synonymSu Mei(Ancient civilization) generally refers to Sumerian civilization
Sumer Civilization refers toSumerian language The civilization with literature as its main symbol, the ancient place name Sumer, located in today'sIraqsoutheastEuphrates RiverandTigris RiverDownstream.Sumer is also the earliest center of civilization that is now unanimously recognized.(It was generally agreed that the cradle of civilization wasThe Nile Valley OfEgyptian civilization）。In the Old Testament, Sumer is called the "Shinah State".
Sumerian civilization, which has been recorded for more than 3000 yearsMesopotamiaCivilization of the Two River ValleyBased on language, it can be roughly divided into two stages.One is about 3200 BCUrukⅣ toBabylon, CubaThe history before the establishment of the empire (18th century BC) can be called "Sumerian civilization".Second, from ancient timesBabylonThe foundation of the empirePersian Empire The history of the fall of the Babylonian Assyrian civilization (4th century BC) can be called "Babylonian Assyrian civilization".
Sumerians were the first to enterMesopotamian PlainOfAncient nationone of.The name "Sumer" derives from the pronunciation of the Akkadian people later.In the description on the stone tablet, Sumerians call themselves "blackheads".
1922-1934, EnglandarchaeologistWoolley Led an archaeological team to investigate the core settlements of Sumerian civilization in southern MesopotamiaUrThe large-scale excavation of 12 quarters revealed that the site has gradually become the most prosperous civilized city in the world from a small village 7000 years ago, and was finally abandoned around the first year of the A.DPanorama。
Sumerians may be active inIranian PlateauAnd Mesopotamian plains（Tigris RiverandEuphrates RiverBecause the earliest Sumerian buildings unearthed were built according to the principle of wood structure, and wood structure buildings are usually only widely used in the densely wooded mountain areas. However, this is contrary to Sumerian myths and legends.
Another opposite possibility is to go from the rough sea to the place where the river flows into the sea.It can be found in Shuber Yade'sFunerary goodsAmong them, there is only one gold and silver boat model, each about 0.6 meters long, which can only sail on the Euphrates River.
Some researchers believe that:AfghanistanMountain toIndus RiverAmong the residents of the valley, look for the traces of Sumerians. This area is aboutMesopotamian PlainWithin a radius of nearly 2500 kilometers to the east.This hypothesis seems to have been quickly proved by archaeologists, because a highly developedHistorical Cultural Site, whichunearthed relicAmong them, there are several rectangular seals, which look the same asUrThose excavated from the ruins of the ancient city are very similar.
In any case, an inexplicable problem is:remote dateIs it possible for an ancient nation or country to migrate to a place more than two thousand kilometers away, without leaving a clue in the national myth or a record in the cultural classics.However, the question of where the Sumerians came from has never been answered.
According to the Global History, where did Sumerians come fromAfricaOrigin theory[1](It is the migration of people from Africa to other regions). It can be roughly inferred that Sumerians may be migrants from Africa, which is one of the statements.However, with the use of the carbon element detection method in 1955 (through the detection of the carbon content of ancient bones, we can roughly infer that it is the approximate age of their survival), there is another way of saying that“Multi geographical origin theory”，[2]Because inMiddle EastIn the region (namely Mesopotamia Plain), there are more discoveries than in AfricaApesThe earlier existence has its own reasons.However, whether it is the African origin theory or the multi geographical origin theory, although it is impossible to determine the true historical origin of Sumerians, what can be seen here is the contribution of the crescent belt of Mesopotamia Plain to human development.
Civilization evolution
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Mesopotamian civilization(Also calledTwo riversValley civilization) is the general name of the ancient Greeks for the civilization created by Sumerians, that is, in the two rivers——Tigris RiverandEuphrates RiverFertileMesopotamian PlainThe ancient civilization developed on thewest AsiaMiddle EastThe Sumerians are the earliest civilization in the region, and the Sumerians are the great founders of this civilization. His name comes from the pronunciation of the later Akkadians. They are neither a branch of Indo Europeans nor a branch of Semites, and their origin may be somewhere in the more ancient East.
In 3500 BC, the SumeriansMesopotamiaTrenching in the south depends on complexIrrigation network, successfully using the fast flowing waters of the Tigris River and the Euphrates River to improveProduction technologyThe agricultural commune in the arid wasteland under cultivation has successfully completed the reconstructionStone AgeThe transition from tribal culture to civilization created the first generation of civilization in southern Mesopotamia.[3]
By 3000 BC,Sumer There have been 12 independentcity stateAt this time, Sumer was a city (city-state) civilization.
In 2900 BC, Sumer fell into a period of "hegemony among all powers", and the larger cities areElidu、Kish、Lagash 、Uruk、UrandNippur。These citieswater right, trade routes andnomadic peopleFor nearly a thousand years, they have been fighting with each other for paying tribute.Due to the lack of archaeological data, the known history of Sumer is probably just the tip of the iceberg.
Around 2500 BC, Lagesh became stronger.During the reign of King Ulnansh, Lagesh dominated Sumer.When King Anayem and King Etimena arrived, Lagesh conquered many places, and Sumer had a trend of unification.Later, King Lugar Anda caused a riot because of his poor governanceUrukakinaThe people ofHuman historyThe first attempt to defend the interests of civiliansPolitical reformExercise.
At the time of the civil strife in Lagesh, the countries in Sumer broke out large-scale warsLugar ZaksiConquer Lagesh, kill Urukakina, occupy Uruk (as the capital), and kill the whole city.Lugar Zaksi claimed that his empirePersian GulfIt extends tomediterranean sea。
Urukakina had been in power for only six years, and his reform was therefore abandoned.Of this periodLagash It is called the first dynasty of Lagesh.
Later, the famous leader of the Semitic PeopleSargon (meaning the real king) defeated Lugar Zaksi, captured him, and established a new empire——Akkad Kingdom The history of Sumerian city-state ended.
Akkadian Empire The establishment of the Sumerian civilization marked the transition from a city-state to a unified kingdom.But his life span was short, only 280 years, and Sargon III (the grandson of Sargon) was fromIranThe Sumerian city states reappeared one by one.Until the rise of Ur city-state, once again unified the city-state and established a pure Sumerian empire (historically known asUr Third Dynasty）。The empire lasted for nearly a century from 2113 BC to 2006 BC.
Encyclopedia x ignorance: illustrating Sumerian civilization
Culture
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Sumerian civilization is one of the most creative and inventive human cultures in the early period.
So how did the tribal civilization transform into a civilization and exist on the Mesopotamian plain?As early as in the upper reaches of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, people have learned to domesticate animals (in theNeolithic AgeTo reflect), thus completing theAgricultural revolution。Then people began their second great adventure, moving from the mountains toLarge river basinAnd gradually develop a newproductivityHigherIrrigated agricultureAnd newsocial system。The interaction of new agricultural production technology and new social system has caused a new chain reaction, and finally led to the emergence of civilization.[3]
Urban civilization
Sumerian civilization is a civilization of city (city-state), which is the first nation to establish cities in the world history.As early as 4300-3500 BC, SumeriansTwo river basinMany cities have been established on the internal plain, such as ObeidElidu, Ur, Uruk, Jamdite Nase, etc.The establishment of the city marks the southern region of the Lianghe River BasinGentile systemAnd the transition to civilization.From 3500 BC to 3100 BC, the development process of the two river basins from rural areas to cities was further accelerated. By 3100 BC to 2800 BC, tens of city states (i.e., urban countries with common blood and region) had been formed in the south of the two river basins, mainly including Elidu, Ur, Uruk, Rajash, Uma, SulupakNippur, Kish, Sipal, etc.
written words
Cuneiform
An important feature of Sumerian civilization is the invention and use of characters.
archaeologistA stone slab carved with pictorial symbols and linear symbols dating from about 3500 BC was found on the Ohemir mound near Kish.This is the earliest text found so far in the southern part of the Lianghe River Basin.
Comparison of cuneiform characters and other characters
The materials for writing in the two river basins are semi dry clayironing board, pen is made of reed rod (or bone stick, wood stick), cut intotriangleThe sharp end is used to carve and press on the semi dry mud board, and the handwriting left is naturally wedge-shaped, so it is calledCuneiform（cuneiform）。The written mud board is dried orBurn dry, long-term storage.The cuneiform script created by Sumerians was laterBabyloniansAssyrians inherited it and spread it to the whole of West Asia with the expansion of commercial and cultural exchanges.
Cuneiform characters were first spread in West Asia andSouthwest Asia。stayBabylonDuring the rule of the Assyrians, cuneiform characters had greater development, vocabulary was more expanded and complete, and calligraphy was more exquisite and beautiful.With the spread of culture, other ethnic groups in the two river basin also adopted this language.
Around 1500 BC, the cuneiform script invented by the Sumerians had become a common script system for national exchanges at that time, and even letters or treaties between Egypt and countries in the two river basins were also written in cuneiform script.
The wheel was invented inSumerian eraAt the beginning (around 3200 BC).In 3000 BC, the axle was already installed on the trolley, and the wheels were not directly connected with the body.Sumerians may be affected byPottery wheelThe inspiration of "The World of Warcraft" came to this thought suddenly, because the Iranian wheel had been used in pottery industry as early as 4000 BC, and was introduced into Sumer from Iran about 500 years later.
Sumerian solar calendar
Sumerians make a month out of months.The year will be divided into 12 months, of which 6 months are 30 days each and the other 6 months are 29 days each. There are 354 days in the whole year.In this way, the time for the earth to circle the sun every year is 11 days less than the time for the earth to circle the sun, so they created the method of setting leap years.This is it.Solar calendar。
They also introduced the idea of dividing hours into60 minutes, a timing system of 60 seconds per minute.
Sumerians' use of numbers can be said to have reached an unsurpassed level: a piece found near the pyramidClay tabletA calculation problem of multiplying two numbers is listed. If the final product isArabic numeralsThe result is a 15 digit number 195955200000000, which is the mathematics that Sumerians have reached 6000 years agoKnowledge level。
However, the Greeks around 500 BC still believed that the five digit number 10000 was simply a "too big to calculate", and those who exceeded 10000 were called“Infinity”。Multibit numberFor Europeans, it was not until 1600 A.D. that mathematicians and philosophers such as Descartes and Leibniz first used the word for calculation. In the concept of ordinary people in the West, it was only after the 19th century that people began to understand the number of people, so that the name millionaire became synonymous with the largest millionaire with countless wealth.
Art
Sumerians also reached a high level in architecture in ancient times. The main architectural relics arePagoda temple。
Because there is no hugeGraniteThe Sumerians built pagodas and temples with bricks.Sumerians are used to building new temples on the original site of the old temple. Because of the continuation of the construction in the past dynasties, the foundation of the temple has become a multi-storey tower shaped platform with a shrine at the top.suchHigh rise building, called "Ziggurat".
Sumeriansplastic artsIn the early period, small sculptures andMosaic artMainly.Unearthed masks, group sculptures of priestsBull's head（Oxhead Harp）, "Ur Army Banner", etc., can be called a model at that time.Later, Sumerians preferred larger statues and reliefs（Naramsin Stone Tablet）。
The Sumerians' religious development is not high, but religion plays an important role in their life.They worship many natural gods, such as God of Heaven (Anu) and God of Earth（Enlil ）, Water God (Nuen)Helios(Shamash), Moon God (Xin), Goddess（Ishtar）Etc.
Sumerian religionThere is one noteworthy feature:It does not advocate the blissful and eternal afterlife, but rather the survival of the present world.
Because religion played an important role in Sumer, priests played an important role in the society at that time.Priests and administrators (the two words often have the same meaning) need to learn cuneiform characters. Therefore, there are schools attached to the temple area to teach cuneiform characters and other knowledge required for the priestly level. These schools in Sumer are the earliest known schools in the history of human civilization.
According to the records on the clay tablets, the pyramids are all used for sacrifice. Because their gods always live high on the top of the holy mountain, they need to pray at the top of the pyramid to make people close to the palace of the gods and make it easy for the gods to accept people's worship.The influence of this way of worship on the Mesopotamian plain has expanded rapidly and remained for thousands of yearsKingdom of BabylonreachAssyria Kingdom, from Babylon toNinevehSuch stepped pyramids can be seen everywhere, even in the BibleBabel TowerIts shape is also ladder shaped. If it can be built, it will also be a small pyramid.
Therefore, many amazing miracles are also related to the Sumerian pyramids.In the ancient books and patterns left by Sumerians, the images of Sumerian gods recorded are all related to the stars in the sky. None of these gods has a human shape. Each god represents a star. Each star is surrounded by many different planets, large and smallAstrologyThe map is almost the same as that mapped by modern people.
Agriculture
Sumerian civilization itself depends on irrigationagricultural technologyThe emergence and continuous development of the
In 3000 BC, the plow was widely used in the whole Mesopotamian plain, and was introduced to India.
At that time, wind was also well usedHorizontal sailProsperity emerges (in the Persian Gulf andthe NileIt is the first time that human beings have successfully used artificial power as power.[4]
Modern wheatoats、RyeAnd barley, and moderngoat、sheep, cattle and pigs are all fromMiddle EastRegion.In 1300 BC, wheat and barley were introduced into China from the Middle East.[5]
Alchemy
MetallurgyAt this time, it was gradually mastered. It was a great progress from the repeated hammering and grinding of cold processing to the subsequent heat treatment.The earliest refined metal is copper, which can be heat treated and shaped into various containers or models, and can be made sharper than stone tools.
In 3000 BC, it was widely known that adding other metals to copper can smelt more durable alloys, and adding tin to copper has the best effect. The resulting bronze is better than stone tools to make weapons.[6]
military
According to the existing historical data and archaeological remains, it is speculated that the earliest military array may have come from here.
Sumerian Food Culture
The civilization of the ancient two river basin lasted more than 3000 years, which can be roughly divided into Sumerian civilization and Babylonian Assyrian civilizationTwo stages, the former withSumerian language Literature is the main mark, and the latter is marked byAkkadianLiterature is the main symbol.
With the establishment of the first dynasty of Babylon in the 18th century BC, Sumerian civilization finally died out.The Sumerians established the earliest urban country in mankindcultural educationHas made brilliant achievements in such fields asDietetic cultureIt is possible.
The Uruk period andEarly Dynastycome down in one continuous line
As early as the Neolithic Age, the ancestors of the two river basins had begun to plant grains, breed animals, and master simple food processing technology.Archaeologists in northern Syria found a small scale in the early Neolithic Age, about 9000 BCmammalandfishAnd charred and carbonized seeds, including barleyemmer wheat、Fig, linenBroad bean、ChickpeaEtc.The stone mill, bones and other remains in the stone bowl, and the collapse pit of baked food found in archaeology are all evidence of these animals and plants as food.In about 3500 BC, Sumerians came to the south of the Lianghe River BasinForeign nationalityThere is still debate about its origin in the academic circle, but the diet in the north and south of the two river basins should affect each other.When Sumerians came to the south of the Lianghe River Basin, they enriched the local areadietary structureThe food processing method has been improved, which is mainly reflected in the materials offered for the temple and the royal family'sThe funerary objectsOn.
The Uruk civilization is the first highly developed civilization created by the SumeriansarchaeologyThe definition can be divided into two stages, namely, the late Uruk period (about 3200-3000 BC) and the Jamdite Naser period (about 3000-2900 BC).1912, GermanyOriental SocietyThe excavation of the Uruk site (located in today'sIraqWalka area), the unearthed utensils related to diet include inclined bowls, Uruk gypsum bottlescylinder seal And a large number of primitive literature.The bowl is used to distribute rations to the workers who built the templemeasure, basically the same size, with uniform specifications.Uruk gypsum bottle depicts people as the goddess Iannato sacrificeThe scene: The donors are arranged in order, each holding a container of different shapes, which contains various foods. The main distinguishable items are drinks and fruits;The offeror is followed by flocks of cattle and sheep to offer sacrificeslivestock；Some cylinder seals are carved with figures, animals and plants, which can be identified as grains, cattle, sheep and ducks.From 1925 to 1926, American archaeologists excavated the Jem Diet Nase site, and also found burnt grains, mud axes, mud sickles and pottery.
In social, political andeconomic developmentOn the one hand, the Uruk period and the early dynasty came down in one continuous line, without obviouswatershed。From 1922 to 1934, the British archaeologist Sir Leonard Woolley presided over the excavation of Ur City and cleaned up more than 100 royal tombs, most of which belonged to the late Early Dynasty (about 2600-2500 BC). One of the royal tombs unearthed a mosaic, the "Ur Army Flag", which depicts the scene of feasting and offering livestock.A large number of sheep, cattle, fish, pigs and a small amount ofGazelle、birdsBones, teeth or horns, and containers made of gold, silver, copper or stone.stayqueenDrinking water was also found in Puabi's tombBeerGold straw and silverWine makingCans.In addition, some private tombs also found the bones of accompanying animals.In addition, in the dictionaries (tables that put similar concepts together), proverbs and other documents of the early dynastybread, fish, meat, beer, soup, vegetables and fruits.In the drum seals of the early dynasties, the common theme is the banquet scene,MosaicMost of the stone carvings depict scenes of sacrificing livestock and tribute, while a few depict scenes of dairy processing.
The royal family and the temple monopolize the best food resources
The Akkad Empire was a unified kingdom established by the Sams, ending Sumer in the early dynastycity-stateThe hegemony situation ofofficial languageAkkadian, but deeply influenced by Sumerian culture.The literature at this time recorded the situation of a large number of food rations, and also mentioned thatAnimal HusbandryAnd fishing.Hunting and bird hunting were also auxiliary means for human survival at that time, which often appeared in the design of roller seals.The history of the Guti Dynasty is called the "Dark Age", leaving little historical data. It is difficult for us to understand the food situation at that time.Since then, the Sumerians have recapturedcontrol power, established the Third Dynasty of Ur.The Ur Third Dynasty is the first unified centralized country established by Sumerians, also known as the "New Sumerian Period". It has experienced five kings, namely Urnamu, Shuleji, Amarsin, Shuxin and Ibizin, for 108 years in total.A large number of economic and administrative documents in this period are the main materials for studying the diet structure of Sumerians.Among them, the royal tribute allocation center unearthed more than 10000 clay plate files, mainly reflecting the diet of the upper class.
In the 38th year of his rule, the second king Shuleji established the royal tribute allocation center (located in today's Iraq's Draheim), which is mainly responsible for receiving and managing gifts, temple sacrifices, taxes and spoils (mainly livestock) contributed to the royal family from all over the country, and sacrificial activities in the temple, daily expenses of the royal familypublic functions involving foreignersThe salaries of soldiers and officials shall be redistributed according to the corresponding regulations.There are three levels of livestock tribute: fattened cattle and sheep or lambs with fresh meat are the highest level, which are usually sacrificed to the temple for royal family members and foreign envoys to enjoy;There is no fattened or poor quality livestock for messengers, court servants, bodyguards and soldiers to eat;The dead livestock is the lowest grade and sent to the warehouse for reprocessingjerky, meat tendon and meat skinHandicrafts, and some wereHellocaptivelionOr dogs.In addition, some are raised in captivity for royal entertainmentwild animal, such as bear, lionWild donkey, gazelle, etc., occasionally eaten as game.Other tribute materials, such as barley, flour, oil, dairy products and spices, are also divided into different grades and distributed according to the official level and actual use.
Through the archives of the Tribute Center, we can have a glimpse of the timeRuling classOf luxury life.In the Third Dynasty of Ur, there was a kind of drinking banquet, and the participants would receive valuable gifts.The list of gifts received by King Shuleji and his concubines is particularly striking. Among them, food related items include various wine cups, wine vessels and other containers made of red gold, gold and silver, as well as refined butter in varying quantities.These tableware and drinking utensils made of precious metals are abundant in the gift list, reflecting the ruling class's pursuit of high-quality food.Some lists of ingredients sent into the palace can also reflect the ruling class's taste for food. For example, some lists record roast cattle, pigspoultryAnd birdsreedBales, SuspectedThe fruit cakeThe formula of includes "1 literbutter, 1/3 liter whitecheese, 3 liters first classDates, 1/3 literRaisins”。This kind of cake is usually consecrated to the palace or temple, and will not appear in the diet of ordinary people.
In a word, from the archives of the tribute center, the royal family and the temple monopolized the best food resources, followed by government officials at all levels, the court and the templeservice personal, soldiers, etc., enjoy different levels of dietary treatment according to their positions.
Food distribution according to type of work and gender
Different from the royal tribute center archivesUnearthed literatureThe daily food rations of the workers are recorded in detail.During his tenure, the highest officer of Karshana built many projects. Many mud board files unearthed here recorded the food and clothing ration of workers. The type and quantity of rations were related to the type of work, source, specific work and gender of workers.The wages of workers are 3-8 liters of barley per day, 6 liters for ordinary male workers and 3 liters for ordinary female workers. The wages of transport workers are higher than those of other types of work, and the wages of local workers are higher than those of foreign workers.
In addition to paying barley, the foreman also distributed bread, beer, soup and other items that could be taken home to the workers.Slaves can receive food such as (barley) flourSesame oil、lard、Bran、muttonThe soup they drank was mixed with ground flour, dried sesame bran, mutton, salt and spices.Construction workers received more shares than slaves, and increased sheep meatDried fish, ducksdoveAnd a kind ofMarshlandOfVoleConstruction workers will also receive bread and beer during the construction break.Some foremen sometimes receive dates, wet sesame bran, etc.The food ration of workers is not always the same. There will be slight adjustments in different months and at different stages of construction, but generally there will be bread, soup and beer.At the festival celebration and the completion of the project, a grand banquet will be held, and all workers will get some food.
There are also records about kitchens in the literature of Kaersana. Kitchens usually appear together with wineries and mills, which may be set together or form a food processing unit.In the kitchen, there is a leader with the title of "chef". He should be the head chef or supervisor, who is responsible for receiving and counting the reeds sent into the kitchen（Firewood）, flour, meat, oil, spices, and several workers in charge of the overall operation of the kitchen.
The Kaersana area isSumerianismOne of the research hotspots, the literature in this area is very special, to some extentRepresentativenessIt provides a reference for understanding the living and eating conditions of ordinary people, especially the employed workers, in the New Sumerian period.The literature of Karshana is not an exception. Other provinces of the Third Dynasty of Ur, such asUmma In Jiersu and other regions, unearthed documents also recorded the construction of kitchens, suggesting the connection between chefs and kitchens, and between kitchens and wineries and mills.
Later literature supports Sumer diet
Babylon, CubaPeriod,Sumerian language No longer used in daily communication, but only aswritten languageIt is reserved in some campus documents and literary works.Some of these dictionaries and other Sumerian transcripts of literary works provide a supplement to the study of Sumerian diet.
The ancient Sumerian and neo Sumerian literature mainly reflected the diet of the upper class of society. In contrast, the Sumerian proverb transcripts in the early days of Babylon (the Ising Larsa period, about 1900 BC - 1800 BC) mentioned the hard life of the poor.For example, some literature wrote: "(or) let the poor die, (or) let them not live! They have no salt when they have bread, no bread when they have salt, and no seasoning when they have meat（mustard）There is no meat when there is condiment! ";"The poor must think about the next meal";"The poor start from drinking soup";"The poor are so low that they have to repay their debts with the food they have squeezed out of their mouths.".Another proverb compares the rich with the poor: "The rich eat..., and the poor eat a low-grade flour." Because the proverb has certain exaggeration and emotional color, it is inferior to the economy andadministrative managementClass files are reliable, so they can only be used as a reference for studying the diet of the bottom people.
In the dictionaries of the ancient Babylon period, the corresponding Akkadian language was often given after the Sumerian words. At this time, the bilingual dictionaries on food were very detailed, with more varieties and richness than those of the early dynasties.These include dictionaries specifically recording various vegetables and condiments, dictionaries recording soup, beer, flour and bread, and dictionaries recording honeyEdible oilA dictionary of milk, cheese and fruit.Each primaryProcessed foodThey are also divided into many categories according to raw materials or consumers, reflecting the diversity of Sumerian diet.
The Sumerian transcript of the ancient Babylon period, The Hymn of Ningkas, mainly praises Sumerian beergoddessNingkas recorded the brewing process of beer in detail: first, the dough was mixed with spices and then baked in the ovenmaltSoak till germination;Then the malt pulp is boiled and cooled;FinallywortPreparation and fermentation.After the beer is brewed, it can be filtered from the brewing tank to the storage tank, and then poured out for drinking, or directly drunk with a straw made of reeds or metal.
According to the archaeological andDocumentationWe can roughly understand the food source and diet structure of Sumerians.Due to the lack of recipes to record the cooking process, it is difficult for us to specifically investigate the Sumerian ingredientsprocessing methodAnd processing process, it is difficult to outline the Sumerian dietDiachronicChange.There is no doubt that the gap between the diet of the upper class and the ordinary people is obvious, but the diet of the lower class needs more materials to prove.Nevertheless, we can still say that the ancient Sumerians created a splendid diet culture and had an important impact on the subsequent history.[7]
