic market in the United States.
After the independence of the United States, the British government's edict prohibiting immigrants from moving westward was abolished, and many immigrants from the eastern coastal areas and Europe poured westward across the Appalachian Mountains.According to statistics, the population west of Appalachia accounted for only 1/7 of the total population of the United States in 1810, and increased to 1/4 10 years later.Among these immigrants, there were slave owners in the south and land speculators in the north;However, the most common poor pioneers - hunters, miners, herdsmen and farmers - came to the west to make a living, and they became the main body of early immigrants in the west.
Movement process
Announce
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The westward movement of the United States is a long-term and sustainable development process.Long before the independence of the United States,American NationIt began to expand to the west of the North American continent, but it was not until the independence of the United States that the westward movement of the United States became more active, planned and continued.The history of the American westward movement can be divided into the following periods.
fromAmerican Revolutionary WarEnd toAmerican Civil WarThe period is the first period of the American westward movement, which is mainly the initial development period of agriculture.The land in the west is of special significance to the economic development of the United States after independence. Without the development of the west, there would be no United States today.Seven yearsAnglo French WarAfter that, Britain gained Canada and a vast area from the west of the Appalachian Mountains to the east bank of the Mississippi River from France;At the same time, the United Kingdom announced that the land west of the Appalachian Mountains belonged toBritish royal familyTherefore, this became one of the factors that triggered the anti British reaction of the colonial people in North America, because the land in the west has a fascinating charm for people of all walks of life in North America.The bourgeoisie is eager to expand the country's territory, and land speculators are trying to make huge profits from it. The vast majority of farmers, handicraftsmen and immigrants regard the western land as the only hope to get rid of oppression and seek a new life.After the independence of the United States, according to theParis Peace TreatyThe territory of the United States has expanded to the east bank of the Mississippi River.Later, with the quiet start of the industrial revolution in the north, the "cotton kingdom" in the south also rose abruptly, and the new west continued to expand.
Map of the United States after the Revolutionary War
The westward movement in this periodLand issuesWith agricultural development as the core.This is mainly because: objectively, there was a fertile and uncultivated vast land in the western United States, which was the basic premise of the American westward movement;Subjectively, after the American Revolutionary War, the United States acquired a large area of land from the west of the Appalachian Mountains to the east of the Mississippi River. The American people formed a new view: the newly acquired land is based onThirteen Colonies In exchange for life and wealth, these lands should be owned by the people, who have the right to reclaim, plant and develop them.
During this period, the United States federal government took many policy measures to promote land development and agricultural development in the westward movement, mainly in the following aspects:
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Land policy.First of all, the US government promulgated the procedures and regulations for establishing states in the west.In 1784, the third president of the United StatesJeffersonDrafting the land act of the "Plan for the Formation of the Western Land ceded by Virginia", which stipulates that the western land is shared by all American citizens;It is stipulated that the land from Ohio to the Mississippi River is divided into sixteen states, and a new state that is completely equal to the eastern states can be established only when the number of residents reaches a certain number (the minimum number of the original thirteen states).Although the proposal of establishing 16 states in the Act has not yet been implemented, the principle of establishing 16 states has been confirmed.In 1785, the government issued a land decree to make specific provisions on land survey and sale.The land in the west is divided into several towns, and each town is divided into 36 districts. Each district covers an area of 640 square kilometers, of which 4 districts are under the control of the federal government, and one district is used to sponsor public education.On July 13, 1787, the Northwest Land Law was passed by the Federal Parliament. This law, based on the Land Act of 1784, specifically stipulated the handling ofOhio RiverThe method of land to the north of the basin stipulates the procedures and principles for establishing a new state.The regulations and procedures of the US government on establishing a state on the land in the west have played a positive role in promoting the development of the west and the stable development of the economy.Secondly, the United States government issued a policy of land acquisition for residents.In 1785, the Land Ordinance was formulated, which established the principle of selling state-owned land to immigrants.According to the provisions of the Act, public land will be auctioned and sold in blocks, with a minimum of 640 acres (about 388 acres) per piece of land and a minimum price of $1 per acre, which will be paid off in a lump sum.The land law of 1796 raised the minimum selling price of each acre of land to $2, and the payment period was changed to four years after one year.Later, because this provision could not meet the demand of a large number of farmers migrating westward for land, the U.S. government continued to reduce the minimum amount of land purchased from 640 acres to 160 acres, reducing the selling price of state-owned land.From 1802 to 1832, the United States Congress passed several Relief Laws to postpone the period of confiscation of unpaid land and enable poor farmers to obtain land.During the period of the seventh President Jackson in 1832, the government allowed farmers to occupy land, that is, those farmers who had occupied land without measurement and consent to sell land could buy the land they had cultivated and improved at the lowest price.And gradually reduce the price of public land from $1.25 per acre to $0.5 for auction.In 1862, the 16th PresidentLincolnThe government has issued《homestead law》It is stipulated that citizens who have reached the age of 21 have the right to acquire 160 acres or less of land from January 1, 1863, when they pay a fee of 10 dollars. After five years of cultivation, the land will be owned by individuals.In short, the land policy of the U.S. government during this period provided institutional and policy guarantees for farmers to obtain land and carry out agricultural development, promoted the development of the western United States, and enabled the United States to rapidly develop into a large agricultural country.
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Immigration policy.The United States Land Act of 1787 not only stipulated some principles for the establishment of a new state, but also stipulated civil rights according to the third part of the Act, especially according to the Act, people can move freely to the west.Therefore, the promulgation of the American Land Act greatly promoted the upsurge of American immigrants to the west. The Ohio Company took the lead. In the winter of 1787~1788, their advance team moved fromMassachusettsandConnecticutSet out and move towards sunset.Since then, the mass large-scale westward movement has flourished, and immigrants mainly come from the 13 states of North AmericaNew England, central and southern states,Maryland13 counties andVirginiaIn 1810, one seventh of the country's population lived in the west of the Appalachian Mountains.In 1820, the United States had a total population of 9.64 million, of which 3 million lived in the west of the Appalachian Mountains. By 1840, more than 1/3 of the country's population lived there.In addition, a large number of foreign immigrants also came to the United States, providing cheap labor for the development of the western United States.Only 8385 immigrants came to the United States in 1820, but1848 European RevolutionAfter the failure, immigrants from Northern and Western European countries swarmed into the United States, reaching 310004 in 1850 and 427833 in 1854.In short, between 1820 and 1860, about 5 million immigrants came to the United States, providing sufficient labor for the development of the western region of the United States.
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Infrastructure development policy.During the westward movement, the United States attached great importance to the construction of infrastructure, especially transportation facilities such as railways, roads and waterways.On railway construction, the US government has adopted the policy of "more railways, more benefits".For every mile of railway built by the railway company, a certain area of land along the railway can be obtained;At the same time, it is stipulated that railway companies can obtain different loans from the government according to the length and terrain of the railway.In 1828, the United States began to build railways. In 1860, the railway mileage was 30000 miles, most of which were built in the western region.The construction of railways during this period greatly promoted the economic development of the western region.An important policy of the US government in highway construction is to encourage private investment.In order to solve the shortage of highway construction funds, toll roads have become the first priority in the United States.From 1792 to 1794, when the first road was built, to 1830, the total mileage of roads was 6400 kilometers.along withSteam engine shipThe United States government has also strengthened the construction of water transportation.From 1817 to 1828New YorkTo finance the construction of the 350 mile Ile CanalHudson River And westernGreat Lakes RegionTogether, the freight rate of 20 cents a mile at that time was reduced to 1 cent.In short, between 1815 and 1840, the states invested 125 million dollars to build 3000 miles of canals, making the United States the most developed country in the world at that time.The construction and development of transportation facilities in the United States during this period facilitated the westward movement at that time.
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Policies to support the development of education.The American government attaches great importance to the development of education, especially school education.According to the Land Act of 1785, each state established in the western region could obtain a piece of land for the establishment of a public college. At that time, President Jefferson also designed and formulated a grand plan, including primary and secondary schools andState universityEducation system.So state universities were established in the southern and western states, and free education was carried out.In 1862, the United States Congress passed the Morrill Act and decided that the government would permanently grant at least 30000 acres of public land to relevant colleges and universities in each state. At that time, the Iowa Agricultural College was established by accepting such land grants.In the 1860s, according to the Morrill Act, the United States established a number of agricultural colleges and engineering colleges, such as the famousUniversity of IllinoisMaasairi Institute of TechnologyCornell UniversityThey were all established during this period and trained a large number of professionals for agricultural mechanization and industrialization in the western United States.In 1887, the Hatch Act stipulated that 15000 dollars should be allocated to each state every year, providing new resources for agricultural experiments and scientific researchfederal funds 。In 1907, this fund was doubled to expand agricultural scientific research and popularization;In addition, the subsidies granted to schools have been increased to US $50000 per year through legislation.At the same timeThe first industrial revolutionUnder the influence of the United States, science and technology have also been developed by leaps and bounds.According to statistics, before 1860, the United States issued 36000 patents, which played an important role in the development of the western United States and the development of agriculture.
Industrial development period
From the end of the civil war tothe Second World WarThe end was the second period of the American westward movement, which was a period of comprehensive development dominated by industry.After the end of the American Civil War, especially after the reconstruction of the South, the capitalist economy of the South has achieved great development. The northern bourgeoisie and the southern planters have compromised with each other, and a relatively stable political situation has emerged.meanwhile,The Second Industrial RevolutionThe United States began to transform from an agricultural country to an industrial country.Therefore, the westward movement during this period was a comprehensive development based on industry.In order to better promote the westward movement, the US government has adopted more preferential and open policies.
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Adopt preferential policies to attract foreign investment in infrastructure.In order to further strengthen the construction of infrastructure, the US government has taken more preferential subsidy measures to attract private investment companies to build canals and railways.For example, the subsidy for each mile built in the plain area is 16000 dollars, that in the hilly area is 32000 dollars, and that in the mountainous area is 48000 dollars. In addition, the railway company can also get the land ownership of ten kilometers on both sides of the line.In order to encourage the construction of railways in the state, states often exempt the tax of railway companies, grant favorable building right concessions, provide loans, buy stocks or bonds of railway companies, and some provide liability guarantees for bonds issued by railway companies.These preferential measures have attracted a large number of foreign investment in infrastructure.In the early 1880s, European capitalists (mainly British capitalists) invested US $2 billion in the economic cause of the United States, of which US $1.535 billion was invested in the construction of railways.By 1900, the operating railway lines in the United States had grown from 53000 miles at the end of the 1860s to more than 190000 miles, more than the total mileage of European railway lines, almost half of the world.In 1913, the total railway mileage in the United States doubled.
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Adopt an open policy to attract outstanding foreign labor force.During this period, the focus of immigrants was to take preferential measures to attract outstanding foreign labor.In 1878, the United States promulgated the Wood and Stone Act, which allowed any citizen and expatriate who had applied for naturalization to purchase 160 acres of land that was not suitable for planting at a price of 2.5 dollars per acre, but whose main value was wood and stone. This increased the attractiveness of wood and stone to immigrants when the United States needed to build a large-scale railway model;At the same time, the United States government has set up a land management bureau and an immigration bureau. Their propaganda agencies are active in the European continent. They attract immigrants by giving priority to credit, offering preferential fares, promising agricultural cultivation guidance and necessary assistance.As a result, many countries in Northern Europe, Eastern Europe and Southern Europe have experienced "American fever", and hundreds of dreamers have spared no effort to travel across the sea to the "Western Garden" of the United States that they aspire to.Therefore, the number of immigrants increased rapidly during this period.From 1861 to 1880, there were more than 5 million immigrants, and from 1881 to 1890, there were more than 8.6 million immigrants;It rose to 13.5 million from 1890 to 1914.From 1881 to 1890, new immigrants accounted for 18.3% of the total number of immigrants, rising to 52% from 1891 to 1900, and 71% from 1901 to 1910.After immigrants arrived in the United States, a few stayed in eastern cities, while most moved to the Midwest to find jobs in steel mills, textile mills, railways, livestock yards or mines.In short, from 1861 to 1914, more than 27 million foreign immigrants settled in the United States. They often had certain funds and technology, and made indelible contributions to the development of the West and the prosperity of the United States.
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Attach importance to environmental protection and the application of science and technology.With the development of mineral resources and agriculture in western China, environmental protection has become increasingly prominent.Especially after the 1870s, due to the expansion of the railway and the subsequent increase of settlers, land damage was relatively serious.Therefore, during this period, the US government made adjustments to its land policy and began to pay attention to environmental protection, especially water and soil conservation and vegetation protection.In 1873, the United States government issued the Forestry Act, allowing homestead recipients to allocate 160 acres of land with fewer trees, provided that 40 acres of land must be planted within four years.The Sand and Wilderness Act of 1877 provided that 640 acres of land could be obtained by those who could pay cash in time at a price of 2.5 dollars per acre and promised to irrigate the land within three years.In 1888, the Congress carried out an investigation on agricultural irrigation. In 1894, the Kerry Act was passed to allocate one million mu of public land to each state to engage in water conservancy project construction, and allow private participation in the management of irrigation. Farmers should pay the apportioned fees in installments at the price approved by the government.In 1902, the federal government promulgated the "New Reclamation Law", which stipulated to establish project funds in 17 western states in urgent need of irrigation, so that the financial resources needed for the construction of water conservancy were increased.At the same time, the US government also attaches great importance to the use of scientific and technological achievements to protect natural resources.For example, in terms of water supply, windmills are produced and wind power is used to suck water from wells for irrigation.
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We began to pay attention to the balanced development of industry and mining in the east and west.During the westward movement of the United States in this period, the industry and mining in the west have been greatly developed.In the 1850s, gold was discovered in California, causing a mine development boom.With the development of oil and bituminous coal mineral resources andSuperiorWith the discovery of excellent iron ore resources in the mines, the mining industry in the Great Lakes Plain has developed rapidly, and on this basis, the area has been built into a new base for the oil industry, steel industry and automobile industry in the United States.In 1910, the industrial output value of the western United States greatly exceeded that of agriculture, and industrial development became the main body of western development, thus realizing the transformation from agriculture oriented to industry oriented.From 1860 to 1913, the textile industry in the western United States increased by about six times, and the steel and coal industries increased by dozens of times.At the same time, small cities in the central and western regions are rising rapidly. They are close to the vast raw materials, sales and labor markets, forming professional small towns such as beer cities, textile cities, gold towns, silver towns, and coal towns;Moreover, the original city has gradually transitioned from a commercial city to an industrial city based on large machinery industry.However, in the process of American westward movement, economic development and urbanization also showed great imbalance.For example, in the process of urbanization, in 1890, half of the country's urban population was concentrated in the northern Atlantic coastal states, and only 7.7% of the population lived in the southern Atlantic coastal states.In 1900, 6 out of 10 residents in the northern Atlantic coastal states lived in cities;In the Midwest, only 3 out of every 10 residents live in cities.Therefore, until the "World War II", the western economy still lags behind the eastern old industrial zone.
five
After 1930, the 26th PresidentFranklin Delano Roosevelt(Roosevelt Jr.) Implementation“new policy”The US government began to pay attention to the balanced development of industry and mining in the east and west.The US government has strengthened its investment in the western region, established a special agency responsible for unified planning and management of the development of poor and backward areas, built large-scale hydropower projects, increased loans and financial subsidies, carried out comprehensive watershed management, and promoted coordinated economic and social development;We should implement various preferential policies to the west and strive to improve the investment environment;Establish military enterprises in the west, develop new industries and high-tech industries, and change the economic structure, so that the economic focus of the United States gradually moves westward, and the economic development of the east and the west gradually tends to balance.
High tech period
From the end of World War II to the third period of the westward movement of the United States, it was a period of deep development dominated by scientific and technological development.After the end of World War II, the United States took the lead inComputer Network Technology、Atomic energy technology, biotechnology andspace technologyImportantThe Third Scientific and Technological Revolution。The western part of the United States has made full use of its geographical advantages in the birthplace of the scientific and technological revolution. Taking scientific and technological development as the main body, it has used advanced technology to transform traditional industries and develop emerging industries, which has greatly promoted the development of the western part of the United States and the prosperity of the entire American economy, and has strongly supported the development of the American knowledge economy.The main policies and measures of the US government during this period include:
one
utilizeRisk investment mechanism, establishHigh tech park。In the 1930s, the scientific and technological revolution in the United States beganStanford UniversityAnd its surrounding areas, which became the core of high-tech in the 1960s, attracted worldwide attention in California“silicon valley”。In order to further promote the application of high-tech innovation and achievements, the U.S. government encourages the establishment of high-tech parks by making full use of the venture capital mechanism.Since the 1960s in CaliforniaSan JoseAfter the establishment of Silicon Valley high-tech parks in the city, the United States has established a dozen similar high-tech parks in the west and even in the country.The incubation of industrial innovation and scientific research achievements in these parks has played an extremely important role in the economic and technological development of the western United States and even the entire United States. They have not only transformed traditional industries with high-tech, but also created many new industrial sectors, such as polymer materials industry, atomic energy industryelectronic computerA large number of emerging industries, such as industry, semiconductor industry, aerospace industry and laser industry, have sprung up in the western region, which has adjusted the industrial structure of the United States and become a successful example of the deep development of the western region of the United States.
two
utilizeregional economiesManagement policies to promote western development.In order to promote the balanced development of regional economy, the U.S. government issued many regional economic management policies during this period, which played a positive role in the development of the western United States.In 1961, the Regional Redevelopment Law was promulgated, for which a regional redevelopment administration was established under the Ministry of Commerce.In 1965, the Public Works and Economic Development Law and the Appalachian Regional Development Law were promulgated, allocating 1.1 billion US dollars for the construction of roads, medical centers and the development of local resources. Accordingly, the Economic Development Agency and the Appalachian Regional Commission were established.In 1977, the United States Congress passed《Community Reinvestment Act》Banks and savings and loan institutions are encouraged to provide loans to their regions, especially low-income people, and relevant supervision institutions are specialized in conducting regular assessments of the law enforcement of relevant financial institutions.At the same time, in the process of the westward shift of the U.S. industrial layout, the government has increased financial support for the western region and encouraged enterprises to move to the sunshine zone in the southwest.For example, from 1971 to 1998, the federal government's financial grants to state and local governments increased from 1.78 billion dollars to 9.188 billion dollars, a total increase of 4.16 times.
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Use the power of the market to promote the economic development of backward areas.The US government strongly advocates the use of "market forces to develop backward regions".The American westward movement started under the framework of the market economymarket economyThrough long-term development, it has realized the integration of economic development in the eastern and western parts of the United States.Especially in the 21st century, the role of the market is irreplaceable.In the 42nd PresidentClintonDuring the government period, the task of developing backward areas in the United States was always left to the private sector.In July 1997, Clinton visited some relatively backward areas to promote his "New Market Initiative" aimed at guiding the private sector to invest in the poorest areas of the United States.The main contents of the initiative include: raising about US $6 billion of equity to provide 25% tax relief for investment by community development banks, venture funds and other development institutions;The government provides loan guarantees for private investment to encourage large and medium-sized enterprises to migrate to backward areas;The establishment of a "new market venture capital company" to support the development of SMEs and so on.White HouseSperling, chairman of the National Economic Commission, said that the "New Market Initiative" was not a charity plan, and its principle was to encourage companies to seek profits in the untapped market in their backyard.
Essence of sport
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Economic development process
The westward movement of the United States was a process of economic development accompanied by the industrial revolution and coordinated development of industry and agriculture.The vast western region is rich in mineral resources, water resources and forest resources, has a long coastline and excellent harbors, has a suitable climate, and is suitable for farming and grazing.It provides superior conditions and broad market prospects for American industrialization, and also provides a broad world for the development of American agriculture.In the 1860s, the north of the Ohio River and the Mississippi River developed into a "wheat kingdom", and the lower reaches of the Mississippi River became a "cotton kingdom".The prosperity of agriculture provided a good foundation for the economic prosperity of the United States, and provided sufficient raw materials and food for the eastern industry and urban population respectively.
Accompanied by Industrial Revolution
Closely linked with the westward movement, mutual promotion and synchronous development are the unique characteristics of the American Industrial Revolution.Western development means the expansion of the domestic market.Tens of millions of immigrants have come to the west to settle down and start their own businesses. All the things needed for production, food, housing and transportation must be purchased. The market capacity is unprecedented.This has promoted the development of manufacturing industry in the east, and also made it move westward.The land area is large, and the traffic conditions need to be improved. The Erie Canal and Ohio -Erie Canal , connecting the Mississippi River, the Great Lakes and the Atlantic Ocean.In particular, since the 1930s, with the encouragement and financial support of the government, the construction of railways has become a national craze. Within a few decades, five railway trunk lines across the mainland have been built, forming a national land and water transportation system with railways as the backbone.The development of the transportation industry accelerated the process of the American Industrial Revolution. At the same time, it is an important achievement of the American Industrial Revolution.The western region is sparsely populated and lacks labor force. The flat and vast grasslands promote agricultural mechanization.
Hard work process
The westward movement is the process of the American people's hard work.In the face of all kinds of difficulties and obstacles, the American people abandoned all stereotypes, overcame difficulties and forged ahead, thus cultivating the American national character of reality, optimism and courage. This is an inexhaustible wealth.
The establishment of a state in the newly developed territory in the west has caused a fierce conflict between the North and the South.According to the Constitution of the United States, each state has twosenateseat.The new state was established asFree StatestillSlave owning stateJoining the Union is related to whether the northern bourgeoisie or the southern planters control the Senate.In a sense, without the westward movement, the north-south contradiction would not have intensified to the outbreak of civil war.The victory of the civil war cleared the way for accelerating the development of the west.
Three high tides of immigration
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for the first time
It appeared in the late 18th century and early 19th century.In 1783, Britain recognized the independence of the United States, and at the same time, it opened the Indian lands from the west of the Appalachian Mountains to the Mississippi River to the United States.Later, because the United States government issued a series of land laws and purchased a large area of Louisiana from France, the immigrants felt that the colonization activities had a certain guarantee, and they flocked to the west to explore Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee and other regions, laying the foundation for the later growing grain producing areas in the central and western regions.
The second time
After 1815, two groups of immigrants moved in two directions.One is immigrants from coastal areas and Germany. They joined together and moved towards the Great Lakes Plain, gradually opening up the whole area north of the Ohio River, and establishing a base for grain production and livestock husbandry in the United States.The other is immigrants from the southeast, who entered the Gulf of Mexico betweenGeorgiaA plain area between the south and Louisiana.In this area, at first, a number of small farmers and producers developed this fertile land, and then gradually established large plantations focusing on the production and sales of cotton, thus expanding the southern slave economy.
third time
The US seizes Mexican territory in the US Mexico War (green in the picture)
In May 1830《Indian Migration Act》(Indian Removal Act) empowers the federal government to move Indians from the east of the Mississippi River to the "Indian Territory" west of the Mississippi River. The territory is located in the currentOklahomaInside.
Immigration came with the expansion and annexation of American territory in the mid-19th century.At that time, the territorial expansion of the United States continued in two directions: in the southwest, it annexed Texas in 1845;In the 1848 American Mexican WarMexicoHalf of the territory;In the northwest, after long-term negotiations with Britain, in 1846OregonA large area of land.Finally, these two expansions converged in California and completed the occupation of the whole western region.At the same time, the discovery of gold in California triggered a wave of immigrants rushing to the west to dig for gold.Later, some gold miners turned to farming or opened shops, becoming permanent settlers in California;The other part traveled from California to the northwest to explore mineral resources.In the 1950s and 1960s, due to the large number of small farmers moving in for food production andThe Rocky MountainsThe area to the west is divided into some states and quasi states, and the camps for mining mineral resources have developed into permanent residential areas.
Historical influence
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Development strategy
westward movement
The implementation of the gradient development strategy in the westward movement of the United States is to gradually upgrade and deepen the development according to its own resource advantages.For example, in the first stage, it is mainly to make full use of the vast and fertile land resources in the westFamily Farm, pasture, vigorously develop planting and animal husbandryAppalachian Mountains andThe Great LakesThe wasteland around the area has been developed into a grain and cotton base and a livestock base.In 1850, the grain planting area of the United States was 62.8 million mu, and the output was 32 million tons, making the United States a major agricultural country and a major exporter of grain and cotton in the world at that time.In the second stage, with the discovery of gold mines in the west and the application of scientific and technological achievements of the first industrial revolution, a wave of mining development was triggered, and a number of processing and manufacturing enterprises of mineral resources were established.After this period of development, the industrial focus of the United States shifted from the northeast to the central and western regions, making the central and western regions become heavy industrial centers, and finally realizing the U.Sindustrialization。In 1894, the industrial production of the United States ranked first in the world, and the production volume was equal to half of the total production of European countries.At the beginning of the 20th century, the industrial advantages of the United States became more prominent.In 1913, industrial products accounted for one third of the world's total industrial products, more than the combined industrial products of Britain, Germany, France and Japan.In the third stage, with the rise of the third scientific and technological revolution, American high and new technology has been developed by leaps and bounds, and the American industrial structure has been transformed to the tertiary industry, and finally the softening and upgrading of the industrial structure has been achieved.Therefore, the process of implementing the gradient strategy in the western development of the United States is also the process of constantly adjusting, deepening and upgrading the economic structure of the United States.
Focus on development environment
Inconvenient transportation is an important constraint to the development of the western United States.Therefore, the United States attaches great importance to the construction of infrastructure in the westward movement, and creates a good environment for the development of the west by implementing the advanced development strategy of the transportation industry.In the process of the westward movement of the United States, the government and people were committed to the construction and improvement of the transportation industry at the beginning, and put the development of the west on a developed transportation basis.The government provides various preferences in land use and property rights, financing, taxation, etc., provides policy support for the development of transportation, and encourages private companies to invest in the construction of transportation facilities.In addition, in the process of transportation facilities construction, the strategy of simultaneous development of railway transportation, waterway transportation and highway transportation will be implemented to comprehensively develop the national transportation network leading to the west.The development of transportation industry is not only an integral part of the development of the western United States, but also provides the basic conditions for the whole American westward movement, especially the construction of railways, which promotes the specialization of the western region of the United States and the formation of a national market.Many economists said that the United States in the 19th century was basically a successful history of railways. The formation of the national railway network had a significant impact on the development of the western region and the national economy.
Rely on education and scientific and technological progress
Relying on education and scientific and technological progress to promote the western development is another successful experience of the United States in the westward movement.Because the U.S. government fully realized the importance of science and technology education in the process of the westward movement, the U.S. government attached great importance to the development of education in the west. Congress passed several land laws to provide preferential policies for the development of education.We will vigorously promote the development of public education and provide appropriate industrial, commercial and various specialized technical personnel for the development of the west.At the same time, the U.S. government attaches great importance to the commercial application and industrialization of scientific and technological achievements. It not only vigorously uses high-tech to transform traditional industries and improve the technological content and competitiveness of traditional products, but also uses the risk investment mechanism to create high-tech parks, forming a batch of new industries, adjusting the U.S. industrial structure, and realizing the optimization and deepening of the economic structure.The history of the western development of the United States is, to some extent, a history of scientific and technological progress.It is relying on the continuous innovation and progress of education and science and technology that makes the development of the western United States achieve such amazing achievements.
In the process of the westward movement, although the United States attaches great importance to the role of market mechanism, the role of the government is irreplaceable.During the westward movement, the United States formulated a series of land policies, immigration policies, infrastructure policies, science and technology education development policies, environmental protection policies, regional economic management policies, financing policies, fiscal policies, and income redistribution policies to regulate the economic development of the west and guide the direction of western development.In a word, the involvement of the US government in western development not only involves the formulation of relevant policies and the establishment of special government departments, but also involves the government's investment in western development funds and redistribution of income.
The victory of the North American independent revolution, the beginning and development of modern industrialization in the United States, the territorial expansion of the United States, the "westward movement" that lasted for a century, and the completion of modern industrialization in the United States all benefited from immigrants.Among them, a large number of cheap labor, skilled technicians and a steady stream of capital investment have played an invaluable role.
The continuous westward migration of immigrants has also undergone tremendous changes in the regionalization of the American economy and the distribution of the residents' social structure.In 1790, more than 94% of the population of the United States lived in the east of the Appalachian Mountains. In 1860, the population in the west of the mountains reached 49%.Almost all European countries provide immigrants.In the last 20 years of the 19th century, the land area of new reclamation areas in the western United States exceeded the total area of Britain, France and Germany, and immigrants were the main force of new reclamation.
With the advancement of immigration to the west, territorial development quickly crossed the Rocky Mountains to the entire western region along the Pacific coast. With the U.S. - Mexico War as the central link, the United States has realized its long cherished dream of crossing the two oceans in less than 10 years.The US Mexico War enabled the US to gain access to the Pacific Ocean and become the best two ocean country across the North American continent. It also greatly weakened the neighboring Mexico, captured 55% of Mexico's land and changed the political landscape of North America.It has cultivated "American style freedom, equality and competition", fostered the American spirit of courage and adventure, tempered the American optimistic and enterprising character, and strengthened the AmericanIndividualismThought, expeditedpragmatismPhilosophical outlook。Many of the spirits cultivated in the westward movement still have a profound impact on American society.
American Civil WarAfter the outbreak, President Lincoln signed the《homestead law》。This law is the most democratic land policy in the western development of the United States. It enables a large number of poor people to obtain land and greatly promotes the western development.The westward movement had a significant impact on the political and economic life of the United States.The development of the western part of the country has driven the construction of large-scale railways and the influx of large numbers of immigrants, which has formed a vast domestic market in the United States.
Commemoration for future generations
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In order to commemorate the spirit of westward pioneering, the US governmentSt. LouisThe world-famous Monument to the Westward Movement was built along the Mississippi River.
Gate to the West
Gate to the WestIt is the most famous building in St. Louis and one of the three landmarks in the United States.The construction of this monument to the westward movement dates back to 1947. After winning the bidding, the famous designer Ilo Sullivan spent 16 years to start construction in 1963, and completed this great project more than two years later.The arch is made of stainless steel and is in a round arc shape. Its height and span are just 630 feet (about 190 meters). It is said that the arch was built from two feet up. When it was built to the top, it was found that the two sides could not be connected. We thought of several methods, and finally the arch was welded and firmly stood today.
Historical evaluation
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westward movement
The westward movement of the United States isFree market economyUnder the background of large-scale population migration, transportation industry as the guide, agriculture and animal husbandry as the main industry direction, and regional development driven by the growth center.The result of the American westward movement completed the political and economicintegrated, promotedCapitalist industrializationThe development ofAgricultural revolution、industrial revolutionandKnowledge revolutionIt has cultivated the pioneering spirit of the American people, especially the cowboy spirit and frontier spirit of the United States, which are fearless of hardship, sacrifice, high spirited, and constantly looking for new land and new wealth, embodied in the Western Development. Later, it became the spirit of the whole nation of Americans who are indomitable, heroic, pioneering, and exploring.In short, through the westward movement, the United States has developed millions of square kilometers of land in more than 200 years.And modern agriculture, animal husbandry and industry have been established on these lands, which has had a decisive impact on the growth of the United States into the world's largest economic power.Therefore, without the westward movement, there would be no America today.
