synonymMongol Khanate (Mongolian Khanate) generally refers to the Great Mongolia (the regime established by Genghis Khan)
Great Mongolia(Bao Pei transcribed: Yeke Mongghol Ulus; Cyrilla: ИхМонголУлс; English meaning is Great Mongol Nation; Chinese transliteration is "Mongolian Wulusi", meaning "Great Mongolia")[35], referring to the 13th century Mongolian Qiyan DepartmentTiemuzhenEstablished Mongolian regime[1], is the real name used by the regime in history.
In 1271, the nominal Mongolian KhanKublai khanThe country number is“Dayuan”, as the Chinese name "Great Mongolia" was abandoned.However, its corresponding Mongolian country name "Yeke Mongghol Ulus" remained unchanged until the death of the Yuan Dynasty.[35]
Genghis Khan's official title for establishing the Mongolian regime is“Great Mongolia”, commonly known as“Great Mongolia Period”。[26]Western historiansyuan dynastyAndFour major khanatesAnd other Mongolian regimes“Mongol Empire ”, and the name and even the concept of this did not appear in historical documents.In fact, this name is a general term for the regime established by the Mongols in the 13th century.[38]The 13th century was also called by Chinese and foreign historians“Mongolian era”Or“Mongolian century”。[27]
Before the Tang Dynasty, Mongols lived in the east of the lower reaches of Wangjian River (today's Erguna River), in the dense forests at the northern end of the Great Khingan Mountains. In the Tang Dynasty, they moved westward to the steppe under Mount Buerhan (Dakent Mountain) at the upper reaches of the Ounan River (today's Mongolian River). In the Liao Dynasty, Mongolia was divided into many small tribes.At this time, there areKereit 、Mi Er Beggar Department、naimans 、Tatar Department、Ongut andOuyila Ministry。amongTatar DepartmentHe was once a strong man. Therefore, during the Liao, Song and Jin Dynasties, all Mongolian grassland departments were commonly known as Tatar, and the history books were written as Tatar or Dada.[49]
After the Mongolian Ministry moved to the grassland, nomadic industry developed quickly, and they were under the rule of the Liao Dynasty.Contact with the advanced economy and culture of the Central Plains, especially the introduction of iron, promoted the development of the productive forces of various Mongolian ministries.The primitive clan system collapsed rapidly, private ownership came into being, and class differentiation became increasingly obvious.The emergence of "Nayan" (meaning officials, namely the slave owner Fei clan), "Heci Chui" (civilians) and "Bowole" (meaning "the ladder in the threshold is like a servant") formed class antagonism.[50]
In order to fight for wealth, Mongolian nobles often fought among tribes.Some tribes formed alliances in order to expand their power.In the first half of the eighth century, the leader of the Mongolian MinistryKaidu (Genghis Khan's sixth ancestor) attacked and destroyed the Zaci Yier tribe on the Ounan River, and its influence became stronger and stronger. At the beginning of the Jin Dynasty, Mongolian tribes formed a big alliance, and elected Gebulu, the great grandson of the sea capital, as the Khan. Since then, the leaders of the Mongolian tribe began to use khans.Gebuli Family NumberQiyan , is the most powerful aristocrat in the Mongolian Ministry.[50]8. At the turn of the ninth century, the nomadsLake BaikalSoutheast and upper reaches of HeilongjiangErguna RiverThe Murawei tribes in the area began to migrate westward, enteringOnon 、Fear Lu LianheandTula RiverThe upstream area, from Lake Baikal in the east to Lake Baikal in the westErtix River, reaching the Great Wall in the south and the Great Wall in the northSiberiaA vast plateau area.
To wage war against gold
Genghis Khan, the founder of the Mongol Empire
At that time, Mongolia and all ethnic groups in Mobei were under the rule of the Jin Dynasty. In order to prevent Mongolia and its various ministries from posing a threat, the rulers of the Jin Dynasty created divisions among the various ministries and provoked long-term fights;At the same time, the brutal policy of "reducing unemployment" was implemented.In Jin Shizong's time, he sent troops every three years to kill all the Mongolian tribes. Those who were not killed were taken as slaves, which made all the Mongolian tribes in disaster.The development of Mongolian history requires the unification of all ministries to get rid of the rule of the Jin Dynasty.[50]
Tie Muzhen was born into a noble family and was the military leader of the Qiyan family of the Mongolian MinistryAlso speed up thisThe eldest son of.When he was born, his father captured a Tatar leader named Tiemuzhen Wuge alive. In order to commemorate this victory, according to the naming habits of the ancient Mongols, "because of the real name of the obtained Tiemu".However, soon his father should also be poisoned by the Tatar people. The Qiyan tribe scattered and Tie Muzhen fled with his motherBurqan qaldun He had a hard time and had a chance to get close to the lower class people, which tempered his perseverance. Because his father Sugai had helped Kareb Turi Khan recover his country before his death, Tiemuzhen regrouped the tribe with the support of Turi Khan.In 1189, all tribes of the Qiyan family stood together to make Tiemuzhen Khan.Hu Tiemuzhen is "Genghis Khan".[50]
From the 10th to the 12th century, Mongolian tribes had close contacts with the Liao and Jin regimes in the south, and accepted the advancedmaterial cultureThe use of ironware is gradually popularized, and the productivity has developed rapidly,Private systemBegin to appear.TraditionalClan collectivityNomadic mode“Guleyan”Gradually giving way to the nomadic way of "Ayin Leh", which is located in one family, and the social class differentiation has intensified,Gentile societyGradually disintegrate.[10]The tribal leaders "Khan" and the nobility“Noyan ”While grabbing social wealth in a big way, they also feed their own soldiers“That's OK”Serve for him as the armed force to maintain power and attack the expedition.The tribes fought against each other for pastures, livestock and slaves,law of the jungle。
In the second half of the 12th century, the Mongolian tribes gradually formed after the brutal competitionBoer YijinandStabbing StingTwo tribes,each otherThe tigers are eyeing each other and trying to swallow them up.At the same time, the whole plateau from east to west, Tatar（Tartar）MongoliaKerait 、name of a Nestorian ethnic group situated in western Mongolia that was wiped out by YuanFour major groups and northernMerkit The five giants of the group face each other.In order to fight for the highest power to dominate the whole plateau, the five tribal groups fought fiercely.Under the background of this era, Genghis Khan (1162-1227) stepped onto the historical stage and organized a powerful army to fight everywhere.[8]
In the first year of Cheng'an of Jin Zhangzong (1196), Temuzhen Yotiri Khan and the alloy army broke down the Tatar Department, and Jin granted Temuzhen the title of "Zhawuti Huli" (i.e. Jiete). In the fifth year of Cheng'an (1200), more than ten departments in northern desert jointly attacked Qiyan and Kelei, and the two departments of Tabuma and Tatar were eliminated by Temuzhen. In the third year of Taihe of Jin Zhangzong (1203),Tie Muzhen was suddenly hit by Tuoli, but he soon reorganized his army and raided Tuoli station, and all the people of the Krei army fell to Tie Muzhen. In 1204, the Sun Khan of Naiman tribe and Wang Gu tribe failed to attack Tie Muzhen. Tie Shuizhen conquered Naiman tribe with victory.In 1205, he set north againMi Er Beggar Department, Southern ExpeditionXixia。In 1207, OuyiciGiligithTwo also came to surrender.So far, the great cause of unifying Mongolia has finally been completed.Mongolia gradually became the common name of all parts of Mobei.[50]
Mongolia was founded
In the south of Mobeidaikin Affiliated area of.With the decline of the military power during the Zhangzong period of the Jin State, the power of Mongolia also began to grow, and it was no longer subject to the Jin State (1170).In 1204, the leader of Qiyan DepartmentTiemuzhenHe conquered all parts of the Mongolian Plateau.In the spring of 1206,[11]Tiemuzhen held the meeting at the source of the Ounan River (today's Orhun River)Kuril stationThe conference confirmed that Tiemuzhen was the supreme Khan of all Mongols, and entered the Mongolian Khan's position, with the title of "Genghis Khan" and the country name of "Yeqe Mongol Ulus".Genghis Khan also promulgateddisheveled, as the great MongolianStatutory codeIs the earliest constitutional document in the world.[12]The organization of the Mongol Empire is ten households, one hundred households, one thousand households, ten thousand households, ten ten thousand households to form a flag, ten banners to form a road, ten roads to form a state, and ten states to form a country.[13]
After the establishment of the Great Mongolia, it continued to expand outward and perished in 1218Western Liao Dynasty1219 Western ExpeditionPrick submodule, call untilVolga RiverThe river basin returned to the east in 1225.Extinguished in 1227XixiaGenghis Khan is also herejourneyHe died of illness.Genghis KhanAfter his deathtolui Jian Guo, originallytolui He should inherit the throne of Khan, but Tu Lei elected him to avoid disputesogodei Succession.Legend, latertolui He died because he drank cursed wine for Wokuotai.[14-15]
In 1229,ogodei Succession of the Great Khan, conquered in 1231Korea, which will expire in 1233DongzhenThe Jin State was destroyed in 1234.Later, they marched westward again and occupied in 1237MoscowIn 1241, the army invaded Poland in two waysHungary, defeatHoly Roman EmpireAllied forces, forward directedViennaEurope was shocked.At this time, Wokuotai died.Expeditionary forceSo he returned to the east, and laterwarriorEstablish the Chinchakhanate.[7]
In 1246,GuiyouHe succeeded to the throne with the support of the Queen of Wokuotai.Batu and GuiyouzaiThe eldest son marched westLater, there was discord, and Guiyou died of illness on the way home from the expedition to Europe. Batu (the strongest of the imperial khanate), as Chang Sun Ben, had the strength to inherit the throne, but he had no intention of ascending the throne, so he proposed to hold a meetingHuliletaiCongress, support Tuo Lei's eldest sonMongoIt's sweat.In 1251, Mengge succeeded to the throne.Extinguished in 1254Dali。Mengge Lifehulagu Western Expedition;1258, occupationArab EmpirecapitalBaghdad, offAbbasid caliphate 。1260, occupationDamascus。In the eighth year of Yuan Xianzong (1258),Mongo, his brother Kublai Khan and the GeneralWu Liang HetaiThey attacked the Southern Song Dynasty in three ways.He personally led the main expedition to Sichuan. The next year, he was attackingHezhouTime (now ChongqingHechuan District）Injured (it was said that the epidemic was prevalent, many soldiers died of illness, and Mengge also got sick), and died on July 21 (August 11, 1259) of the ninth lunar calendar of the Yuan XianzongHechuaneastFishing HillOn.Some historical data believe that his death was due to the arrow wound he received when attacking Hezhou.Other historical materials, including the History of the Yuan Dynasty, asserted that he died of dysentery.Rashduddin claimed that Mongo died of cholera.Whatever the reason, Mengge's death shocked the entire Mongolian Empire and had a profound impact on its future historical process.[16-17][39]
Around the beginning of the 13th century, the Mongolian people were in the leadershipTiemuzhenUnder the leadership of, we rushed out of the plateau and set off a strong wave of expansion.In a short period of time, this wave of expansion has brought great changes to the politics, culture and geography of mankind in the Middle Ages.It not only greatly affected the historical process of the Mongolian nation, but alsohuman civilizationThe track of evolution left a deep impression.[9]
Genghis Khan's historical achievements are indelible.However, the foreign war carried out by Genghis Khan was extremely predatory and barbaric. The Mongolian cavalry under his command became a terrible force threatening the survival of all ethnic groups, causing endless disasters to people everywhere, and there was an unforgivable historical responsibility.[6]
Genghis Khan's son after his deathogodei He succeeded the Mongol Khan.In 1235, the Mongolian army began to attackKipchaks , Russia, captureMoscowAnd other cities.The grandson of Genghis Khan in 1240warriorCaptureKiev。In 1241, Batu led the invasion of PolandHungary、Slovakia、Czech Republic, until arrivalAustriaOfViennaNearby, this is the westernmost place where the Mongolian army went, but AustriaBohemiaThe allied forces repulsed the attack of the Mongolian army, which was the first time that the Mongolian army was defeated in Europe. As the news of the death of Wokuotai came in 1242,warriorUnder the pretext of fighting for the inheritance right of the Mongolian Khan, he led his troops to retreat and return to the east.In fact, even if Batu went back for such a long distance, it might not be able to catch up with the struggle for the Khan's position. At this time, the Mongolian army has become a dead end. If it continues to move westward, it will surely be resisted by the three European powers, Britain, the Holy Roman Empire and France, and tenaciously defended by castles everywhere (the main forces of the three major powers have never participated in the war before, or even attracted attention),At this time, we can find an excuse to withdraw our troops to avoid being disgraced.The Chincha Khanate, which later established the Mongol Great Khanate here, is also calledThe Golden Horde。[8]
Middle East
Passing behind WokuotaiGuiyouThe short reign of Genghis Khantolui 's sonMongoSuccession.Mengge sent his brother in 1252hulagu The Western Expedition.In 1258, the Western Expedition Army capturedAbbasid caliphate Capital ofBaghdad。Xu Liewu Expedition in 1259Syria, conquered in 1260Damascus。Mengge was killed in Sichuan when he attacked the Southern Song Dynasty.Xu Liewu returned to fight for the position and left a small number of Mongolian troopsPalestineBattle of Ain Jalut DefeatEgypt（Mamluk Sultanate ）, indicating that the Mongolian Empire could not extend to Africa.Set up hereIlkhanate, also known asErie Khanate。[18][40]
Mongolian Samurai (1200-1350)
Infighting and division
After Mengge died, his brotherKublai khanAndAli BugeFight for the throne.Kublai Khan learned thatMongoWhen the news of death came, he fought with the Southern Song Dynasty in Ezhou. Later, he heard that Ali Buge, who was staying in Mongolia, was going to meet and say "Khan"Southern Song DynastyHe then went north to Kaiping (now Duolun County, Inner Mongolia) to discuss peace, and in May 1260, with the support of the Mongolian King and Han Confucian ministers headed by the host kings, Tachar, he gathered to claim the title of Khan.After hearing the news, Ali BugeAzu platform、Jade Dragon Answers Loss、Kaidu In June of the same year, with the support of the kingHalahelinConvening“Huliletai”The General Assembly is the Great Khan.becauseKublai khanLong lived in the Central Plains, appointed Han people, and promotedConfucianism It changed the nomadic tradition of Mongols and caused dissatisfaction among many Mongol princes and nobles, so most Western kings supported Ali Buge at that time.In order to win the support of the patriarchal forces, Kublai Khan acquiesced to the Queen Shu ChiBerke , Chagatai QueenAlghu andBoraq Six younger brother Xu LiewufiefThe legitimate right to rule.Kublai Khan and Ali Buge immediately launched a four-year civil war, until Ali Buge surrendered in 1264.Kublai Khan then moved his capital to Dadu (Beijing) toShangdubyprovisional capital。
Kublai khan
In 1271, Kublai KhanterritoryInternal reformCountry numberFor“Dayuan”, establishing the Yuan Dynasty, inheriting the legal system of the former Great Mongolia.butHouse of Ogedei The monarch Hai Du is still hostile to and united with Kublai KhanChagatai Khanate AndThe Golden HordeForm an alliance to fight with Kublai Khan's Yuan army, and once attacked and occupiedNorth of the Gobi desertHalahelin。King of Golden HordeBusy brother TimurOriginally nominated for Kublai Khan, but soon turned to support Haidu against Kublai Khan.After Kublai Khan died, Haidu and others continued to work withYuan ChengzongThey fought until Haidu died in February 1301.After the demise of Wokuotai Khanate, the other three khanatesnameShang is still in the Yuan Dynastymembers of the royal family holding feudal benefices(The Yuan Dynasty called them kings in the northwest), and the actual independent status was recognized by the Yuan court.The Yuan Dynasty kept the allotments of the Golden Horde Khan and Yili Khan in Shanxi, Henan and other places, and awarded them annually.Erie KhanateThe accession of the monarch still needsyuan dynastyThe emperor sent envoys to confer titles“Treasure of the Lord's Residence”、“True Emperor and the Treasure of Ten Thousand Barbarians”As the seal of the Yuan Dynastyvassal state。thereafterThe Golden HordeThe digital monarch of, such asDesquamation(Suning King)The month is the morningI got it laterEmperor of the Yuan DynastyThe official title of.[8]
North of the Gobi desertLocated in East AsiaGobi DesertNortherlyMongolian PlateauSince the Spring and Autumn Period, there have been ghostsHun、Xianbei、roen 、Turkic、Huihe、XiegasThe rise of other nations constituted the ancient human racenomadicThe east wing of the world has close economic and cultural exchanges and frequent political and military conflicts and exchanges with the neighboring agricultural areas of ancient China.[20]
The expansion of the territory of the Mongol Empire stems from its launching three timesMongolian Expedition to the WestThe first Western Expedition (1218~1223) led by Genghis Khan endedWestern Liao Dynasty、Prick submodule, overTaihe Ridge(Todaycaucasus mountains ）Defeat the ministries of Qincha, and the second westward expedition (1235~1242) took place inWokuotai KhanDuring the reignwarriorAs commander in chief, he successively conquered the Caspian SeaKingdom of Bugar、SlavAll ethnic groups, and then destroyed theKievan Rus And then defeated Poland andHoly Roman EmpireAllied forces, defeatHungary, ConquerBulgaria, expeditionary forces as far as the Italian peninsulaVeniceNortheast China, the third westward expedition (1252~1260)Mengge KhanDuring his tenure, the chief washulagu , perishWood splinter(Islamic countries)Abbasid caliphate (Heiyi Dashi in Arabia, 750~1258) andSyriaMore than 40 countries were wiped out by the three Western Expeditions.[20]
Great Mongolia in 1259
Politics
Announce
edit
Genghis KhanAt the beginning of taking office, they began to reform, eliminate the backward tribal system, and establish new political, military, and social organizations to consolidate the rule of the emerging regime.The established national institutions, military and political systems, written laws and regulations, and national characters have significantly accelerated the civilization process of Mongolian society.[9]
1000 household system
Tiemuzhen was publicly promoted as Genghis Khan, so he closed 95 thousand households at one fell swoop, and designated four of them as "ten thousand households". Genghis Khan, while giving benefits, took the children of thousands of households as the guard, as the proton, and strengthened his grasp of the heroes.In theory, four thousand households and 95 thousand households do not have to send their sons to Khan's side. They are candidates for guards.Whether they send it or not, and whether their son will come, depends on "voluntariness".[41]
Thousands of households can send their sons as candidates for guards, and "hundreds of households" and ordinary people can also send their sons as candidates.The standard is to draw bow and arrow, use knife and gun, which is pleasing to Khan.If there are 95 thousand households, there are more than 95 thousand soldiers.In fact, there are more than one able-bodied person in each household.When war broke out, father, son and brother all went out.After this "enfeoffment", the forces of various tribes and clans actually became one.Genghis Khan settled the people of all ethnic groups, ministries and clans under his own cadres for command.In addition to 95 thousand households, Genghis Khan set ten commanders among the guards.These ten thousand commanders are the generals who are placed beside them and can be called at any time. Ten thousand guards are the core team that is invincible in peacetime, and they are the supervision group in wartime.Ten thousand guards belong to Khan.Ninety five thousand households generally belong to ten thousand households on the right hand and ten thousand households on the leftMuqali , 10000 households of the Chinese armyNayaDon't beg with another 10000 households.Military and political organizations, that's all.[41]
This system is characterized by the combination of military administration and production. Herdsmen must pay tribute in peacetime and carry their own horse weapons in wartime. Nayan Tong at all levels leads the expedition.The thousand heads of households and ten thousand heads of households were appointed by Genghis Khan, and their clansmen and meritorious officials were the hereditary territories and households granted by the Great Khan.This kind of enfeoffment system consolidated the special habits and ruling status of the Mongolian slave lord nobility.[5]
Xue bashing system
In order to strengthen the power of the Great Khan, Genghis Khan established a guard army of ten thousand people, called Qixue (meaning Fan Zhisuwei).This army of fear of Xue was under the personal control of Khan, and the sergeants had to be strictly selected. They were composed of physically strong young people at all levels and a small number of civilians. They enjoyed the privilege of being superior to the thousands of heads of households outside.His duty is to defend the golden tent of the Great Khan and follow him to the war.In fact, it plays a role in controlling and contacting Nayan at all levels.[5]
Judge
In terms of civil affairs, Genghis Khan set the "highestJudge”, by the unlucky magazine.His power is greater than that of the Jin and Song Dynastiesthe prime ministerCome on, it's really too much.He has the right to "punish the thieves all over the country, track down those who make rumors to mislead people, and punish those who deserve to be killed."[41]Genghis Khan set up the "Zhaluhuchi", which means a judge who is in charge of the distribution of people and adjudicating cases, and became the highest administrator of the Mongolian khanate.The three most important systems of Mongolia in the early days of the founding of the People's Republic of China were the system of thousands of households, the system of fear of Xue, and the establishment of officials to judge affairs.[5]
Other institutions
Admonish officials
Next to the highest judge, there are four "admonishment officials": Huo Erchi, Wu Sun, suddenly difficult, broad-minded, and overlapping.Diegai also served as Khan's "Shepherd Officer".Suddenly, it was difficult to be the assistant of the prince Shuchi.The other two assistants of Shu Chi are Huo Er Huo Sun and Mongolian Wu Er.As the assistant of the Crown Prince Chagatai, it was the admonitor Kuoke Tengsi and the Balulas' Halachar.Wokuotai and Tuo Lei have only one assistant;The assistant of Wokuotai is Yilugai of Sunite.Tulei's assistant is Bala Laerbi of Zhalayer's family.Bala Laerbi's brother is Alza Hezar.Bala Laerbi himself is a famous general.[41]
Guard
The other Laerbi, Duohu Laerbi, is also very important.His duty is a commander in the guard.The guards are divided into four groups (four cowards Xue), and the group leader is four of the ten commanders.Duo Huo Laer must be one of the four people.He also took the post of "managing the family population".Genghis Khan said, "All the guards around the palace tent, the casual workers, the servants in the palace tent, the horse keepers, the sheep keepers, the camel keepers, the cattle keepers, and the palace tent itself are under the control of Duo San and Ra Er."[41]
cook
The position may be inferior to that of Duohu Laerbi, and the importance is no less than that of him. He is the chef of Khan.It is equivalent to "Zhang Shan", "Imperial Kitchen Manager", or "Guanglu Temple Zhengqing" of the Central Plains Dynasty.The cook must be a man Khan can trust.Those who successively held such important posts were Polohule, one of the four steeds, Weng Gu'er, Khan's first cousin (the son of Menggutu Qiyan), Gu Chugul, the younger brother of the admonitor Diegai, Xue Chiwu'er of Hulolath, Heta'an Taldurhan of Tarhuti, and Xue Yiketu Lierbi of Huanghutan.[41]
Wheelwright
The second ranking official of the cook can be tested by the cartwright Gu Chugu Er and the chief of the Bi Jataka Red.The wheelwright is actually not an ordinary craftsman, but an engineer in charge of the manufacture and repair of cars.[41]
Bitragupta
Bitragupta, which is the same term as the "pen style" of the Qing Dynasty, meaning secretary, secretary.Broadly speaking, it is the civil official who can manage the civil affairs.[41]
household register
Genghis Khan first broke the old blood relationship, abandoned the traditional tribal and clan units, registered all subjects with household registration, and incorporated them into the organizational framework of military administration and military civilian integration according to the structure of ten households, one hundred households and one thousand households.In the past, all the tribal nobles served as state officials as heads of hundreds and thousands of households.Genghis KhanDistribute the land and households of the whole country to the sons, brothers and other members of the imperial family.The power of the Great Khan was above everything, and he was the highest representative of the entire Mongolian ruling class;The "golden nobility" composed of royal families and Nayan nobility at all levelsfeudalruling class;The vast herdsmen under the household system at all levels are fixed in the designated area.It is the social responsibility of all adult men to "mount a horse and prepare for battle, dismount and gather for herding".Once there is a war, they can carry weapons, horses and food to fight under the leadership of officers at all levels. It is said that the total number of them can reach 700000.stayturn every man into a soldierOn the basis of, Genghis Khan also held three elite troops - the Xixue Army.It is composed of ten thousand brave noble childrenGuardsPinsusi was responsible for defending the golden tent of the Great Khan, while he was responsible for escorting the Chinese army in wartime. Genghis Khan often put himself into the battlefield at the most critical moment of the war to decide the outcomeFresh troops。At the same time, this elite and brave division was also an important force for Khan to frighten local separatist forces.The guards who feared Xue had clear duties, strict systems, enjoyed various privileges, and were absolutely loyal to the Khan, becoming the backbone of Mongolian military feudal autocracy.[9]
judicial
Genghis Khan also strengthened the national judicial institutions and establishedJudge——Daru Huachi.At the beginning, the judge was only responsible for hearing civil and criminal cases, and later developed into a heavy official who was also in charge of people and property.Genghis KhanIt also sorted out the traditional Mongolian customary laws, convened several conferences, issued "Zhasa" (meaning military orders and laws), and recorded the "sermons" of various Zhasa and Khan in Uyghur characters to compile the "Zhasa Code", forming a set of written codes.In 1204, when Mongolia defeated the Naiman tribe, it captured the Uighur Tata Tonga from the Palm Seal Palace. The Khan ordered him to spell Mongolian in Uighur letters, creatingMongolianIt also made all the kings and noble children of Mongolia learn from it.The creation and application of Mongolian characters provided cultural cohesion for the union of various departments on the plateau, and the unified Mongolian nation began to form.[9]
In the old Mongolian practice, men over the age of 15 and under the age of 70 are in principle fighters of their own tribe or clan, who are directly loyal to the head of the tribe or clan, and indirectly fight for those supported by the head of the tribe or clan.After Genghis Khan set up 95, 000 households, every Mongolian serving in the military under the command of 1000 households, directly loyal to the Khan and worked hard for him.The age for military service shall be changed to over 20.[43]
Han Army
When Genghis Khan died, there were only 129000 Mongols in the whole Mongolian army.This number did not increase until Kublai Khan destroyed the Southern Song Dynasty. Kublai Khan's Mongolian soldiers were only a large part of the 130000 or so. Some of them had already been distributed to Shu Chi, Chahetai, Wokuotai, Hezar, Timuge and their descendants.Wokuotai, Mengge and Kublai Khan fought against the Jin Dynasty and the Song Dynasty. Most of the soldiers they used were Han people, not Mongolians.The Western Expedition of Batu and others of Wokuotai Sect and the Southern Expedition of Hulagu of Monggol Sect mostly used Turks rather than Mongols.Wokuotai set up "30000 households of the Han Army" in the year of accession (1229), with Liu Yi (Liu Heima), Zhalaer and Shi Tianze as the three persons.The so-called ten thousand households are actually "ten thousand captains".Each of the three men had ten thousand soldiers under his command.Liu YiHe is Liu Bolin's son.Liu Bolin was the first to conquer Mongolia.ZhalaerHe is a Khitan, formerly the commander of the Khitan Army of the Jin Dynasty. Under his command, there are Khitan soldiers and Han soldiers.Shi TianzeHe is Shi Bingzhi's son and Shi Tianni's younger brother.[42]
Five years later, Wokuotai exterminated Jin and added five ten thousand households to the Han army, with Zhang Rou, Di Shun, Yan Shi, Zhang Rong, and Hao Monk as its members.Di Shun was born in Xingtang County of Baoding Prefecture. After Genghis Khan was demoted, he successively served as Xingtang Lingxian County, Hengzhou Comfort Envoy, and Shanqian Marshal, and was named "Chahan Nahel" (White Dog).Zhang Rong, a native of Licheng County, Jinan Prefecture, had already settled down to protect himself, and mastered Zhangqiu, Jiyang, Zizhou and other places. Finally, after Dongping changed hands, he had no choice but to surrender to Mongolia. Genghis Khan was appointed as the "Golden Purple Guanglu Doctor, Shandong Xingshu Province, and also the Marshal of the Military and Horse Capital, and knew the affairs of Jinan Prefecture".In the campaign to destroy the Jin Dynasty, he broke through Guide, Peixian and Xuzhou.Monk Hao, a native of Taiyuan, was abducted by Mongolian soldiers when he was young, and was under the command of Qianhuketai. He became Marshal of Fengzhou in the year of the Wuzi (1228). Three years later, he was granted the title of "Marching Qianhu".[42]
With eight thousands of Han Army households, dozens of people were successively granted the title of thousands of Han Army households.In fact, more than 80000 Han troops in Wokuotai are far away.[42]
When Kudu came to the central part of the Jin Dynasty to take over the household registration, he had already received a total of 105471 people and 975775 people according to the imperial edict of one person for every 20 young soldiers (conscription).The soldiers of Shi Tianze, Liu Yi, Zhang Rou, Yan Shi and Zhang Rong are not among these "Jin troops".[42]
Genghis KhanHe once dreamed of "making all under the blue sky become Mongolian pastures".Numerous ancient documents have recorded that during the expansion of the Mongolian Empire, countless ancient civilizations were completely destroyed and countless cities were razed to the ground.David Nicole in The Mongol War lords》China said that "terror and mass extermination of opponents are tactics that the Mongols have tried repeatedly".[28]
On October 22, 1963, the People's Daily and the Red Flag Magazine jointly published the fourth comment of the "Nine Comments on the Soviet Communist Party", "The Debate of Neocolonialism", which said: "Genghis Khan was the Khan of Mongolia at that time. China and Russia were both invaded."[31]Before that, Lu Xun also held this view.[32]
The First Western Expedition
In 1218, Genghis Khan sent Zhe Bie, a brave general, to lead 20000 elite cavalry to defeat Qu Chulu, the son of Sun Khan of Naiman tribe, who was controlled by the law firm of Xiliao, a western Khitan country, and kill Qu Chulu.Since then, Mongolia has faced off with Khulazim, a rising power in Central Asia.Khwarazm was originally a province of Seljuk Turks, and later became an independent state.At the beginning of the 13th century, it was said that it had the upper reaches of the Amu Darya River in the north, the Persian Gulf in the south, the Indus River in the east, and the vast areas of the two river basins in the west.1219.Khwarazimu wrongly answered that the garrison generals robbed and killed Mongolian caravans and envoys, which led to a sudden hostile relationship between the two countries. Genghis Khan took the opportunity to start his army and ask questions.He led an army of 200000, divided into four routes, and attacked Khwarazmia.The people of Khwarazmim are fierce, and there are 400000 strong soldiers. However, they have made the strategic mistake of dividing their troops to guard the city, and they cannot concentrate on defending the enemy. In less than a year, they have lost the key cities such as Lundaci, Bukhara and Samarkand, and the Mongolian army has won the strategic advantage.Mohammed, the king of Khwarazmia, lost all his former bravery and fled west, and died on an island in the Caspian Sea.Prince Zhalanting led his people to resist. Although he won a few small victories, he finally lost to the Mongolian army. Finally, he was forced to ride alone across the Indus River and fled to the ends of the world.The Kingdom of Khwarazm perished.[25]
The Mongolian cavalry took advantage of the victory and attacked, crossing the Caucasus Mountains into the grassland of the Don River basin.In May 1223, the Mongolian army fought with the joint forces of the Polovozi and the Russians on the Karka River, and won a big victory. Then the Mongolian army marched straight into Russia, attacked all parts of Russia, entered Crimea, and went up the Volga River. On the way, it was defeated by the Bogar people. At the end of the year, it returned to the Mongolian Plateau to the east.[25]
The Second Western Expedition
In 1235,ogodei Khan decided to send the eldest son of the Mongol kings to the westRussia。Jochi eldest sonwarriorBeing handsome, the eldest son of WokuotaiGuiyou, Tuo Lei's eldest sonMongoWait for the prince to follow.In 1236, the Mongolian army entered the Qincha Grassland, swept the Polovozi people, and then rushed into the Russian plain, defeating the Russian princes and successively captured Liangzan, Moscow, Vladimir, Chernigov and other places.In 1240,Mongolian ArmyCapture the ancient city of Kiev, ravaging most of Russia.In 1241, Batu soldiers were divided into two groups, fighting from north to south.The main force of South Road iswarriorCommanded the Carpathians and attackedHungary, defeat the resistance of King Bella IV of Hungary, burn down Buda, Perth and other important cities, and then go straight to Vienna, the capital of Austria.The northern Mongolian army attacked Poland, captured Krakow first, and then entered Silesia.April, atThe Battle of RignitzIn China, more than 30000 Polish, German and Teutonic Knights allied forces organized by King Henry of Silesia were annihilated and Henry was killed.The overwhelming offensive of the Mongolian army in Eastern Europe made the Holy See and Western European countries in great panic.properwarriorWokuotai Khan died when he was preparing for a new offensive by combining the northern and southern armies.After hearing the news, Batu obeyed the convention, stopped military operations, and led troops back to the South Russian Plain via Serbia and Bulgaria.In 1243,warriorCentered on Salai in the lower reaches of the Volga River, the Chinchakhanate was established.[25]
From 1241 to 1251, the expansion of Mongolia was basically in a period of intermission.The energy of the entire Mongolian ruling class was mainly focused on the struggle for the position of Khan.Wokuotai Khan died five years before his sonGuiyouSuccession of the Great Khan.Unexpectedly, your life is short, and you have been in the position of Khan for only two years.The Mongol kings fell into a new round of struggle. The Shuchi Tulei system and the Wokuotai Chahatai system fought fiercely for several years.Finally, Tuo Lei's eldest sonMongoWith the support of his brothers Kublai Khan, Hulagu, Ali Buge and the eldest son of Shu Chi Batu, he ascended the throne of Great Khan.At the beginning of taking office, he brutally suppressed the opposition princes, reformed the regime and consolidated the authority of the Great Khan.[25]
The Third Western Expedition
In 1253, the expansion war of Mongolia was rekindled.hulagu Under the order of Mengge Khan, he led the army on the road of the Western Expedition.Arrived in Samarkand in 1255, crossed the Amu Darya River in 1256, and pacified the wooden thorn nation of the Islamic Ismaen Asasin people.In 1258,hulagu It crossed the Tigris River and attacked Baghdad, the capital of the Arab Abbas dynasty, which was in decline.The last caliph, Muster Suimu, went out of the city to surrender and was killed by the Mongolian army.The Arab Empire lasted more than 500 years.The historic city of Baghdad was looted, countless fortunes were looted, and hundreds of thousands of civilians died under the machetes of Mongolian warriors.In 1260, the Mongolian army fell into Damascus again, reaching the eastern coast of the Mediterranean.properhulagu When preparing to attack Egypt in North Africa, the news of Mongo Khan's death spread to the army,hulagu Leave 5000 men and horses stationed in Syria, and lead the main force to the east.Soon, the Mongolian army stationed in Syria was annihilated by the Mamluk Dynasty of Egypt.[25]
Economics
Announce
edit
taxes
The ordinary Mongols did not have to pay taxes when they were Genghis Khan. They only had to hand over their booty to the Khan after the war.When the Wokuotai Khan arrived, ordinary Mongolians would have to pay taxes: one percent of horses, cattle and sheep every year, and the mother.If there are 100 horses, one mare will be paid every year, and so on.(In addition, one percent of the sheep will be donated to help the poor in the "headquarters".) Since then, every Mongolian has the obligation to pay taxes to the country.[43]
Agriculture
The construction of water conservancy has a long history among the Mongols.According to Rashid's Collection of History, the ancestors of Genghis KhanKhaidu The camp will be located in the Balhuzhen Tuokumu area at the border with Mongolia.He built a ferry on the river so that livestock could drink water and people could come and go. He named this ferry Zarolum.When Genghis Khan was in power, Tu Hucha Er, a member of the Hongjila tribe, built a dam, which was called Dalan Tu Er He Hei Tu Hucha Er[22]。
handicraft industry
Weaving, printing and dyeing
The weaving, printing and dyeing technology of the Mongols also has a certain level.They split the branches into boxes, soaked them with butter or goat milk, and covered the boxes with black felt of various colors and patterns to maintain their firmness and beauty.Such a box can be used for bedding and precious articles.Married women have beautiful cars.
smelt
The smelting technology of Mongolia has a long history. It is said that iron could be melted out of the mountain in the 10th century BC.According to historical records, Wu Lianghe was good at cast iron;《History of the New Five Dynasties》According to the records, there are many copper, iron, gold and silver in the northeast of Khitan to Miejaozi (the voice of Meng Wu Shi Wei). His people are skillful, and his copper and iron articles are all excellent, and he is good at weaving wool brocade.The four craftsmen in the "Ode to the Four Craftsmen" widely circulated among the Mongols areMongolianXirui craftsman of the Han nationality, Wang craftsman of the Han nationality, Genge craftsman of Sartawula and Balaxi craftsman of Tanguti.They were ingenious and proficient in all kinds of arts, which played an important role in the development of metal crafts in Mongolia at that time.Decorating bows, spears, swords, shields, quivers, especially saddles, has always been a hobby of Mongolian herdsmen.Dahan's chair is covered with gold. The dragon head is like a tiger. The pommel horse belt is also decorated with gold dragon.Saddle hammers like to be equipped with various decorations. Some draw patterns, some are inlaid with bone carvings, and some are inlaid with metal handicrafts.Mongolian people have always liked silver bowls, gold cups and other daily necessities.
carving
During this period, stone carving, wood carving and bone carving techniques developed greatly.Practical arts such as engraving of silver boxes are exquisite or bold, including relief and openwork.Cups carved and inlaid with sheep's horns and various utensils made of birch bark are also popular.These sculptures are not only practical products, but also works of art, which reflect the superb skills of ancient craftsmen with natural beauty, color beauty, and material beauty.There are traditional methods of grassland carving art, as well as varied foreign styles, which are vivid, simple, and distinctive national styles.
Embroidery
The art of embroidery is embodied in clothing, food, housing and transportation.The clothes of the upper class of the nobility are gorgeous and beautiful, with jewels and jewels. The clothes and belts are very particular, with rich embroidery patterns and bright colors.At that time, a kind of aunt hat was also popular in the society, which was very funny.
Culture
Announce
edit
written words
When Genghis Khan established the Mongol Khanate, he determined that the language of Wei Wu Er was commonly used throughout the country and used it to record《Da Zhasa》, Bilik, writing official documents, letters, inscriptions, etc.For example, Genghis Khan's Stone Writings in 1225GuiyouThe seal of Khan and the Mongo Khan Stone Inscription of 1250 are both engraved in the language of Wei Wu Er.At that time, the standardized written language written in this kind of writing has been formed, and this kind of written language is different from the folk spoken language.Genghis KhanThe ancient written language written in the language was also used when the language of Wei Wu Er was used.
With the expansion of Mongolian rulers, the use of Mongolian language and characters became increasingly widespread. By the 13th century, Mongolian had almost become Esperanto[23]。
As early as the 13th century, Mongolian tribes had formed standardized oral literary language, which was characterized by simple and understandable words and clear meanings.The content includes stories, legends, poems, eulogies, proverbs, riddles and other types, of which poetry is the most prominent.Before the Mongols used words, the messengers between different ministries used rhymed metaphorical poems to convey.These poems are full of imagination and metaphor skills.
literature
In addition to folk oral literature, there are also many heroic epics widely spread among the people.Written in 1240《Secret History of Mongolia》It is a precious masterpiece of history, which reflects the development level of Mongolian written literature at that time in terms of ideology and artistry.The book fully affirmed and highly praised the great achievements of Genghis Khan in unifying Mongolian ministries, praised the emerging Mongolian khanate, and reflected the development of Mongolian society in the 13th century.In terms of writing skills, he collected and absorbed the essence of folk oral literature, combined the style of chronicles with the image description of literature, and systematically described the 500 year history of Mongolia.In addition, the outstanding literary works reflecting this period include《Genghis Khan's two horses》Etc.
festival
On big festivals, Mongolian people hold grand banquets.The first day of the first lunar month is the Mongolian Spring Festival.On this day, they all wore white clothes, rode on white horses, and drank free food (milk), regardless of their age.The ninth day of May is the first time for Mongolians to drink the new brew to show that the Spring Festival has arrived.On this day, fortune tellers gathered all the local white mares together to show that they would dedicate them to the gods, sprinkle the newly brewed caprice on the ground, and then hold a grand banquet.In addition, when the eclipse of the day or the moon disappears, a grand banquet will also be held.
education
Mongolian people attach importance to familyZuxunAnd the tradition of schooling.The parents of each family have the obligation to teach their children the history of their clan and tribe.Because the Mongols have the custom of preserving their ancestral genealogy, they regarda pedigreeFor property, and form a common rule that people follow, from generation to generation.At the same time, each family also has its own teachings passed down from ancestors to educate future generations.
School education began in the early 13th century.According to the "Yuan Shi · Tata Tonga Biography", after Genghis Khan captured Tata Tonga (the Weiwuer people), the seal officer of Taiyang Khan, in 1204, he ordered him to teach the princes and brothers to learn the Weiwuer language, making the Mongolian Khan the first generation of literati.After Ah Lian Timur, a scholar of Wei Wu Er, was attached to Genghis Khan, the princes learned from him.During the Wokuotai Khan period, the eldest son of Genghis Khan, Shu Chi, sent Kuoer Jisi from the Western Regions to Mongolia to teach Mongolian children.
Respect for Confucianism is one of the important measures taken by Wokuotai Khan to govern the Central Plains.In 1236, an editorial office and a classics and books office were set up respectively in Yanjing and Pingyang, focusing on compiling the history of classics.A group of Confucian scholars were employed in the khanate and instructed to explain the Nine Classics.
Religion
Shamanism It is the primitive religion of Mongolian grassland.After the establishment of the Mongolian khanate, Islam, Buddhism and Taoism were introduced into the khanate.Mongols believe that the sun, moon, fire, water, earth, mountains, rivers and so on all have gods.The idol of the gods is called Weng Staff, which is made of felt and worshipped.The idols are usually placed on both sides of the tent door. Under the idols, there are models of cattle and sheep made of felt. People regard idols as protectors of livestock and can give them cheese and horses.In the middle of the yurt, there is also an idol, which is the patron saint.Mongols also believe that there are gods everywhere.The highest god called it MongoTengri （Immortality）It is the creator of all visible and invisible things. It can bestow truth, goodness, beauty and falsehood, evil and ugliness on human beings. Mongolians regard it as Etchgar Tengger (Heavenly Father).At that time, many people believed that thunder was the roar of the gods.
The communicator between Tengger and the people is a wizard, the wizard is called Bo, and the witch is called Yidugan.Wizards are astrologers, diviners and doctors, and they are very prestigious among Mongolians.According to the Record of Dispatching to Mongolia, as Mengge Khan admitted, their diviners were their priests, and whatever diviners ordered to do must be carried out immediately without delay.Witches can observe the sky, predict the time of solar and lunar eclipses, and announce good or bad days.Without their consent, the army must not go out easily;When a boy is born, he needs to ask a fortune teller to predict his fate;When someone is ill, you need to ask a wizard to recite a spell.In the Mongolian khanate, witches have become a special class with a large number of people. They are not only active in the folk, but also concentrated in the khanate.There are many diviners, and there is always a leader, like a bishop.The leader always placed his tent in front of the main tent of Mongo Khan, about a stone throw away.All the articles sent to the court must be carried by the wizard to pass between two heaps of fire for purification, which is one of the wizard's responsibilities.[23]
science and technology
Announce
edit
Astronomy
The Mongolian people have accumulated a wealth of astronomical knowledge very early, which first stems from their long-term nomadic life practice.According to the "Secret History of Mongolia" and "History of World Conquerors", they have mastered the laws of celestial phenomena and the ways and means to accurately record the year, month, day and time.Among them also appeared astrologers.The astrologer drewHeavenly Palace MapTo observe and predict changes in the sky.According to anotherRashtAccording to the Records of History, the date of Mongo Khan's accession to the throne was determined by astrologers.On sunny days, in those days, the sky there has been covered by dark clouds, and it is raining constantly. No one can see the sun.And just at the moment when astrologers chose to observe the celestial phenomena, the sun shining in the world emerged from the dark clouds, and the sky opened a place equal to the sun, so astrologers could easily determine the height of (the planet) on the horizon.The truth that the moon shines only when it is illuminated by the sun was known to Mongolians at that time. They said that the sun is the mother of the moon, because the moon is from thesunlightIt gets its glory there.[21]During the reign of Montgomery Khan, the French envoyLubrookI have seen astrologers in Halahelin, the capital of the Mongol khanate (now Erdenizhaobei, Hangai Province, Mongolia). Some of them are familiar with astronomy, especially their leaders, who predict the time of solar and lunar eclipses.In 1233,ogodei Khan built the armillary sphere in Yanjing;MongoKhan also ordered the construction of an observatory.
Medical Science
Mongolian people have rich medical knowledge. Long before Genghis Khan unified Mongolia, Mongolian forest tribes such as Wulasuiti, Tieliangguti, Kesidimi were famous for their familiarity with Mongolian medicines and their use of Mongolian methods to cure patients.The Secret History of Mongolia also mentioned that Mongolian people used hot compress or sucking old blood from their mouths to treat wounds.When the Mongolian army went out to war, they carried hemostatic drugs to prevent the midsagittal from bleeding.If Shoruhan, a member of the Zhalantai people (Zhalayer tribe), was hit by a moving arrow in the battle at the Yehu Ridge, Genghis Khan immediately applied Hadir (hemostatic).stayGenghis KhanThe Mongols have been able tomechanical principleManufacture artillery.
Art
Announce
edit
dance
Since ancient times, Mongolians have been good at singing and dancing. As early as in the clan society, people used to celebrate in the form of collective dancing when celebrating.According to《Secret History of Mongolia》Recorded onnaimans There is already a band in Hanwuerduo (temporary palace).According to the Collection of Histories, every night Wokuotai Khan invites archers and gladiators to shoot and wrestle.According to the Record of Mong Tartar, when Muhua Li went to war, she also accompanied her with female music.Most of them played the song "Daguan Music" and clapped their hands for a festival, which was very low. The dance was very different.
Musical Instruments
Zhu Khan also paid attention to the musical instruments of other nationalities. In the early years of Emperor Taizu, he expropriated the old music of the Western Xia Dynasty with the words of "He Xi Gao Zhi Yao"[24]。Since 1240, the government has made music for the public.
The Mongols moved by water and grass and used yurts as living rooms, so the Mongols had high technology in making yurts.The felt of local herdsmen is covered with white felt, which is coated with lime or white clay and bone powder to make it more white, and sometimes the felt is painted black.The felt covering the skylight is decorated with various patterns, and the door is hung with felt embroidered with various color patterns.The yurts of the Khan and the kings were painted gold, and the yurts for the banquet could accommodate 2000 people.[44]
diet
The Mongols used cow dung and horse dung to cook their food, and all their people, the emperor, like the nobility and others, used cow dung and horse dung to heat themselves.[45]
Their food contains everything they can eat, because they eat dogs, wolves, foxes and horses, and when they are forced by need, they also eat human flesh.For example, when they attacked a city of Khitans (where the Khitan emperor stayed), they besieged the city for so long that their own food was completely consumed and there was nothing to eat, so they took one out of every ten people to eat as food.They eat the dirt excreted by mares when they gave birth to ponies.Not only that, they eat lice.They will say, "They eat my son's meat and drink his blood. Why shouldn't I eat them?" They even eat mice.[48]
Hairstyle
Mongols hardly have anyone longBeard, although some people have someMustachemustAnd these mustaches are not trimmed.On the top of their heads, they shaved their hair like priests, and shaved a bald dome. As a general rule, they all shaved their hair three fingers wide from one ear to the other, and the shaved place was connected with the bald dome.On the forehead, they also shaved their hair two fingers wide, but they allowed the hair between the shaved two fingers wide place and the bald dome to grow until it reached their eyebrows;Because they cut more hair from both sides of the forehead and less hair from the middle of the forehead, they make the hair in the middle longer;The rest of the hair, they allow it to grow, like women;They braided it into two braids, one behind each ear.Their feet are small.[46]
marriage
Every man can marry as many wives as he can support. One man has a hundred wives, another has fifty, and another has ten -- one more, the other less.According to their usual custom, they can marry any relative except their mother, daughter and sisters.However, they can marry half sisters, or even their father's wife after his death;The younger brother can also marry his wife after his brother's death, or another younger relative can certainly marry her.In addition to all other women, they can marry as wives without any difference. They buy them from their parents at a high price.After the death of their husbands, it is not easy for women to get married for the second time, unless one is willing to marry his stepmother.[47]
Clothes & Accessories
Men's and women's clothes are made in the same style.They do not use short cloaks, cloaks or hoods, but wear gowns made of burlap, velvet or brocade, which are made of the following patterns: they (two sides) are open from the top to the bottom, and folded up on the chest;Button one button on the left, three buttons on the right, and open the left side to the waist.The coat style of all kinds of furs is the same;However, the outer coat is made of wool and opens at the back;It has a vertical tail at the back and hangs down to the knee.[47]
Married women wear a very loose gown that opens from the front to the bottom.On their heads, there is a round headdress made of branches or bark.This headdress is one earl high and its top is square;From the bottom to the top, the surroundings are gradually thickened. At the top, there is a long and thin stick made of gold, silver, wood or even a feather. This headdress is sewn on a hat, which hangs down to the shoulder. This hat and headdress are covered with burlap, velvet or brocade 5.When they don't wear this headdress, they never walk in front of men. Therefore, they can be distinguished from other women according to this headdress.It is difficult to distinguish unmarried women and young girls from men, because in every aspect, they wear the same clothes as men.Their hats are different from those of other nationalities.[47]
Sports
Wrestling, archery and horse racing are popular sports in Mongolia, and excellent wrestlers are known as Bokuo.In addition, hunting is also loved by people. It is not only a sports activity, but also a military training. Excellent shooters are known as Miergan.
traffic
In its heyday, Mongolia ruled from East Asia to Central Asia, West Asia and Eastern Europe.It has accelerated the cultural and technological exchanges between the East and the West, and promoted the cultural exchanges among multiple ethnic groups.wholethe Silk RoadFor the first time and the last time, it was controlled by only one country, which made the trade between the East and the West much easier than in other split periods.Greater MongolianPost stationThe system has formed the embryonic form of today's post.[8]
influence
Announce
edit
To Chinese history
A sharp decline in population
During the 70 years of the Mongol invasion, the population of China decreased by more than half due to war and various reasons, including war. Before the Mongol invasion, the population of China (including Jin, Southern Song, Western Liao, Western Xia, Dali and other countries) was about 140 million, or even more. By 1279 (the year of complete occupation in 1279), there were only 70 million people.[29]
Promoting unity
The aggression of Genghis Khan and his descendants objectively laid the foundation for China's so-called re unification under one regime, and the Yuan Dynasty divided from the Mongolian Empire reunified China again.In 1211, all parts of Xinjiang belonged to the Mongol Empire;In 1247,TuboWas recruited by Mongoliayuan dynastyIt became an inalienable part of China's territory for the first time after its establishment;In 1276, the long-term separatism of Yunnan under the central government ended.Since then, China, which has been divided for more than 400 years, has also achieved the seventh unification in history, broken the barrier state and truly stepped onto the world historical stage.Now located in today's Chinagold、Southern Song Dynasty、Western Liao Dynasty、Xixia、Dali、TuboThe various ministries are only part of the territory of MongoliaWestern Liao DynastyIt was classified as the second son of Genghis KhanChagatai Khanate 。[30]
For all countries in the world
Black Death
It is generally believed that in 1346, when the army of the Golden Horde Khanate attacked the Black Sea port city of Kafa (also translated into Kefa, now the Ukrainian city of Feodosia), the bodies of people who died of plague were thrown into the city with a stone throwing machine, which was the first bacteriological war ever recorded in the western society.[33]Plague originated in Central Asia, and its carrier is marmot.Before the Great Mongolia, plague had been introduced into China many times, so although China had also experienced regional plague infection, the Chinese people gradually became immune to plague, while Europeans had never been exposed to plague before.A Genoese businessman in Kafa accidentally brought sick fleas to ItalyRepublic of Genoa As a result, the plague spread widely in Europe and eventually caused 20 million deaths in 1348-1349“Black Death”, the plague patient died because of subcutaneous congestion and body blackening.
The Black Death from 1348 to 1349 caused Europe to lose one third of its populationHumanismAwakening.The first representative work of European humanistic literature《Decameron》It was written by Boccaccio during the most rampant period of the Black Death, describing the terrible plague that occurred in Italy in 1348.Europe ushered in the dawn of the Renaissance.[34]
Central and Western Asia
IslamThe eastern half of the world experienced terrible death and destruction.From 1219 to 1260, the total population of Persia fell from 12 million to 1.1 million due to the Holocaust and famine.In Central AsiaHezhong areaandGreater Khorasan , fromGreece Bactrian KingdomThe water conservancy and irrigation system established during the period was completely destroyed, and at the same time, countless fertile fields became barren and desertified;In West Asia, sinceAkkadian Empire andBabylon, CubaThe water conservancy irrigation system established during the period was completely destroyed, and a large number of fertile fields became barren.stayKhwarazm ShachaoCity of:Otrar 、Tashkent , SegnacTrue virtue, Bienakete, Hufel, Buhora (todayBukhara）、Samarkand、Yulong Jiechi、Balkh (Balkhar), Nishapur (Neshapur), Kejiyun (today's Gazwen, Ilandehran Province), Tus (today's Mashhad North, Horasan Province, Iran), Damikan (today's Damgan, Mazandahran Province, Iran), Ximuniang (today's Semnan, Ilandehran Province), Laiyi (today's south of Tehran)Hamadan(today's Hamadan in western Iran), Zanzhan, Harun, Moff (Mali), Yili（Herat）, Tarkhan City (north of the upper reaches of the Mulgab River in Afghanistan today), Fanyan (Bamian), Ghazni City, Baluwan (northeast of Charika in Afghanistan today), Nessa (east of Ashgabat in Turkmenistan), Kumu, Tifris (today's Tbilisi), Miraha (today's Malaga, East Azerbaijan Province, Iran)Ardabil, Shamaha (today's Shemahe, Azerbaijan), Crimea Sudak (today's Crimea Sudak, Ukraine), OkosMerv 、Sousa、Naxichevan, Bitlis, Argis, Miraha, Diyarbakir, Erbil region, Ganga, Nisibis region, AniCarlsCitySivasErzhelumu City, Erzinzhan, Tokat, Kaiseli City, Khirat, Amid, Kama Turkic State of the Baokal, Miebius City, Riyazan, Colomna, Moscow, SuzdarVladimirCityYaroslavCityTevelCityChernigov, Kiwa（Kiev）、GallicChina, HermenekSantomeriCityKrakowCityMoravia、Oradia, Jonard, Pace CitySplit、Cotor、Baghdad、Pace、AleppoMore than 70 cities were massacred and destroyed by the Mongolian army on a large scale, deliberately killing a large number of local people, and some cities were even massacred many times, causing huge disasters and painful memories to the local people.[8]
Europe
In Europe, the European monarchs were very frightened because the Mongolian cavalry had taken dozens of cities and occupied many countries.Later, in the 19th century, there was the theory of "yellow peril". When some people think that it generally refers to the threat posed by all East Asian yellow people, they often go back to the period of Great Mongolia in the 13th and 14th centuries.
Historian estimatesKingdom of Hungary(1241-1242) At that time, half of the 2 million people died of Mongolian invasion under the Batu attack.Almost all the cities of Kievros were destroyed. The capitulators were slaves. Most of them died soon due to heavy labor. The prisoners of war joined the Mongolian army to continue the westward expedition.About half of the Russians died in the Mongol invasion.However, Colin McEvedy's Atlas of World Population History (1978) estimated that the population of the European part of Russia fell from 7.5 million before the invasion to 7 million.
After the decline of Great MongoliaMoscow PrincipalityRise and occupy the pastShu Chi KhanateA considerable part of them became the later famous Russian Empire.The rulers of Moscow Principality had long held the position of the Grand Duke of Vladimir in Russia, which was remote controlled by Mongols at that time, and collected taxes on behalf of Mongolia, thus raising their head, because Mongols seldom inspected the territory they occupied.At present, the formation of Russia, the largest country in the world, has obvious factors of Mongolia in that year.Klutchevsky and his students believe that Mongolia has at least half the credit for the unification of Russia.Another Eurasian philosopher, Trubetzkoy, pointed out in his classic book "On the Turanic Elements of Russian Culture" that Moscow should thank Mongolia for its rule, and Russia became a powerful country after eliminating Kazan and Astrakhan.[19]20% of the nobles in the Moscow Principality had intermarried with Mongols, and the system of the government of the Moscow Principality was also Mongolian.In essence, Russia is an Orthodox Mongolian country.The daily life of Russians is deeply influenced by Mongolia, and a large number of Mongolian loanwords, postal services, taxes, and clothes are also influenced by Mongolia. The military system and legal system are learned from Mongolia.The Russians were also turanized.
North Korea
On the Korean Peninsula,Korea DynastyAfter repeated large-scale crusades by the army of Great Mongolia, it became subordinate to Mongolia and became one of the vassal states.After the Mongol Yuan Dynasty was expelled from China by Zhu Yuanzhang, the Han people established a new dynasty -the ming dynastyThe Korean king, who was loyal to Mongolia, could not accept it, so he sent General Li Chenggui to fight against the Ming Empire.But Li Chenggui, who was close to the Ming Empire, sent his troops back to Korea from near the Yalu River, launched a mutiny to overthrow the Kingdom of Korea and establishJoseon Dynasty 。[19]
