The natural history of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau is very young. Influenced by many factors, it has formed the world's highest and youngest nature, which is closely combined with horizontal and vertical zonalityGeographical unit。The annual average temperature in the hinterland of the plateau is below 0 ℃, and the average temperature in the warmest month in large areas is less than 10 ℃.[7-9]The Qinghai Tibet Plateau is generally 3000-5000 meters above sea level, with an average altitude of more than 4000 meters. It is the source of many large rivers in East Asia, Southeast Asia and South Asia;There are many lakes on the plateauNamtso、Qinghai LakeEtc.[10-11]
The Qinghai Tibet Plateau is rich in light and geothermal resources.On the plateaufrozen soilIt is widely distributed, and the vegetation is mostly natural grassland.So is the Qinghai Tibet PlateauChinese nationAndChinese civilization It is one of the birthplaces ofFuxi、Emperor Yan, LieshanGong Gong, Siyue, Jintian and Xia Yu are all plateauQiang 。Residents on the Qinghai Tibet Plateauthe zang or tibetan peopleIt has formed a plateau cultural system dominated by Tibetan culture.[12-15]
Chinese name
Qinghai Tibet Plateau
Foreign name
Qinghai–Xizang Plateau[84-88]
Alias
Qingkang Tibetan Plateau、roof of the world、Third pole
The geological history of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau can be traced back to 400 million to 500 million years agoOrdovicianSince then, various parts of the Qinghai Tibet region have experienced crustal movements with different data, either submerged by sea water or on land.To 280 million years ago (early geological agepermian）Today, the Qinghai Tibet Plateau is a vast ocean with turbulent waves.This sea area traverses the presentEurasiaAndNorth Africa、Southern Europe、west AsiaandSoutheast AsiaIs called“Tethys Sea”, or "ancient Mediterranean". At that time, the climate of the Tethys Sea was warm, and it became a region where marine animals and plants flourished.Its north and south sides are divided primitive ancient land (also known as Pangaea), and the south side is called Gondwana, including today'sSouth America、Africa、Australia、AntarcticaandSouth Asia Subcontinent；The northern continent is calledEurasia, also known asLauia, including todayEurope、AsiaandNorth America。
The Qinghai Tibet Plateau is the youngest plateau in the world.240 million years ago, due toPlate movement, separatedIndian Plate It began to move and compress northward towards the Asian plate at a relatively fast speed, and strong fold faults and uplifts occurred in the north, prompting the Kunlun Mountains andHoh Xil National Nature Reserve, QinghaiUplift to land.As the Indian plate continues to insert northward under the ancient ocean crust, and pushes the ocean crust to break, about 210 million years ago, the northern part of the Tethys Sea once again entered a period of tectonic activityKarakoram、The Tanggula mountains、mountain range running east-westDisengagedSea immersion。
Up to 80 million years ago, the Indian plate continued to drift northward, again causing a strongtectonic movement。Gangdise MountainThe Nyainqen Tanggula Mountain area has risen sharply, and northern Tibet and some southern Tibet have also become land from the sea.The whole terrain is wide and gentle, with rivers crisscross and lakes densely distributed. There are vast plains, humid climate and lush forests.The geomorphic pattern of the plateau is basically formed.Geologically, the tectonic movement of the rise of this plateau is calledHimalayan Movement。
As the Indian plate continues to move northward, and continues to insert under the Asian plate, the Qinghai Tibet Plateau is formed in this rising stage.The formation of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau was not completed at one time. Its uplifting process was not a one-time surge, nor a uniform movement, but experienced several different ascending stages.Each uplift makes the plateau landform evolve.Its rising speed has stopped several times, but sometimes very fast.Ten thousand years ago, the plateau rose faster, reaching 7 cm per year, making it the most“roof of the world”。Today, the central part of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau is mainly weathered, while the edge is still rising.[16-17]About 15 million years ago, the present Qinghai Tibet Plateau was formed.[78]
Overview of Qinghai Tibet Plateau
In March 2024, led by academician Hou Zengqian of the Institute of Geology (Deep Earth Laboratory) of the Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, in conjunction with scientific researchers from the Institute of Geology and Geophysics of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, the University of Science and Technology of China and the China University of Geosciences (Beijing), a new model of eastward growth of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau was proposed, which solved the domestic and foreign academic problems about the driving mechanism of eastward growth of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau.The research results have been published online in the international authoritative geoscience journal Nature Geoscience.[83]
From north to south, the Qinghai Tibet Plateau includes six tectonic zones, namely Qilian Qaidam, Kunlun, Bayan Har, Gangdise, Himalaya and Qiangtang Changdu. The tectonic zones are separated by suture zones represented by ophiolite melanges, roughly bounded by the Longmucuo Jinshajiang suture zone.
The Qilian Qaidam, Kunlun and Bayan Har tectonic belts in the north of the plateau belong to the structural belts in the southern margin of the Eurasian ancient land. On the crystalline basement of the Early Mesoproterozoic, the Early Paleozoic geosyncline was developed, and the Caledonian movement made the geosyncline return, formingfoldThe basement was transformed into a stable cover in the Late Paleozoic.
The Gangdise and Himalayan tectonic belts in the south of the plateau are integrated and gradually changed on the middle and late Proterozoic crystalline basement. Platform cover was developed from the early Paleozoic, and marine sedimentation continued to the Eocene. Among them, the late Carboniferous early Permian widely developed Gondwana facies glacial sea complex conglomerate and cold water type biota, which are micro landmasses in the northern margin of Gondwana.[18-20]
Stratigraphic structure
The Qinghai Tibet Plateau is divided into 7 by several plate suture zonesStratigraphic area：
Seven stratigraphic regions of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau
Stratigraphic area
form
Qilian stratigraphic area
The main body is composed of crystalline basement composed of middle and lower Proterozoic crystalline schists and fold basement composed of lower Paleozoic metamorphic basic and intermediate basic volcanic rocks with metamorphic clastic rocks.
Qaidam stratigraphic area
It is covered by Cenozoic clastic rocks with a thickness of 6000~7000 meters. The basement rock series includes middle and lower Proterozoic crystalline schists and lower Paleozoic extremely thick intermediate acid volcanic sedimentary metamorphic greenschists.
Kunlun stratigraphic area
It is composed of lower and middle Proterozoic schist, gneiss, lower Paleozoic greenschist and upper Paleozoic Mesozoic sedimentary cover.
Bayan Har stratigraphic area
The Triassic flysch sandstone slate is widely exposed in the south of East Kunlun – West Qinling Mountains, between Longmen Mountain and Jinsha River in the west.
Qiangtang Changdu stratigraphic area
A vast area between the Longmucuo Jinshajiang suture zone and the Bangongcuo Nujiang suture zone.
Gangdise stratigraphic area
In the vast area between the Bangongcuo Nujiang suture zone and the Yarlung Zangbo suture zone, the middle and upper Proterozoic crystalline rock series are sporadically exposed, called the Nianqing Tanggula Group and the Nanjabawa Group.
Himalayan stratigraphic area
The middle and upper Proterozoic crystalline schist outcrops along the high Himalaya, called the Qomolangma Group and Nyalam Group.[18-20]
stratum
Crustal structure
The crust and upper mantle of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau show obvious heterogeneity in both vertical and horizontal directions.The lithosphere has a clear block layer structure: vertical layering and horizontal blocking.The thickness of the lithosphere is about 140~170 km, and the average thickness of the crust is about 70 km.
The thickness of the crust is relatively uniform in the east-west direction with little change, while it changes greatly in the north-south direction. On several major fault zones, the Moho discontinuity occurs.For example, on the north side of the Yarlung Zangbo River fault zone, the Moho surface is 8 kilometers higher than the south side.Compared with the surrounding blocks, the crust of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau is twice as thick.[18-20]
Magmatic zone
Magmatic zone
Magmatic zone
describe
Qilian tectono magmatic belt
In addition to the huge thick medium basic volcanic eruption in the Early Paleozoic, two granite belts were also developed along the Central Qilian uplift belt, mainly granite, gneissic granite and granodiorite, forming a huge batholith.
Qaidam tectono magmatic belt
Magmatism is mainly seen at the edge of the basin. In the Lower Paleozoic, a huge thickness of intermediate acid lava and tuff accumulated, which became the main body of the fold basement.
Jinshajiang tectono magmatic belt
Two granite belts in the Jinshajiang tectono magmatic belt are associated with the Jinshajiang ophiolite melange and the basic volcanic belt in the Triassic Batang Group.It is mainly quartz diorite and granodiorite with syntectic characteristics.
Tanggula tectono magmatic belt
Tanggula tectonomagmatic belt is associated with Bangongcuo Nujiang ophiolite belt, and its south side is dominated by granodiorite and biotite granite, forming batholith;In the north, it is mainly biotite monzonitic granite, which is a small rock stock and intrudes into the Jurassic system.
Gangdise tectono magmatic belt
It is a huge batholith composed of calc alkaline intermediate acid acid intrusive complex, 50~100km wide from north to south, stretching more than 1000 km along the east and west of Gangdise, and connected with Ladak granite in the west.
Laggangri tectonomagmatic belt
Along the Himalayan low watershed, from Kangma in the east to Laggangri in the west to Mala Mountain, there is a dome belt.The core of the dome is granite.[18-20]
Qinghai Tibet Plateau
seismic activity
Qinghai Tibet Plateau Geological Belt
The Qinghai Tibet Plateau region is the main region in the world where intracontinental earthquakes occur. It has not only large earthquake intensity, high frequency, but also strong activity regularity.The very strong seismic activity of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau is the manifestation of modern tectonic activity. The plateau is surrounded by thrust events, and there are tensile seismic activities scattered inside. This seismic activity law shows that the uplift of the plateau is the main form of geological tectonic activity and the background of seismic activity in the Qinghai Tibet region today.In addition, the southern Qinghai Tibet Plateau is located at the plate collision boundary, but recent seismic activity is not strong.The thrust seismicity in the western margin of the plateau is very strong.[21]
The overall seismicity of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau and its surrounding areas generally presents four characteristics:
First, it is widely distributed with a small amount of volcanic activity;
Second, the intensity of seismic activity is high. As of 2013, there have been more than 40 earthquakes with magnitude above 7 on the Qinghai Tibet Plateau in the past 50 years, with the highest historical magnitude of 8.5 (1950Chayu earthquake）；
Third, earthquakes occurred intensively in the two special tectonic areas of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau and Tianshan Mountains, and strong earthquakes in the crust were basically located in areas with crustal thickness greater than 35 kilometers;
Fourth, there are two seismicity centers with medium and deep focus, namely Pamir Hindu Kush region and Myanmar region, with the maximum depth of 383 km.[22]
Earth's lofty mountains[71]
Shooting date: April 2, 2022
Geomorphic features
Geomorphic Map of Qinghai Tibet Plateau
The Qinghai Tibet Plateau is densely covered with mountains and rivers. The terrain is steep and changeable, and the terrain is complex. Its average altitude is far higher than that of surrounding areas at the same latitude.The mountains on the Qinghai Tibet Plateau are uneven, with a great drop. Areas with an altitude of more than 4000 meters account for 60.93% of the total area of Qinghai Province and 86.1% of the total area of Tibet.There is the world's highest peak in the regionMount Qomolangma(8848.86m), and there are alsoJinsha River；the himalayasThe average altitude is about 6000 meters, whileThe Yarlung Zangbo RiverThe valley plain is only 3000 meters long.On the whole, the Qinghai Tibet Plateau is high in the west and low in the east.Compared with the undulation of the edge of the plateau, there is a region with lower undulation in the interior of the plateau.[23]
The Qinghai Tibet Plateau is a hugemountain rangeThe system is composed of mountain system and plateau surface.Due to the influence of gravity and external gravity during the formation of the plateau, the plateau surface has been deformed to varying degrees, making the terrain of the entire plateau incline from northwest to southeast.The edge of the plateau is strongly cut to form a low altitude area of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau, with mountains, valleys and rivers alternating, and the terrain is broken.
glacier
There is a huge series of high mountains and mountains on the edge of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau, which can be divided into east-west and north-south directions according to the trend.The east-west mountains occupy most of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau, which is the main mountain type (divided from the trend);The north-south mountains are mainly distributed in the southeast of the plateau andhengduan mountains Nearby, these two groups of mountains form the geomorphic skeleton, which controls the basic pattern of the plateau landform. The average altitude of the mountains in the northeast is generally high. Except that the altitude of the top of Qilian Mountain is 4500 meters to 5500 meters, the altitude of the top of Kunlun Mountain, Bayan Har Mountain, Karakorum Mountain, etc. is more than 6000 meters.Many secondary mountains are also intermingled.There are parallel canyons between the two groups of mountains, and a large number ofBroad valley、basinandlake。[24-25]
The Qinghai Tibet Plateau has the largest and most extensive permafrost area in the middle and low latitudes of the world, accounting for 70% of China's permafrost area.Among them, the Qingnan North Tibet permafrost region is the most widely distributed in the whole plateau, accounting for 57.1% of the total area of the Qinghai Tibet plateau permafrost region.In addition to permafrost, seasonal frozen soil is also distributed in the lower altitude areas of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau, that is, frozen soil changes with the seasons, freezing and thawing occur alternately, showing a series of thawing landform types.In addition, glaciers and their sculptures on the Qinghai Tibet Plateau are also widely distributed.[24][26]
There are 74 modern glaciers in the Gongga Mountain area, with a total area of about 200 square kilometers. It is the largest marine type glaciation area in the Hengduan Mountains and the southeast edge of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau[72]。
Scientific research achievements
On September 5, 2018, the first results of the second comprehensive scientific expedition to the Qinghai Tibet Plateau were released in Lhasa: the scientific expedition found that the Gangdise Mountains rose to the present height before the Himalayas.The Himalayas block the northward transmission of the South Asian monsoon air mass, making the Qinghai Tibet Plateau dry and cold gradually.After the uplift of the plateau, the organisms in the Qinghai Tibet region formed a model of coexistence of "going out of Tibet" and "plateau hub".
In the past 50 years, the area of glaciers on the Qinghai Tibet Plateau and its adjacent areas has shrunk by 15%, and the area of permafrost on the plateau has decreased by 16%;The number of lakes larger than 1 square kilometer in the Qinghai Tibet Plateau has increased from 1081 to 1236, and the lake area has increased from 40000 square kilometers to 47400 square kilometers;The annual runoff of the upper reaches of the Yarlung Zangbo River and the Indus River shows an increasing trend, and the runoff of dozens of tributaries of the Amu Darya River, the Syr Darya River and the Tarim River in Central Asia increases more significantly.The imbalance of the Asian water tower is accompanied by frequent disasters. In 2016, the Aru Glacier in Ali, Tibet, suffered ice avalanches, causing serious casualties and property losses, threatening the fate of the Asian water tower. A scientific early warning system needs to be established.
In the past 35 years, the average vegetation index in the growing season of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau has increased significantly, but its increasing trend has slowed down since 2000;The carbon sink function of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau has increased significantly, but the melting of frozen soil caused by future climate warming may reduce the carbon sink function of the ecosystem;The rise of alpine tree line increases forest biomass, but compresses the living space of alpine shrub meadow, which may increase the risk of disappearance of endemic species at high altitude;Climate warming also poses potential risks to agricultural ecosystems.[15]
June 28, 2020, fromQinghai Tibet Plateau Research Institute, Chinese Academy of SciencesIt is learned that the researchers of the Institute have developed a reliable estimation method of lake evaporation based on the reasonable assumption of the energy balance of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau lakes in the non icing period, combined with remote sensing data and reanalysis data, and estimated that the total evaporation of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau lakes is 51.7 billion tons per year, equivalent to the water volume of 3570 Hangzhou West Lakes, in order to accurately estimate the "Asian Water Tower"The water resource reserves of middle lakes provide data reference.[27]
On September 17, 2022, the first flight of China's high-altitude large-scale UAV plateau meteorological observation test was successfully completed.The test resultsIt will become an important basis for decision-making on water resources and ecological security in the Qinghai Tibet Plateau under the background of climate change.[73]
In October 2022, the Qinghai Tibet Plateau Institute of the Chinese Academy of SciencesResearch evidence shows that the high-altitude forest landscape in the eastern part of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau, represented by Daocheng and Shangri La, was once a lowland desert, and it was not until tens of millions of years ago that it changed into the current modelkind[74]。
Regional scope
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Location context
The Qinghai Tibet Plateau lies between 26 °~39 ° N and 73 °~104 ° E, starting from the westthe pamirs, EastHengduan Mountain, the north boundary isKunlun Mountain、Altun MountainAnd Qilian Mountains, arriving in the souththe himalayasIt is about 2800 kilometers long from east to west, 300~1500 kilometers wide from south to north, and covers a total area of 2.5 million square kilometers. Except for the southwest edge, which belongs to India, Pakistan, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan and Myanmar, most of them are located in China.[28]
Regional division
According to the landform characteristics of different regions of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau, it can be divided into 6 sub (plateau) regions.
The Northern Tibet Plateau is located in the north of Tibet Autonomous Region, between the Gangdise Mountains, Kunlun Mountains and Tanggula Mountains.The altitude is generally about 4500 meters, which is the core of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau.The ground is not undulating, and a series of high altitude mountains are distributed, but their relative height is not large.Many mountains are covered with snow all the year round and glaciers are widespread.[29]
South Tibet Valley is also called South Tibet Mountain.In the south of Tibet Autonomous Region, between the Himalayas and the Gangdise Mountains.It is a valley in the upper reaches of Yarlung Zangbo River and other rivers.It is about 1200 kilometers long from east to west and 300 to 500 kilometers wide from south to north.The altitude is 3000-4000m.There are many local plains along the river valley.[30]
Located between 90 ° 16 ′ - 99 ° 10 ′ E and 35 ° 20 ′ - 39 ° 25 ′ N, the Qaidam Basin is the largest plateau basin in Qinghai Province.It is 800 kilometers long from east to west, 400 kilometers wide from north to south, and covers a total area of about 270000 square kilometers.It is under the jurisdiction of Haixi Mongolian and Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture of Qinghai Province.[31]
Qilian Mountains
Qilian Mountain is located in the northeast of Qinghai Province, adjacent to the Hexi Corridor of Gansu Province in the north and east, and adjacent to the Qaidam Basin in the south. It is composed of fault block mountains and valleys.It is 1200 kilometers long from east to west, 250 to 400 kilometers wide from south to north, and covers an area of about 100000 square kilometers.The altitude of intermountain basins and valleys is generally between 3000 and 4000 meters, and there are many mountains above 5000 meters. The western section is high, and parallel mountains and valleys are closely alternated.[32]
Qinghai Plateau is the northeast part of Qinghai Tibet Plateau.In today's central and southern Qinghai Province.It starts from Bukhanbuta Mountain and Qilian Mountain in the north, ends at the northwest border of Sichuan in the south, ends at Xiqingshan Mountain in the east, and ends at Tanggula Mountain in the southwest.The plateau is about 4000 meters above sea level, the highest point is Bukadaban Peak of Kunlun Mountain, 6860 meters above sea level, and the lowest point is Xiachuankou Village of Minhe County, 1650 meters above sea level.[33]
The Sichuan Tibet high mountains and canyons are located in the west of Sichuan Province, the east of Tibet Autonomous Region and the northwest of Yunnan Province.It is in the southeast of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau, with mountains and rivers alternating.From east to west, there are Jiuding Mountain, Minjiang River, Qionglai Mountain, Dadu River, Daxue Mountain, Yalong River, Shaluli Mountain, Jinsha River, Tranquility Mountain, Lancang River, Nushan Mountain, Nujiang River, etc.The altitude is 3000~4500m.[34]
Climatic characteristics
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General characteristics
The general climate characteristics of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau: strong radiation, more sunshine, low temperature, less accumulated temperature, the temperature decreases with the increase of altitude and latitude, and the daily temperature range is large;Dry and wet, rainy at night;Winter is long and dry, with strong wind;It is warm, cool and rainy in summer, and there is much hail.[35]
The annual average temperature of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau decreases from 20 ℃ in the southeast to below - 6 ℃ in the northwest.As the warm and humid air flow in the southern ocean is blocked by multiple mountains, the annual precipitation also decreases from 2000 mm to less than 50 mm.The annual precipitation in the north wing of the Himalayas is less than 600mm, while the southern wing is subtropical and tropical mountain forest climate in the north edge. The average temperature in the hottest month is 18~25 ℃, and the annual precipitation is 1000~4000mm.However, the south wing of the central and western section of Kunlun Mountains is of alpine semi desert and desert climate, with the average temperature of the warmest month of 4~6 ℃ and annual precipitation of 20~100mm.The sunshine is sufficient, the total annual solar radiation is 140~180 kcal/cm2, and the total annual sunshine hours are 2500~3200 hours.Hail days are the most, such as more than 20-30 days in Naqu year.[36]
Climatic zoning
Qinghai Tibet Plateau
The Qinghai Tibet Plateau can be divided intothe himalayasTropical mountainous humid climate region in the south, subtropical humid climate region in the south of Himalayas, temperate humid plateau monsoon climate region in southeast Tibet, temperate semi humid plateau monsoon climate region in the middle reaches of the Yarlung Zangbo River (namely, Sanjiang River Valley, some regions in the south of Himalayas), temperate semi humid plateau monsoon climate region in southern TibetThere are 10 climatic regions, including the sub humid plateau monsoon climate region of Naqu sub cold zone, the semi-arid plateau climate region of Qiangtang sub cold zone, the arid plateau monsoon climate region of Ali temperate zone, the arid climate region of Ali cold zone and the arid plateau climate region of Kunlun cold zone.[36]
Impact
The Qinghai Tibet Plateau isNorthern HemisphereTensioners and regulators for climate change.The climate change in this region not only directly drives the climate change in the east and southwest of China, but also has a huge impact on the northern hemisphere, and even has obvious sensitivity, advance and adjustment to global climate change.[35]
From 2001 to 2020, the amount of glacier material loss on the Qinghai Tibet Plateau was 306 billion tons, and the corresponding loss rate was 15 billion tons/year.Impact of global sea level riseThe impact is weak.[82]
Water system condition
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survey
The distribution of rivers on the Qinghai Tibet Plateau is mainly affected by climate and its own topography.In addition to the abundant precipitation in the southeast, the river supply in the inland area mainly depends on the melting of glaciers or snow.Qilian Mountain - Bayan Har Mountain - Nianqing Tanggula Mountain - Gangdise Mountain in the region is the boundary between internal and external water systems.The boundary line between the internal and external water systems divides the rivers on the Qinghai Tibet Plateau into two parts: the outflow area and the inflow area.The outflow area is mainly located in the east and southeast of the plateau, such as the Yellow River and the Yangtze River flowing into the Pacific Ocean, and the southwest water systems flowing into the Indian Ocean, such as the Yarlung Zangbo River and the Nu River;Most of the inflow water systems are located in the northwest of the plateau, mainly referring to the Qiangtang Plateau, Qaidam Basin and some small enclosed lake basins.The water in most of the inland rivers will flow into these depressions, forming a large number of salt lakes.
The inner flow area is blocked by high mountains, making it difficult for warm and humid air to reach, and the precipitation is scarce;The sufficient sunshine makes the evaporation relatively large, so most of the inland rivers have small runoff and short flow;Most of the inland rivers are mainly recharged by ice and snow melt water, so the seasonal change is obvious. Summer is the flood season, and winter is generally frozen, which often occurs cutoff, that is to say, there are many intermittent rivers;Since most of the inland rivers flow into basins or depressions, a large number of saline lakes have been formed, such as the famous Qinghai Lake and Namtsuo.
The outflow area can be divided into the Yellow River system, the Yangtze River system and the southwest water system. Both the Yangtze River and the Yellow River flow into the Pacific Ocean, belonging to the Pacific water system;The southwest water system has 4 branches, includingLancang River、Nujiang RiverGanges River Yarlung Zangbo River and Indus River (originating from the southwest edge of Tibet), the latter three all flow intothe indian ocean[81], belonging to the Indian Ocean water system.Among the outflow river systems, the Yellow River, the Yangtze River, and the Yarlung Zangbo River have many tributaries and wide basins, which are the most important outflow river system types on the Qinghai Tibet Plateau.Since most of the outflow water systems originate from the southeast or east of Tibet, the main way of recharge is rainwater.Therefore, compared with the inland river, the outflow river has a huge amount of water and a long flow. The two banks of the land it flows through often form impact plains or platforms of different sizes due to erosion and accumulation.[24]
Main rivers
The Qinghai Tibet Plateau is the birthplace of many rivers in China. The marginal mountain areas in the south and east have dense river networks. The larger outflow rivers are the Yarlung Zangbo River (the major tributaries are the Lhasa River, the Nianchu River, the Niyangqu River and the Palong Zangbu River), the Nujiang River, the Pengqu River and the upper reaches of the Yangtze River, the Yellow River and the Lancang River, which belong to the Taiping Ocean water system.[37]
The Yangtze River originates from the glacier on the south side of Gladan, the main peak of Tanggula Mountain on the roof of the world.With an altitude of 6621 meters, it is the largest glacier distribution center in Tanggula Mountains.
The Yellow River originates from Gezigeya Mountain (4980m above sea level) at the northern foot of Bayan Har Mountain. With Kariqu as the main source, it joins Maqu and Zhaqu in the northeast and flows eastward into Zhaling Lake and Eling Lake.
Lancang River is one of the major rivers in southwest China.It originates from Tanggula Mountain in Qinghai Province, runs through the east and south west of Tibet, and flows out of China in the south of Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture in Yunnan.[38]
The Yarlung Zangbo River is one of the highest plateau rivers in the world, running through the southern Qinghai Tibet Plateau, the Himalayas and the Gangdise Mountains.[29]
Nujiang River, also known as Lujiang River, was called Heishui and Lushui in ancient times, and is one of the major rivers in southwest China.It originates from the southern foot of the middle Tanggula Mountains on the Qinghai Tibet border and flows southward through eastern Tibet and western Yunnan.[39]
Nujiang River
Main lakes
There are more than 1500 lakes in Qinghai Tibet Plateau, including 1091 lakes with an area of more than 1 square kilometer, 44993.3 square kilometers, and 346 lakes with an area of more than 10 square kilometers, with a total area of 42816.10 square kilometers, accounting for 49.5% of the total area of lakes in China.The lakes in this area are mainly salt water lakes and salt lakes. The more famous lakes are Namtsuo, Qinghai Lake, Chaerhan Salt Lake, Eling Lake, etc.
Qinghai Lake was called the West Sea in ancient times.In Mongolian, it is called "Kukunor", which means "blue lake".It is located among Datong Mountain, Riyue Mountain and Nanshan Mountain in the northeast of Qinghai Province.It is caused by fault subsidence.It is the largest inland salt lake in China.
The height of Selin Lake is 4530 meters, the lake area is 1640 square kilometers, and the lake salinity is 18.27700 mg/l.It is the third largest salt water lake in China.Zaga Zangbu River flows into this lake.[40]
Namtso is located in the north of Nyainqen Tanggula Mountain, in Dangxiong and Bange County, with an altitude of 4718 meters and an area of 1940 square kilometers. Its full name is Namtsochu Modogongzama, and it is the second largest salt water lake in China.[40]
Bangong Lake is an international lake at the border between the western Qinghai Tibet Plateau and Kashmir. It runs from east to west, about 155 kilometers long, 15 kilometers wide from north to south, and covers an area of about 2300 square kilometers. The lake is 4242 meters above sea level.[40]
Kunlun Mountains Starting from the Pamirs in Xinjiang in the west, and ending at the mountains in the west of Qinghai and northwest of Sichuan in the east, it is generally called the Kunlun Mountains, which is a huge mountain system in central Asia.It is 2500 kilometers long, including the Pamirs, Kunlun Mountains, Karakoram Mountains, Altun Mountains and Hoh Xil Mountain in northern Tibet.[41]
Karakoram MountainsIt is located in the southwest of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region of China and northeast of Pakistan, and extends eastward to the north of Tibet Autonomous Region of China, with a total length of about 400 kilometers.The average altitude is more than 6000 meters.There are many snow peaks and huge glaciers.[42]
Tanggula Mountains Lying in the middle of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau, bordering the Karakoram Mountains in the west and the Nushan Mountains in the Hengduan Mountains in the southeast, it is the boundary mountain between the Tibet Autonomous Region and Qinghai Province.It starts from Little Tanggula Mountain in the north and ends at Anduo in Tibet in the south, with a width of 160 kilometers from north to south.The altitude of the main part of Tanggula Mountain is more than 6000 meters, but the relative height is more than 500 meters.[43]
mountain range running east-westLocated in the west of Sichuan and Yunnan provinces and the east of Tibet, it is the general name of the north-south mountains, with an altitude of 2000~6000 meters.There are snow capped glaciers in the northern mountains, deep valleys and steep terrain, with an altitude of 4500-5000 meters, and the highest peak Gongga Mountain is 7590 meters.[44]
Gangdise MountainIt starts from Shiquan River in Ali region in the west, and borders the upper source of the Indus River, Garzangbo, and the valley in the upper reaches of the Yarlung Zangbo River in the south. It is the boundary between northern Tibet and later Tibet.It is 1040km long, about 80km from north to south on average, and 5800-6000 meters above sea level on average.[33]
HimalayasIn the border areas of China, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Sikkim and Bhutan, the eastern section enters China.It is located between the Tibetan Plateau and the South Asian subcontinent.The mountain system starts from the Rankapalbat Peak in Kashmir (8126 meters above sea level) in the west and ends at the Nanjabawa Peak (7756 meters) at the great turning point of the Yarlung Zangbo River in the east, with a slightly southward protruding arc, about 2450 kilometers long;200-350 kilometers wide from north to south;The total area is 594400 square kilometers.[45]
Nianqing Tanggula MountainsIt is located in the middle east of Tibet Autonomous Region.Near east and west.Gangdise Mountains in the west and Hengduan Mountains in the east.The total length is 1400 kilometers, and the average width is 80 kilometers.The average altitude is 5000~6000 meters.[46]
Nyenchen Tanglha
Resource overview
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water resource
The water resources of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau exist in the form of rivers, lakes, glaciers, groundwater and other water bodies, with river runoff as the main body.The drainage area of outflow water system accounts for 53.56% of the total area of the plateau.The southern and southeastern parts of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau have dense river networks, making it the source of many famous rivers in Asia, such as the Yangtze River, the Yellow River, the Nujiang River, the Lancang River, the Yarlung Zangbo RiverGanges、Indus RiverEtc.The surface water of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau is represented by river runoff, with an average annual total resource of 638.3 billion cubic meters.The total area of glaciers on the plateau is 49000 square kilometers, and the average annual melting water volume is about 35 billion cubic meters.The total area of plateau lakes is 36889 square kilometers.The total amount of surface water and groundwater in the Qinghai Tibet Plateau is 638.66 billion cubic meters, of which groundwater accounts for 28.35%.The total water resources account for 22.71% of China's total.[36]
land resource
The regional distribution of land resources in the Qinghai Tibet Plateau is obvious, and the quantity composition is extremely unbalanced.The land suitable for animal husbandry accounts for 53.9% of the total land area, the land suitable for forestry accounts for 10.7%, the land suitable for agriculture accounts for 0.9%, and the land not suitable for use temporarily accounts for 34.5%.The land resources suitable for agriculture are mainly concentrated in the valleys of the middle reaches of the Yarlung Zangbo River in the south of the plateau, the valleys of the Nujiang River, Lancang River, Jinsha River and other main tributaries in the southeast, the Yellow River and Huangshui Valley in the northeast, and around the Qaidam Basin in the north.
According to climate, water conservancy, soil quality, slope and other limiting factors, cultivated land resources are divided. The first class land accounts for 17.7%, the second class land accounts for 27.6%, the third class land accounts for 53.1%, and the remaining 1.5% and other places belong to land for conversion.The land resources suitable for grazing are distributed in the alpine and forest free areas with sparse population. The grassland ecological environment is different, and the performance of suitable for grazing is also very different.95% of the land suitable for forestry is concentrated in the southern Himalayan Mountains and the southeastern Hengduan Mountains. It is also scattered in the Qilian Mountains, East Kunlun West Qinling Mountains and Hehuang Valley in the northeast of the plateau.[36]
In terms of lower animals, there are only 458 species of aquatic protozoa in Tibet,rotifer208 species,Crustacea59 species of branchiopods;There are 2340 species of insects belonging to 1160 genera and 173 families in 20 orders.In terms of vertebrates, there are 152 species of fishes belonging to 45 genera and 3 orders, 5 families in the whole Qinghai Tibet Plateau;There are 1047 species of terrestrial vertebrates belonging to 3 genera and 3 genera, accounting for 43.7% of the total number of such animals in China.Among the 1009 species of higher plants listed as endangered and threatened in China, there are more than 170 species on the Qinghai Tibet Plateau, and 95 species of terrestrial vertebrates known as endangered and threatened on the plateau (301 species are listed in China).[47]
plant resources
The Qinghai Tibet Plateau hasVascular plantThere are more than 1500 genera and 12000 species, accounting for more than 50% of the total genera and 34.3% of the total species of vascular plants in China.
grassland
The Qinghai Tibet Plateau is an important pastoral area in China. The natural grassland types in the whole region can be divided into eight categories: alpine meadow grassland, alpine shrub meadow grassland, subalpine sparse forest shrub meadow grassland, alpine grassland grassland, alpine mountain desert grassland, alpine swamp grassland, mountain shrub grassland, and alpine sparse and mat grassland.Alpine alpine grassland is the most widely distributed and largest grassland type.[48]
forest
The Qinghai Tibet Plateau is an important forest area in China, or a rare primitive forest area in China. Common tree species areQiao Song、Alpine pine、Pinus yunnanensis、hemlock spruce，Big fruit redwood、Tibetan cypressandsabina przewalskii The forest types mainly include subalpine dark coniferous forest belt, pine forest, subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forest, low mountain tropical forest, deciduous broad-leaved forest and larch forest.Although the Qinghai Tibet Plateau has various forest types and tree species, its forest coverage is low and uneven;The forest area is also small, but its forest stock volume and per unit area stock volume are high, especially in Tibet, with the forest stock volume reaching 2.266 billion cubic meters.[48]
cash crop
Highland barleyIt is called "nai" in Tibetan, also called "nai"Naked barley, rice and barley.Highland barley is produced inTibet、Qinghai、GansuandSichuanTibetan areas are one of the important food for Tibetans.Highland barley has a long history of cultivation in Tibet, with a large planting area, up to 80%.Highland barley is a kind of barley, which is divided into white and black. The growth period is about four months, and it has the characteristics of cold resistance and drought resistance. Therefore, it is suitable for growing in the cold, dry and short frost free period of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau.[49]
Plateau grassland
mineral resources
The Qinghai Tibet Plateau is a vast area with a long and complex geological history and rich materials formed in various environments.Among the more than 100 kinds of mineral resources discovered, there are nearly 70 kinds of proven reserves, of whichchromium、copper、lead、zinc、crystal, asbestossalt lakeLarge hydrothermal mineral reserves;silver、gold、tinThe reserves of platinum group elements and rare earth elements are also considerable.
Copper deposits in the Qinghai Tibet Plateau are widely distributed, with large scale and reserves. They have many types of deposits and many associated minerals. They are often complex polymetallic deposits associated with lead, zinc, diamond, silver and other minerals.The most typical copper mine is the Yulong copper mine in eastern Tibet. The preliminary proved reserves of copper metal resources reach 6.5 million tons.[36]
Lighting resources
The Qinghai Tibet Plateau is rich in light resources.Annual total solar radiation is 5000-8500 trillionjoule/Square meters, most areas are above 6500 MJ/m2, and only a few areas in the southeast and east are below 6500 MJ/m2.The annual sunshine hours are 2500~3400 hours in most areas except for a few areas in the east and south, which are less than 2500 hours.Light resources are not only rich, but also distributed evenly in seasons, which is conducive to the development and utilization of agriculture and solar energy resources.[50]
Geothermal resources
Geothermal energy
The geothermal resources in the Qinghai Tibet Plateau are characterized by many hot fields, wide distribution and high thermal reserves.There are more than 600 hot springs on the Qinghai Tibet Plateau, many of which are high temperature boiling springs, and the temperature exceeds the local boiling point. In particular, a large number of high temperature boiling springs, geysers and blowholes are widely distributed along the Yarlung Zangbo River and its two sides in southern Tibet.Yangbajing geothermal field has become an earlier developed geothermal field in China, which is used for power generation, heating and greenhouse irrigation.[36]
environmental problems
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Glacial ablation
Glacial ablation
Compared with other ice fields, the Qinghai Tibet Plateau is more fragile, and the speed of snow melting is amazing.As of 2010, the average temperature of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau has increased by 2.6Fahrenheit degree, twice the global warming rate.In some areas, the warming rate is even faster.At the same time, most glaciers on the Qinghai Tibet Plateau are located at high altitude and low latitude, which means that these glaciers are particularly sensitive to climate change, so the melting rate will be further accelerated.[51]
During about 30 years from 1984 to 2014, the area of glaciers on the Qinghai Tibet Plateau and its adjacent areas has shrunk from 53000 square kilometers to 45000 square kilometers, shrinking by 15%.There are more than 46000 glaciers in China, mainly distributed in the Qinghai Tibet Plateau.Glacier ablation will increase the flow of rivers in the short term. In the long run, once some glaciers disappear or the glacier area decreases, the downstream runoff will gradually decrease.
desertification of land
desertification of land
The Qinghai Tibet Plateau is located in the middle upper troposphere, with intense and frequent atmospheric activities, which provides sufficient power for dust to enter the atmosphere and carry out long-distance transmission.In addition, large areas of mobile dunes and desertified land in the Qinghai Tibet Plateau provide sufficient material sources for the occurrence of dust weather.For example, the Yarlung Zangbo River and its tributaries, the Yellow River and the source area of the Yangtze River all have large areas of active sand dunes.In addition, the desertification area of the plateau is also increasing dramatically.
The main areas of sandstorms in China are the Qinghai Tibet Plateau and the arid and semi-arid areas in the north.From December of each year to March of the next year, the dust storm centers are concentrated on the Qinghai Tibet Plateau, and the centers move northward over time.Compared with other dust storm areas, the plateau is more likely to lift fine dust materials such as sand and dust to 5500 meters, and the westerly jet at this height is the main power for the long-distance transport of dust in Asia, and it can even transmit sand and dust to the remote North Pacific region.[52]
soil erosion
According to the survey data in 2006, since the founding of New China, the area of water and soil loss in Qinghai Province on the Qinghai Tibet Plateau has been 382000 square kilometers, accounting for 49.1% of the land area of Qinghai Province, and is still expanding at the rate of 3600 square kilometers every year.The Yellow River, the Yangtze River, and the Lancang River basins account for 39.5%, 31.6%, and 22.5% of the total water and soil loss area in Qinghai, respectively, becoming the worst hit areas of water and soil loss.
Water and soil loss (source of Yangtze River)
Humanistic history
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Primitive society
The Qinghai Tibet Plateau is the cradle of the Chinese nation - the birthplace of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River. The vast plateau is one of the birthplaces of the entire Chinese culture.However, due to the geographical environment of the plateau and other factors, archaeologists only collected and found some on both sides of the Yellow River bordering Gansu and Qinghai in the first half of the 20th century;In the 1950s, archaeological investigations and excavations were carried out throughout the plateau.
Paleolithic relics were collected in the western Ali region, the eastern Hengduan Mountains, the northern Kunlun Mountains, and the southern Himalayan Mountains.The relics of the Mesolithic Age are preliminarily identified as Shenza and Nyalam.Neolithic remains are almost all over Tibet Autonomous Region and adjacent areas, with stone tools and other artifacts found respectively.
Qinghai Tibet Plateau
The stone tools of different ages found so far, both in shape and processing, have the characteristics of the stone tools of the Yellow River basin and have certain local characteristics.The age of the microliths has yet to be identified, but they also belong to the same type as those in northern and western China.[53]
From Shang and Zhou Dynasties to Tang Dynasty
Since ancient times, the Tibetan Plateau has been inhabited by nomadic tribes of the Western Qiang.In the Shang Dynasty, it was generally called "Qiang Fang";In the Zhou Dynasty, the western border people were called Rong people, and the southern border people were called barbarians;Qin、ChineseAt that time, the ethnic groups were called Yaqiang people;The Later Han Dynasty had contacts with the Qiang tribes of Xianling and Shaodang in Gansu and Qinghai, and the Qiang tribes were also connected with the Tangtuo and Faqiang tribes in Tibet.
At the beginning of the 4th century,xianbei The Tuyuhun tribe moved from eastern Liaoning to Gansu and Qinghai along the Yinshan Mountains to establish local political power, and had direct contact with the Xiqiang people from the Xihai tribes in Qinghai and the Tibetan tribes in Tibet.In the Sui Dynasty, China was unified, and its influence was far to the west of Qinghai Lake. In addition to its contacts with the Tuyuhun tribe, it also had good contacts with various Qiang tribes, such as the West Nuguo, Dayangtong, Supi, Dangxiang, Affiliated Countries, and Southwestern Barbarians. Through these Qiang tribes, it reached Bailan, Jialiang, Xibuye, and other tribes.
Xibu Yebu is a branch of various ethnic groups in Shanyu. It lived in the Yalong River basin for generations. During the Kaihuang period of the Sui Dynasty at the turn of the 6th and 7th centuries, it gradually became the leader of the alliance of various ethnic groups in the Tibetan region, and its influence spread across the vast areas on both sides of the middle reaches of the Yarlung Zangbo River.In the long history of development, more than 150 ethnic groups of the ancient Western Qiang merged and formed several local regimes.[54]
In the early 7th century,the tang dynastyIt thrives on behalf of the Sui Dynasty.At the same time, Sibu Yebu, the leader of Pebo City in Yalong River Valley, conquered Bobao, Niangbao, Gongbao, Dabao, as well as more than ten tribes in Luoyu, Menyu, Xiaoyangtong (Xiangxiong), and set the capital Luozi (Luoxie), establishing the Tubo Dynasty.
The Tibetan Zanpu (king) set up four military and political regions in his headquarters, namely, Wuru, Yaoru, Yeru, and Rula, and moved west to Yangtong, north to Supi (Sunbo), and east to Erdomi. He successively occupied Bailan, Dangxiang (Miyao), Xishan countries, Tuyuhun (Achai), Yutian (Liyu), and Bolu countries. He fought with the Tang Dynasty for four towns in the western region for a long time. By the late eighth century, he had fought with ShuofangHexi, Longyou, Jianfu, Wuliyuan, Nannuma, Nibora, Tianzhu (India), Dashi, Turkic and other countries have set up garrisons in Khotan (Liyu), Shazhou, Liangzhou, Domi, Wusheng Army, Dongdao and other key cities, dominating the motherland in the west, making brilliant contributions to the exploration and development of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau.
In the middle of the 9th century, Zanpu was killed, and the Tubo Dynasty perished.The local royal family of Tubo was divided and quarreled with each other for a long time. The tribes under the jurisdiction of Tubo were independent one after another. Gan, Su, Gua, Sha and other states were subordinate to the Tang Dynasty.Soon, the whole Qinghai Tibet Plateau was invaded by slave and subordinate uprisings, and Tubo's organizational system was completely destroyed.[55]
Five Dynasties and Two Song Dynasties
From the beginning of the 10th century to the end of the 13th century, the Central Plains went through Liang, TangJin, HanweekandNorthern Song Dynasty、Southern Song DynastyThe regime of the Communist Party of China changed, the strength became weaker, and there was no time to go west;Since the early Song Dynasty, the boundary was delimited by the Dadu River, and it was also blocked from the Tibetan tribes.Only the leaders of Xiliang (Liugu), Miaochuan and other places have received the imperial court's gift.The Western Xia Dynasty, with Dangxiang (medicine) as its main body, posed a threat to the north of the Song Dynasty, while the Tuansilao (Zongka) regime in Qinghai was a subsidiary of the Song Dynasty.
In the homeland of the Tubo Dynasty, it is divided into Wusi (pre Tibet), Tibet (post Tibet), and Nalisu. Except for Moyu (Ladak), Guge, and Bujan, the three regimes have been handed down for a long time;Other local regimes, such as Yaze, Luosa, Wusanbaa, Yalong, have never been developed;In Sangga, Dabu, Gongbao, Bobao and other places, as well as in the Zangqu River basin, they are still in a state of separatism.Since the 11th century, a number of local regimes with a theocratic feudal system have gradually formed.In the Tubo Dynasty, the old jurisdiction, Menyu, Luoyu, Kamu, Tusima and other places became more dispersed into numerous nomadic communities;At the peak of the Tubo Dynasty, Dali, Khotan (Liyu) and Jiashi Mila, which had been reached, gradually intersected with local tribes.[56]
Yuan Dynasty
In the late 13th century,yuan dynastyUnify the whole China. While Zhongshu Province has set up provinces in Gansu, Shaanxi, Yunnan and other places, the "Prefecture and County Tibetan Land" has officially established government and administration in all parts of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau.The Yuan Dynasty took the Qinghai Tibet Plateau as the homeland of the Tubo Dynasty, so it was collectively called "Tubo";It is directly under the jurisdiction of the Central Ad Hoc Xuanzheng Court (initially called the General Institute of Buddhism).In case of any trouble, a Xuanzheng Yuan was set up and officers and soldiers were sent there.
The Propaganda Reform Institute directly administered three offices of the Department of Propaganda and Comfort: first, in Tuosima;2、 In Kamu;3、 For: Wusi, Tibet, Nalisukurusun and other three propaganda and consolation departments, which are located in the original Tubo Dynasty.The government was set up in Saskatchewan, and the governor and consolation envoy of Wusi Zang were appointed.In Narisu Gulusun, the three local regimes of Moyu (Ladak), Guge and Bujan established after the collapse of the Tubo Dynasty were followed, and the Yuan Marshal Office was set up in Narisu (Liecheng).In Wusi (Qianzang) and Zang (Houzang), the political and religious leaders who were closely combined by various Buddhist sects and local chieftains at that time set up six ten thousand households each, and one ten thousand households between two places, which combined into one hundred and thirty thousand households.[57]
Ming Dynasty
the Ming dynastyAfter the reunification of China, the establishment of the "Xuanzheng Academy" was abolished, the outdated title of "Tubo" was abandoned, and two commanders and a military and civilian marshal's office were rebuilt, directly under the command of the imperial court.Dogandu Commanding Secretary: In Tasima and Kamu, it is roughly equivalent to the former places of Tubo and other places in the Yuan Dynasty and the former places of Tubo and other propaganda envoys.Wusi Zangdu Commanding Division;Initially, it governed 130000 households;Soon it was gradually replaced by various kings.
The military and civilian marshal's office of Oris: namely, the three local governments of Narisukurusun, namely Ladak, Guge and Bujan.The place of governance is Oris (Leh City).In Wusi Zang and the neighboring Duogan area in the Ming Dynasty, five powerful political and religious leaders were successively granted lords, and the most powerful one was Banmuzhu Wanhu of Lie Wudong, who was granted King Zhanhua.In addition, the Ming Dynasty also granted leaders of various sects as several Dharma Kings, but the Dharma Kings could not be hereditary and had no fiefs, so they had no real reputation.Only three Dharma Kings, Dabao, Mahayana and Daci, have a certain reputation and influence among the people.In the Ming Dynasty, the plateau tribes were also generally called "Xifan people".[58]
Qing Dynasty
Qinghai Tibet Plateau desert area
Established by the Qing DynastyMinistry of Minority Affairs(In the late Qing Dynasty, it changed to the vassal department), dealing with minority affairs as the six departments did.The Manchus and Mongolians collectively call the Tibetans "Tanggute people";The Tibetans are called "Tubot people";Therefore, the Tibetan Plateau is called "Tanggute", and Tibet is called "Tubot" (Tibetan English is derived from Tibet).At the beginning of the Qing Dynasty, the system of the commander's office of Duogan and Wusi Zangdu and the military and civilian marshal's office of Oris in the Ming Dynasty was abolished, the enfeoffment of kings was stopped, and the Mongolian khans, chieftains, and local officials from various tribes in Erut were appointed to manage local affairs.The Qing Dynasty worshiped the Gelug Sect of the Yellow Sect alone, and consecrated the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama Erdeni successively.In the Kangxi Dynasty, Wei (Qianzang), Zang (Houzang), and Ali were divided into three parts, named Tibet, and sent imperial envoys to Tibet.Abolish the authority of the local Mongolian Khan.In the Yongzheng Dynasty, the minister of affairs in Qinghai was stationed in Xining to manage local affairs in Anduo.He also appointed the Tibetan Affairs Minister and Deputy Ministers to work in Lhasa with the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama to supervise the Kasha government in the management of local affairs in Tibet.As for Kamkang, part of it is managed by the minister stationed in Tibet to the east of Lancang River;Some of them are managed by the Sichuan Shaanxi Governor to the west of the Jinsha River and returned to the Sichuan Governor.Until the end of the Qing Dynasty, the post of Sichuan Yunnan Border Minister was set up in Kamu to manage local affairs together with the Governor of Sichuan and the Minister stationed in Tibet.[59]
Republic of China
Revolution of 1911, the successful uprising in the provinces, the abolition of the monarchyRepublic of ChinaThe government approved the establishment of Gansu, Sichuan and other provinces, the establishment of Qinghai Mengfan Messenger, and the delimitation of Sichuan border as a special zone.In the 18th year of the Republic of China (1929), Qinghai Province was established and stationed in Xining;In the 28th year of the Republic of China (1939), Xikang Province was established and settled in Kangding.In the early years of the Republic of China, the central government set up an organization to manage Tibetan and Mongolian affairs (called the Mongolian Tibetan Committee since the 29th year of the Republic of China). After the Tibetan local government overthrew the ministers stationed in Tibet, it failed to establish a republican system;The central government once restored the title of the 13th Dalai Lama and appointed the chief of affairs in Tibet, but was unable to take up the post due to British alienation and various reasons.The United Kingdom once planned to divide the Qinghai Tibet Plateau into internal Tibet and external Tibet, and attempted to annex Menyu, Luoyu and Xiachayu regions, but it was always rejected by successive central governments and the Dalai Lama.The Dalai Lama forced the Panchen Lama to leave Tibet and live in the mainland. Wei (former Tibet), Tibet (later Tibet) and Ali region were managed by the local government of Kasha under the supervision of the Dalai Lama. They were divided into Ali, Tibet, Wei, Luoka, Qiangtang, Dagong, and Duomai (Kang) districts, which governed several sects, counties, and districts.
In the 18th year of the Republic of China (1929), the Ninth Panchen Lama set up an office in Nanjing, and in the 20th year of the Republic of China (1931), the 13th Dalai Lama set up an office in Nanjing.In the 22nd year of the Republic of China (1933), when the 13th Dalai Lama passed away, the National Government, at the request of Tibet, sent personnel to deal with the situation, and later established the Tibetan Affairs Office of the Mongolian Tibetan Committee in Lhasa.[60]
Qinghai Tibet Plateau - Lhasa
Modern development
After the founding of New China, the transportation of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau has improved, and the goal of "connecting cars, planes and trains" has been successively achieved: on December 25, 1954, Qinghai Tibet and Sichuan Tibet highways were officially opened to traffic;On May 26, 1956, the flight trial from Beijing to Lhasa was successful;On July 1, 2006,qinghai-tibet railwayCompleted and opened to traffic.
After the founding of New China, the primary, secondary and tertiary industries on the Qinghai Tibet Plateau have developed in an all-round way, laying a certain foundation for the development of characteristic economy.The characteristic economy of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau is reflected in various industrial sectors and economic processes of agriculture and animal husbandry, industry and the tertiary industry.Characteristic agriculture and animal husbandry include plateau animal husbandry and planting;Characteristic industries include clean energy geothermal, wind energy, hydropower and other industries, advantageous mining, national special needs industry, green food processing industry, etc;The tertiary industry includes tourism, cultural industry, etc.However, the overall economic development level of the plateau is relatively low.[61]
qinghai-tibet railway
Plateau culture
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Zhangxiong Culture
Zhang Xiong is the name of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau before the rise of Tibet. It is divided into three parts: inside, middle, and outside Zhang Xiong. They are Qionglong Yincheng, Zhada County, Ali Prefecture, Tibet today, Dangraqiongzong, and Changdu, Nima County, Naqu PrefectureDingqing CountyQiongpozi Zhushan as the historical territory.Zhang Xiong culture started with the center of Gangrinboqi in the area of Ali Gangdise Mountain. From the initial stage, it revered the universe and nature, and began to pay attention to the holy mountainsHoly LakeThe primitive worship, such as the worship of gods, was listed as the original "originally" ideology, and then gradually formed "originally" religions with different rituals or contents in the Zhang zhung culture, such as Tu ben, Cha ben, etc., which were confused in the Zhang zhung culture.Shamanism It is a kind of sect in the early stage of our religion in the Zhang Xiong culture, which takes killing sacrifices, witchcraft, divination, etc. as the main rituals.
Zhangxiong Cultural Site
Zhangxiong CultureThese systems, including medicine, architecture, declarism, enlightenment, Buddhism, philosophy, and astronomy, have accumulated over thousands of years and become the crystallization of the wisdom of the ancestors of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau.[62]
habits and customs
be dressed in
In Tibetan market towns and villages, the upper body of both men and women is dominated by Tibetan robes, the lower body of men is wearing trousers, and the lower body of women is wearing long skirts.Tibetan cloakMost of them are made of Pulu (yak woven cloth), wool or woolen cloth, mostly in black, brown or dark gray, with large lapel and wide waist, and lace on the collar and cuff. Because the gown is too long, the waist is lifted up and tied with the belt when wearing it.[63]
Tibetan cloak
diet
1. Butter
GheeIt is extracted from yak milk or goat milk, with high nutritional value.Heat the yak milk or goat milk slightly, pour it into the "Xuedong barrel", stir it until a layer of fat floats on the surface, scoop up the fat and put it into a bag, cool it to form butter.Butter can be used to make buttered tea or added to glutinous rice cake.
buttered teaIt is the most common Tibetan drink.To make tea bricks, first boil them into thick tea juice, then pour them into the butter tea bucket together with butter and seasoning, stir them until they are well blended, and then boil them for drinking.The Qinghai Tibet Plateau has a dry climate and lacks vegetables, while Tibetans mostly eat meat, so butter tea is an essential drink for them to clear away heat and reduce fire.
3. Zanba
Highland barley belongs tobarleyIt is one of the most important food crops in the Qinghai Tibet Plateau.Dry, fry and grind highland barley into powder, add butter to knead it into a ball“Zanba”It is the staple food of Tibetans.
4. Highland barley wine
Highland barley wineIt is brewed from highland barley. The alcohol content is about 10 degrees. It tastes sour and sweet, like rice wine in the mainland, more likeSichuanBeltfermented glutinous rice wine。Highland barley wine is an indispensable drink for Tibetans' festive banquets. Mainland visitors to Tibet can enjoy several bowls of barley wine even if they can't drink.
Traditional Tibetan food also includes "steamed stuffed buns" (Tibetan dumplings), yogurt and dried beef and mutton.[63]
Residence
1. Lhasa
LhasaThe common residential form in large cities such as Shanghai is a 2-3 storey stone blockhouse, where people live on the upper floor and the first floor is a warehouse or livestock.The walls are painted white, and flowers and plants are planted on the balcony and in front of the windows, showing a charming oil painting like gorgeous color against the clear sky of the plateau.
2. Rural
Most of the buildings in rural areas are bungalows of wood and stone structure. The roof is compacted and leveled with rammed earth, and fuel such as yak dung and wood is stacked. Colorful flags are also inserted in the corners of the house, flying in the wind.
3. Nomadic area
The tent is the residence of Tibetan people during their summer nomadic period. In order to facilitate the nomadic relocation, the tent is simple in design and easy to remove. It is supported by a wooden pole in the center and nailed to the ground with wool ropes around it.The space in the tent is about 10-15 square meters, and there is a stove surrounded by stones, which can be used for simple cooking.The tent is made of Pulu, which is thick, tough and warm.[63]
Traditional entertainment
1. Tibetan singing and dancing
Tibetan singing and dancing
Traditional folk songs are the crystallization of Tibetan folk literature. They use metaphor, association, personification and other techniques to describe Tibetan life, customs, male and female feelings or historical stories.Generally, it can be divided into "Tiaoguoxia", "Tiaoxianzi", "Zhuo" and "Reba".[63]
2. Tibetan Opera
Tibetan opera, called "Ajilam" in Tibetan, originated from Tibetan religious art in the 8th century and is known as the "living fossil" of Tibetan culture.In the 17th century, Tibetan opera was separated from religious ceremonies in monasteries, and gradually formed a life style performance with singing as the main form and combining basic programs such as singing, chanting, dancing, expression, white and skill.[64]
Cultural festivals
Cultural festivals
Festival name
describe
Tibetan calendar year
Among Tibetan festivals, the Tibetan New Year is the most grand.Since the beginning of December in the Tibetan calendar, Tibetans have been preparing for the New Year, cultivating highland barley seedlings, preparing "Kasai" (flour pastries fried with butter), "Luguo" (sheep's head carved with butter), "Chema" and other offerings to pray for a good weather and a bumper harvest in the coming year.[65]
Sho Dun Festival
"Shelton", which means "cheese banquet" in Chinese, is also known as the Tibetan Opera Festival. It is a traditional Tibetan festival in the Tibet Autonomous Region. It starts on July 1 of the Tibetan calendar every year and lasts for five to seven days.[66]
Bathing Festival
Tibetan traditional festivals.In Tibetan, it is called "Gamariji", which means bathing.It is popular in Tibet Autonomous Region.The festival lasts for 7 days from July 6 to 12 in the Tibetan calendar, so it is also called "Bathing Week".[67]
Horse racing archery event
It is said that horse racing archery originated in the 15th century. It was originally a religious sacrificial activity. Later, it was joined in horse racing, horse riding and archery wrestling, weight-bearing and other recreational activities, and became a grand event of horse racing archery.[65]
scenic spot
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scenic spot
scenic spot
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picture
Potala Palace
Potala PalaceStanding on the Red Mountain in Lhasa, Tibet, it is a key cultural relics protection unit in China.The Potala Palace is more than 3700 meters above sea level, covering a total area of more than 360000 square meters, with a total building area of more than 130000 square meters. The main building is 117 meters high, with 13 floors in total. Among them, the palace, the stupa hall, the Buddhist temple, the scripture hall, the monk's house, and the courtyard are all available. It is the highest and largest palace style building group in the world today.[68]
Potala Palace
Jokhang Temple
Jokhang TempleIn the center of Bajiao Street, the old city of Lhasa, Tibet Autonomous Region.Founded in the middle of the 7th century, the existing buildings were built successively after the 11th century.The temple faces west and east, with a total construction area of more than 25000 square meters.It is divided into three parts, namely, the vestibule, the main hall and Lazhang (Living Buddha Office).The main hall is in the middle, surrounded by halls.The architectural style of the temple is a combination of Chinese and Tibetan, which is an integral whole.[69]
Jokhang Temple
Roblinka
Located in the western suburb of Lhasa, Roblinka means treasure garden, named after the seventh Dalai Lama Gesang Gyatso.It was the summer palace of the Dalai Lama for the first time. Since the Seventh Dalai Lama, all previous generations of Dalai Lamas have moved here from the winter palace Potala Palace in summer to deal with government affairs here.It is now open to the public as a park.The whole park is composed of buildings and gardens, covering an area of about 360000 square meters.
Roblinka
Ta'er Temple
Ta'er TempleIt is located beside Lianhuashan Ao and streams in Lushar Town, Huangzhong District, Xining City, Qinghai Province.It was first built in the 39th year of Jiajing in the Ming Dynasty (1560).The main buildings in the temple are Dajinwa Temple, Xiaojinwa Temple, Xiaohua Temple, Great Sutra Hall, Great Kitchen, Nine Room Hall, Great Lalang, Ruyi Pagoda, Taiping Pagoda, Bodi Pagoda, Gate Pass Pagoda, etc.The architectural style and decoration techniques of the whole temple blend the architectural traditions of the Han and Tibetan temples.[70][80]
Ta'er Temple
Ecological protection
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On April 26, 2023, the second meeting of the Standing Committee of the 14th National People's Congress voted to pass the Qinghai Tibet Plateau Ecological Protection Law.The law will come into force on September 1, 2023.[75]
On September 1, 2023, Tibetan Plateau EcologyImplementation of the Protection Law.[77]
On October 22, 2023, the scientific research team composed of the Institute of Atmospheric Physics of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region Meteorological Bureau successfully established a multi factor selfThe mobile meteorological station is currently the highest meteorological station in the whole Kunlun Mountains. So far, the stepped meteorological observation network in the middle Kunlun Mountains on the northern slope of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau has been basically completed.[79]
Environmental assessment
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On May 27, 2023, the Scientific Assessment of the Impact of Human Activities on the Ecological Environment of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau, led by the Qinghai Tibet Plateau Research Institute of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Institute of Geographic Sciences and Resources, was released to the public。From the perspective of ecological environment changes, the ecological environment of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau is generally getting better.[76]
