Sumerians, yesTwo river basin（Euphrates RiverandTigris RiverMiddle and lower reaches) early settled ethnic groups.Sumerians establishedsumerian civilization , is the wholeMesopotamian civilizationThe earliest known civilization in the world.Sumerian civilization is mainly located inMesopotamiaAccording to the radiocarbon dating test, Sumerian civilization began in the 40th century BC and ended at the end of the 20th century BCAmoriteEstablishedBabylon, CubaDynasty.Sumerians invented the earliestHieroglyphics——Cuneiform, willGraphical symbolsIt is fixed to form characters and inscribed on the mud board with a triangular pointed reed pole.The cuneiform script is recognized as the earliest written record in the world, known asMudboard instrument。
Sumerians migrated towest AsiaTwo river basinAn ancient people living in the south.Sumerians took the lead in entering the civilization period in the 3000s BC, creating the earliest ancient civilization in human history and making indelible contributions to the development of world culture.
The name Sumer is not the name of Sumerians themselves, but the name given to them by others. It was first used byAkkadian。Sumerians call themselves "sag-gi-ga" and call their place of residence "ki en gir". The word "Shumer" used by Akkad people may be a variation of the local dialect of this name.Sumerian language, culture, and possibly appearance are all related to theirsemitic Neighbors and heirs are different.In the past, some people believed that they were invaders, but archaeological excavations proved that the early Obeid culture from the 53rd century to the 46th century before,MesopotamiaSouthernResidential cultureIt is continuous.Today'sIraqArid in the southAlluvial plainIt is a difficult area for local residents.To survive here, people here must have controlTigris RiverandEuphrates RiverTo ensure the source of irrigation and drinking water throughout the year.staySumerian language There are many words such as canal, dam and reservoir.Obeid pottery and earlier northernSamarra period The pottery (from the 58th century to the 50th century) is related.The people of the Samarra culture used the water of the Tigris River and its tributaries to carry out early and primitiveIrrigated agriculture。France in the 1980sarchaeologistThe settlements excavated near today's Larsa clearly show the connection between the two cultures.Here, eight layers of early ceramics of Obeid culture coexist with those of Samarra culture.The Sumerians have expanded southward from here, and their advancedsocial organizationThey have the ability to control water and survive and develop in a difficult environment, while the original local hunting culture cannot compete with them.
Encyclopedia x ignorance: illustrating Sumerian civilization
Development history
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rise
King Rajash with Sumerian characters on his robe
originalSumer The period consists of several independentcity stateThese cities are composed ofcanalandBoundary stonedivision.The center of each city country is the city's patron saint or the temple of the patron goddess.Each city country has areligious ritesRuled by a priest or king.[1]
Larger cities haveElidu, Kikah, RajashUruk、UrandNippur。These citieswater right, trade routes andnomadic peopleFor nearly a thousand years, they fought with each other for paying tribute.[1]
Sumerian King List It includes some early dynasties, most of which may be legendary.According to textual research, the earliest dynasties were kings that existed in history, such asKing of KashgarEnmebaragsi。His name is also mentioned in Gilgamesh's epic, so some people think that he is aKing of Uruk。[1]
LagashHis dynasty established many importantLarge building。One of the earliest recorded empires wasKing AnatonEstablished, he almost occupied the whole Sumer, includingKashi, UrukUrAnd Lhasa, he reduced the number ofLagashThe enemy ofUmma His fields also includeIramandPersian Gulfcoastal areas。
Gold dagger and lapis lazuli hilt in the mausoleum of Ur Third Dynasty
UrukhPriestly King Lugar Sag West（Lugal-Zage-Si）He overthrew the hegemony of the Rajash Dynasty, occupied Uruk, took it as his capital, and established the Kingdom of Ur.He claims that his empire stretches from the Persian Gulf tomediterranean sea。He was the last Sumerian king, and since then the SemitesKing AkkadOfKing SargonBecome ruler of Sumer.
perish
After the long history flowed into the second millennium BC, under the relentless attack of foreign hostile forces,UrThe kingdom was soon on the verge of collapse, and internal disputes were endless.As we all know, civilian officials have a high status in peacetime, while military generals have a high status in wartime.WhenThird dynasty When Ibrahim, the last king of Yixin, was in power, the Sumerian general Ishbiela launched a rebellion in Yixin City, established himself as king, and won the support of many other cities.Soon, Ur wassemitic The army broke through,Ur Third DynastyPerish.Fortunately, Ishbiella was not only good at planning coup, but also good at fighting: he soon drove the Semites out of Ur, and then temporarily restored the old territory of Ur Kingdom.Unfortunately, Sumerians are naturally unconvinced with each other. When Ishbiella dies, various cities have declared their independence from the Yixin Dynasty, among which the most powerful is the city state of Larsa.Sumerians who are not united internallyInferiority, gaveAssyria It was a heaven sent opportunity for people to attack. They launched a large-scale expansion war around 1800 BC and occupiedNineveh, Mali, etcMesopotamiaNorth and Central;meanwhile,Indo EuropeanThe Hittites ofAnatolia Plateau andSyriaThe power of,IranSeveral ethnic groups in the mountain area have also moved westward. The Sumerian nation, which has finally revived, is in danger of subjugation.After the Hittites ruled Mesopotamia for 800 years, another branch of the Semitic Assyrians (about today's Kurds) decided to first open up the road to the Mediterranean, so they fought with the Hittites in the north of Levante. Later, the Babylonians took the opportunity to ignite in the backyard of Assyria, which greatly extended the life of the Sumerian nation.The Semites improved a lot during the Civil Warmilitary techniqueFor example, the structure of chariot wheels has become lighter and more flexible, while the Sumerians learned nothing during the civil war, which sounded their final death knell.[1]
In 1793 BC, the Amorites of SemiteHammurabiThe Great Emperor is hereBabylonEnthronement,Mesopotamian PlainA new war of reunification has begun;In 1763 BC, the capital of Ramusin, the last Sumerian monarch, was captured by the Babylonian army. Since then, Sumerians have disappeared from history.[1]
Culture
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historical background
They invented the earliest humanHieroglyphics——Cuneiform，He created agriculture, cultivated crops, and invented the plow and wheel;They dug ditches and created the earliestirrigation system；They invented smelting technology, heated ore into liquid, and refined bronze, which was used to make tools and weaponstechnical conditionsRestrictions: no iron has been found, and bronze ware cannot be popularized generally. Most farmers still use wooden farm tools;They created the earliest astrology and believed in divination;They created cities and established 12 urban countries, with 50000 people in the largest country;The characteristics of the building are: the city wall is an earth rock structure, and the house isCivil structure, they will use dried mud bricks (which is very different from the structure of white giant stone houses).
Sumer bull head harp speaker
Sumerian culture has two centersEliduAnd northernNippur。The cultural influences of these two centers are quite different.Nipur is the Holy Land of Enlil.Enlil is in the underworldMain God。The spells and magic he gave to human beings can drive good ghosts and evil ghosts.His field is in a mountain, and his products live underground.
EliduIs the god of cultureenki He is the holy land of light and kindness, the master of underground fresh water, a doctor and a friend of mankind.He broughtArt, science, industry and civilization。It is said that the earliest dharma script was his product.Eli Du was originally a seaport. Its trade with the outside world and the integration of various cultures here undoubtedly played an important role in the development of its culture.Its worldview and itsgeographical positionRelated: It believes that the mainland emerges from the sea, just as the mouth of the Euphrates River keeps expanding.stayHistoryBefore the beginning, the culture of Elidu had been integrated with that of Nipur.Babylon seems to be a colony of Elidu, while Ur near Elidu is a colony of Nipur, where the moon god enshrined is the son of Enlil of Nipur.In the fusion of the two cultures, the influence of Eli Du seems to play a major role.
Later Sumerian laws protected women, and women could achieve a fairly high status, but in the whole culture, men were the masters.
Sailing boats use asphalt to prevent water infiltration;
Wooden boats sometimes use manpower oranimal powerPULL.
Languages
Rubbings of Sumerian cuneiform characters
Sumerian is aIsolated languageWords.Grammatically speaking, it is not similar to any other known language.To combine Sumerian with other languages, especiallyAltaicThe attempts to connect the two languages have not been successful.Sumerian is aagglutinating language, which means that a word may contain a series ofaffix(orMorpheme）These affixes are more or less distinguishable and can be separated separately.
Sumerian is a language that hasPartial ergodicityLanguage.When expressing the first or second person present future tense (or incomplete tense), it is aSubject object language；In most other forms of the already mood (direct), it is aTo make generic language。We can find similar sentence patterns in many parts of Sumerian that have nothing to do with case language.In Sumerian, ergative is represented by the suffix - e,common caseNothing is added (zero affix).
Sumerian distinctiongrammatical meaningThere is no single pronoun of yin and yang in the living/non living nature of Shang.Among them, there is not only human nature, but also divine nature. In some cases, there is also the nature called "sculpture" in Sumerian.There are two tenses in Sumerian: the past tense and the present tense -Future tense(Now they are called unfinished tense and completed tense).There are many cases in Sumerian:common case（-Ø），Ergodic（-e），Genitive（-(a)k），Dative("to, for")-r(a), abiotic noun-e），Position grid("in, at")-a），Adjoint lattice（-da），Isomorphic lattice（“as，like”）（-gin），Directional lattice（“towards”）（-š(e)）AndDigression("from") (used only with inanimate nouns-ta）。
They invented the earliest humanHieroglyphics——Cuneiform: At the beginning, I used figures to draw pigs, cows, horses, sheep, crops and other things. Later, the figures became more and more simple, so I usedGraphical symbolsFixed to form characters, usetriangleThe pointed reed pole is engraved on the mud board and dried in the sun, which can be preserved for a long time (compared with the laterwhite personPhoenicianAlphabetic textThese records are also calledChalkboard writing。[2]
Sumerians invented a kind of hieroglyphics, which later developed into cuneiform characters.This is the oldest known human script.Hundreds of thousands of Sumerian articles have been excavated, most of which are carved on clay plates.These include personal and corporate letters, remittances, recipes, encyclopedic lists, laws, hymns, prayers, magic spells, and scientific articles including mathematics, astronomy, and medicine.Many large buildings, such as large sculptures, also have characters carved on them.Many versions of articles have been preserved because they are often copied (for example, as a writing exercise).Copying was the only way for people to spread articles at that time.After Semitic people became rulers of Mesopotamia, Sumerian remained the language of religion and law.
Su Meiwen Clay Tablet Document
Even experts are hard to understandSumerian。Especially the early Sumerian characters are very difficult, because they often do not contain all the grammatical structures that modern people are familiar with or commonly used!The Euphrates and Tigris rivers both originate fromArmenian Plateau。Around 4000 BC, there were Sumerians, the earliest inhabitants here.They have created a splendid Sumerian civilization. The most representative feature of this civilization is their writing - cuneiform writing.
At first, this kind of writing was pictorial writing. Gradually, this kind of pictorial writing gradually developed into SumerianIdeograph, combine one or several symbols to express a new meaning.For example, "mouth" means action "say";The symbols representing "eyes" and "water" are used to express "crying" and so on.With the popularization of words, Sumerians simply use a symbol to represent a sound. For example, "arrow" and "life" are the same space in Sumerian, so they use the same symbol "arrow" to represent.Later, some restrictive radical symbols were added, such as an "inverted triangle" in front of a person's name to indicate the name of a man.In this way, the writing system is basically complete.
The Sumerians used reed stalks or bone sticks or wooden sticks cut into triangular sharp ends as pens, and made them in wet clayClay tabletWhen writing on, the shape naturally forms a wedge, so this kind of writing is called cuneiform writing.
In order to preserve the clay plate for a long time, it needs to be dried before firing.This kind of fired clay paper is not afraid of being eaten by insects, nor will it rot, and can stand fire.However, the disadvantage is that the clay tablets are very bulky. Each piece weighs about one kilogram. Every time you look at it, you have to move around laboriously.Up to now, there are hundreds of millions of clay tablets unearthed, the largest of which is 2.7 meters long and 1.95 meters wide, which can be called a giant book!
The cuneiform script is the original creation of Sumerian civilization, which can best reflect the characteristics of Sumerian civilization.The cuneiform characters have a great influence on many peoples in West AsiaLanguagesThe formation and development of has had an important impact.Babylon, AssyriaHittite , Syria, Liberia and other countries have slightly modified cuneiform characters to be their ownwriting tool。Even the letters created by the Phoenicians contain cuneiform elements.Cuneiform script is the earliest script in the world. However, because of its complexity, it completely disappeared in the first century AD.
Religion
Every city in Sumer has its own gods and theology, and these gods have also changed over time, so it is impossible to saySumerian religion。Sumerian religion can be counted asMonotheismOf.Sumerian belief is the earliest recorded belief, which is laterMesopotamian mythology, religion andAstrologyThe source of.
Eagle pendant with golden lion head and lapis lazuli wings
Sumer's main god is the god of heavenAnu Anu's most important partner isEnki in the south, Enlil in the northAnd the god of VenusIshtar。HelioscallUtu, the moon godcallNana, motherDivine cryNarm-mu In addition, there are hundreds of little gods.Each god is connected to a city.The importance of these gods also changed with the political rise and fall of these cities.Man is made of clay by God, whose purpose is to serve God。If God is angry, they use earthquakes or storms to punish people.Sumerians believe that people can only survive under the mercy of God.
Restoration of Temple Built by Sumerians
Sumerians believe that the ground is a flat plate and the sky is a zinc cover.They believed that after death, people would become ghosts and wander restlessly in the underworld forever.
The temple in Sumer consists of a central hall, with passages on both sides, and the outside of the passage is the place where the priests live.On one side of the hall, there is a high platform, on which there is a mud brick table dedicated to animals and vegetable victims.Granaries and warehouses are generally located near temples.Later, Sumerians began to build temples on square platforms.These platforms have been continuously improved, formingPagoda temple。
Architecture
The two river plains are short of stone mines and trees, so Sumer's buildings are all made of mud bricks, and there is no gap between bricksMortarOr cement connection.Mud brick buildings will be destroyed over time, so they will have to be demolished, leveled and rebuilt after a period of time.As time goes on, the cities on the two river plain have been rising.Such historic sites are calledTell （Tell）。stayMiddle EastSuch historic sites can be seen everywhere.The most spectacular and famous Sumerian architecture is the pagoda temple, which is built on a huge platform.BiblicalBabel TowerIt may also be a similar building.Sumer's round seal is also similar to the reed house used by the marsh Arabs in southern Iraq until recently.
Sumer's temples and palaces use more complex structures and techniques such asPillar and chamberandClay nailEtc.
calendar
exceptwheelIn addition, Sumerians also inventedLunar calendarThis is also one of the most important inventions in the early human history.Is likeMesopotamiaIn such a harsh climate, it is essential to know that sowing and harvesting are on time, so it is necessary to find a certain time schedule to determine a reliable way to go round and round.The simplest way to do this is to use the moon's profit and loss cycle.Since the moonCrescent moonIt will take 29 and a half days to reach the next initial crescent moon, so people can consider this cycle as a basic time unit (we call it a month). After the moon has run 12 such time units (6 are 29 days, 6 are 30 days), a "year" has passed, and it is time to start sowing.Unfortunately, they don't know that the earth actually goes around the sun in a yearrevolutionIn a week, the moon's 12 cycles or 12 months are 11 days less than a sun.Nine hundred years later, Sumer learned that every few years they had to add another leap month to their calendar to accurately predict the seasonal cycle.
measure
The earliest division of 12 units and 60 units came from the Sumerians in Mesopotamia between the Euphrates and Tigris between 4000 and 2000 BC.
The current timekeeping method in the world is 60 minutes an hour, 24 hours a day, and the clock has a scale of 12 hoursUnit of measurementThe "fight" is all at 60BaseThe use of base 60 was also inherited from the Sumerians through the Babylonians.
Sumerians created the first high civilization of mankind.Invented wheel and cuneiform characters, and divided the whole into 12 units (12 months a year, the concept of "a dozen") and 60 units of measurement system (minute hand) lengthUnit 1Feet equals 12 inches,weightA pound is 12 ounces, a shilling is 12 pence, even in football matchesPenalty kickIt is also 12 yards long.DecimalSource: It is said that ten fingers plus two feet.This was stipulated in the past, but now there are 10 for every dozen.It is specified that a dozen 12 are a 12 base system.
SwedenIn history, a visionary king said that from the perspective of daily application, the decimal ratiodecimal systemMore convenient.He had imagined that the decimal system would be replaced by the decimal system within his jurisdiction.
ArchaicAstrometryThe activity promotedgeometryIn this process, they often need to divide the angle equally,Bisection, trisection, quartering... Of course, they should first solve the problem of small number of bisections, starting from two, three, four, five... If 60 is used, 60 is 2, 3, 4, 5, 6Common divisor, you can divide these angles equally, but if you use 100 base, you can't divide them into three and six equal parts.The reason why the ancients set the angle as 60 system is simple. For the convenience of measurement and drawing, they can make a measuring ruler to divide the angle into many equal parts according to the reading.
The corresponding dozen - 12 units of measurement are the same reason - can be divided equally, no matter 2, 3 or 4.Compared with decimal system and decimal system, decimal system is better than decimal system, which needs to be equally divided into 2, 3, 4 and 6, rather than 2 and 5, so decimal system is adopted.
education
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History of education
Sumer OfSchoolingThe earliest can be traced back to 3000 BC.The oldest existingMudboard instrumentUnearthed in ancient Sumer cityUrukThese clay tablets are the early stage of writingPictorial textIt is mainly economic and management literature, but it also contains some word lists for students to learn and practice.This shows that in the third millennium BC, the scribes were already considering school education and teaching.In the following centuries, school education did not develop significantly.By the middle of the third millennium BC, a large number of schools had appeared in Sumer.In 1902-1903, during the archaeological excavation of the ancient city Shurupak, a large number of "textbooks" were unearthed.In the late third millennium BC, school education began to mature and develop.During this period, there were thousands of clay tablets, most of which wereadministrative managementLiterature covers all aspects of Sumerian economic life.Based on this, we can infer that the number of scribes in this period has increased significantly than before, and there are low-level and high-level scribes, royal and temple scribes, and those who specialize in a certain management behaviorscribeThe scribes became an important class in the government.The scribe school, which played an important role, prospered on the whole land.
Educational purpose
adoptarchaeologistThe investigation of school ruins found that there are three main types of schools in Sumer: one is schools near the royal palace, which may be set up by the court or government agencies;The second is the school near the temple, which may be set up by the temple;The third type is the school near the scribe residential area, which may be a private school.The purpose and purpose of Sumerian school education is to train scribes for the royal family and the temple to meet the needs of land management and economy. It has always run through the whole process of Sumerian school.With the development and expansion of the school, especially the continuous expansion of the scope of curriculum, the school has gradually become an academic center, a center of Sumerian culture and research knowledge.In Sumer School, a large number of scholars scientists have emerged, who mainly study theology, botany, zoologymineralogyGeography, arithmetic, linguistics, etc.Sumerian schools also have a remarkable feature and function that modern schools do not have, that is, they areLiterary creationCenter of.In Sumer School, old literary works are copied and studied, and new literary works are created.It is certain that a large number of students will become clerks of the royal family or the temple after graduation from school, but many people will stay in school and devote their lives to teaching and research.
Student origin
Sumerian education is neitherEducation for AllNeithercompulsory education。In principle, students can come from all walks of life, but in fact most of them come from some wealthy families, because poor children can't afford tuition and lack a lot of time for education.Because of the complexity of Sumerian, students need a long time to learn this language.There is a proverb to the effect that if you want to be a scribe, you must rise with the sun every day.Thousands of economic and management documents in the 2000s BCironing boardAbout 500 people described themselves as scribes and wrote their father's name and occupation.In 1946, a GermanCuneiformThe scientists compiled a list based on these materials and found that the fathers of these scribes (school graduates) were mostly government officials, mayors, ambassadors, temple administrators, military officialslieutenantSenior tax officials, various priests, managers, supervisors, foremen, scribesArchivist, accountants, etc.In short, the fathers of these scribes were all rich people in the city.There is no mention of a female scribe in these documents. It is very likely that only male students are accepted in Sumer's schools.
Faculty
The Sumerian school is called "Eduba", which originally means "mud board house".The president of the school is called "expert", "professor", and also called "the father of the school".Similarly, students are called "sons of school".The assistant of "Professor" is called "Senior Brother". His duty is to write new tablets for students to copy and check students' copy.According to a mud board recording students' school life, there are also teachers who teach painting, Sumerian, and students' attendanceStudent CodeTo maintain studentsClassroom orderThe staff who manage students' access to the school and so on.We do not know the position level of these teaching staff, nor do we know the source of their salaries, probably from the tuition fees charged by the "father of the school" to students.
Curriculum
The curriculum of Sumerian school education can be generally divided intoBasic courses(i.e. language course), professional technology course and literature creation course.Language course is the most basic course. It mainly teaches Sumerian, which is divided into vocabulary and grammar.In order to facilitate students' memory and copying, teachers in the school classify related words and phrases linguistically.In the third millennium BC, these "language textbooks" became more and more complete, forming a fixed model, and became the universal textbooks for schools in Sumer.In these textbooks, there are word lists about various plants and seeds, various animals (includinginsectandbirds）Word lists of countries, cities and towns, variousgemstoneAnd minerals.In addition, many clay tablets are engraved withcompound nounTable and verb change table, which shows that Sumerian grammar is becoming more and more perfect.
In terms of professional technology, students should not only learn the knowledge of computing (algebra) and surveying land (geometry), but also subject knowledge, such as biology, geography, astronomy, medicine, etc.In addition, students should learn how to organizechoirHow to forge silver and jewelry, how to distribute food rations, how to use variousMusic equipmentAnd other skills.
The course of literary creation includes two aspects: first, copying, imitating and studying past literary works;Second, new literary creation.The works for students to copy and imitate are mainly literary works in the second half of the third millennium BC.There are hundreds of these ancient works, all written in the form of poetry, ranging in length from a few lines to hundreds of lines.So far, SumerAncient literatureWorks mainly include the following categories: myths and epics used to celebrate the glorious achievements of gods and heroes, such as《The Epic of Gilgamesh 》、《Creation epic》；Hymns to God and the King, andlove poem, prayer words, such as the hymn of Shamash;Elegy lamenting the demise of Sumerian cities, such as "Elegy of the Fall of Ur";Didactic literature, such as "Poems on the righteous suffering";Wisdom literature, including fables and maxims.The mud board and mud board fragments of thousands of literary works excavated from Sumer, of which a large part are immature works of students in ancient Sumer schools, which also suggests to us that ancient Sumer schools are the center of literary creation.
The school curriculum is boring, and the learning time is particularly long.From sunrise to sunset, students stay in school all day to study.In a year's school life, students should have some holidays, but there is no clay board to record this situation.Students spend many years learning cuneiform characters, from youth to youth.Faced with the boring school life, students often play truant.A mud board recording students' school life records a dialogue between father and son:
——- "Where did you play truant?"
——- "I didn't go anywhere."
——- "If you haven't gone anywhere, why are you wandering around? Go to school, stand in front of your teacher and carry your homework. Open your schoolbag and let your 'eldest brother' tell you new knowledge. After you finish your homework report, come back to me. Don't wander around the street. Hey, do you understand?" After the nagging, the father began to scold his son sharply,He said that he was "deliberately against" and was tired of the young man's complaining nature."Your complaints have killed me. You are boring me.".
teaching method
Usually, after students arrive at school, they first review the mud board materials they learned the previous day, and then the "Big Brother" prepares a new mud board material, and students copy and study according to it.Finally, "Big Brother" and "Father of the School" checked whether the students' carbon tablets were wrong.At the same time, teachers and "Big Brother" will also make some academic reports to increase students' knowledge.Sumer's teaching is notprogressive educationAny characteristic of.The school's teaching discipline is very strict. Although teachers will also encourage and praise students to study hard, they mainly use corporal punishment to make students correct their mistakes. There are countless examples.A mud board recording students' school life records a student's corporal punishment in a day.
"After reading my mud board, my headmaster said, 'There are a few characters missing here,' and he whipped me with a cane. The person in charge of cleaning said, 'You are wandering in the street, and you have not tidied up your clothes,' and he whipped me with a cane. The person in charge of classroom quietness said, 'Why do you speak without permission,' and he whipped me with a cane.The person in charge of the student rally said, 'Why did you stand up without permission?' He whipped me with a cane.The person in charge of students entering and leaving the school said, 'Why did you leave the school without permission?' He whipped me with a cane.The teacher who taught Sumerian said, 'Why don't you speak Sumerian?' He whipped me with a cane.My teacher said, 'Your homework is not satisfactory,' and beat me with a cane. 'Corporal punishment in school is very severe, but students also have ways to divert teachers' anger.A graduate recalled that in order to win the favor of one of the teachers, he asked his father to invite the teacher to come home, so as to soften him with delicious food and "a little extra respect (money)".It seems that flattery has worked.When the teacher left that night, he praised the student for his hard work and hoped that he would become a model for other students.
limitations
The ancient Sumer school promotedSumerianThe development of Sumerian literature has played an important role in promoting and disseminating Sumerian culture, but it also inevitably has limitations.This is mainly reflected in: First, Sumer School is basicallyAristocratic schoolStudents generally come from wealthy aristocratic families. Children from poor families have neither long-term free time to study nor money to pay teachers' salaries themselves;Second, Sumer School is basically a boys' school.
Economics
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Agriculture
The plants planted by Sumerians include barleyChickpea、Lentil、MilletSeeds, wheat, turnipDates, onion, garlic, bitter cauliflowerLeekAnd horseradish, theirlivestockIncluding cattlesheep、goatAnd pigs.Domestic cattleIt is their main negative livestock, and donkeys are their main transport livestock.Sumerians also fish and hunt birds.
Sumer agriculture relies on hugeirrigation system。Its irrigation system includesshadouf, canals, canals, dikes, weirs and reservoirs.Canals and canals must always be repaired to remove silt.The government has people who manage canals and canals, and the rich can use their own canals.
Farmers use canals to flood their land and then drain the water away.Then they use cattle to trample on farmland and kill grass.Then they usePickaxeTo dig the ground.When the land is dry, they hoe, rake and loosen the soil with shovels.
Sumerians harvest in autumn. When harvesting, they form a team of three.After harvest, stone grinding is used to separate grain and stem, rice paddling stick is used to separate grain and bran, and wind is used to separate grain and bran.
Trade
Archaeological findings fromturkeyAnatoliaOfObsidian, from northeastern Afghanistanlapis lazuli, beads from Dilmont (Bahrain), and some engravedIndus CivilizationThe seal of the characters of the Persian Gulf indicates that there was a wide trade network along the Persian Gulf at that time.
GilgameshepicIt mentioned trade with distant countries in exchange for rare goods such as wood in Mesopotamia.especiallyLebanonOfcedarWood was well received.
Sumerians used slaves, but slaves were not the mainstay of Sumerian economy.Female slaves were used as weavers, printers, millers and porters.
Sumer's ceramics have patterns of cedar oil painting, and they useBow drill ignitionCome and bake the ceramics.Sumerians areStonemasonandJeweler。Able to processAlabaster（calcite）, ivory, gold, silveragateStone andlapis lazuli。
military
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Sumerian helmet
Sumerians use the city wall to protect their city, but their city wall is made of mud bricks. Therefore, if the enemy has enough time, they can dig the wall during the siege to cause the collapse of the city wall.
Sumer's army was mainly composed of infantry.Light infantryTheir weapons are axes, daggers and spears.Regular infantry are also equipped with bronze helmets, felt cloaks and leather skirts.
In Sumerian armyWild donkeyPull the car.These early chariots are not very useful in combat. Some people think they are mainly used asMeans of transport, but the soldier's pendant aboveOMAHAWKandSpear。The Sumerian chariot had four wheels and two soldiers on it, pulled by four wild donkeys.The car body is a woven basket, and the wheels are solid.
The remote weapons used by Sumerians includesling And simplearch。
heritage
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Sumer stone carving
Many inventions of Sumerians were very important to the later development of technology and culture.Some people think they invented the wheel.They inventedwritten wordsIt is the earliest known writing system.They were the first to record astronomical phenomena.Sumerians divide a year into 12 months, 354 days in total, according to the profit and loss of the moon. At the same time, leap months are set to adjust the difference between the lunar calendar and the Gregorian calendar.By the 7th century BC, the system of seven days and one week was formed. They also introduced a timing system that divided hours into 60 minutes and 60 seconds per minute.It is possible that they invented the military array.They introduced intensive agriculture in ancient Mesopotamia.Many important crops andlivestock(Sheep, cattle) expand from here.Therefore, Sumerians are the most creative and inventive human culture in the early period.
