Frederick II (German: Friedrich II, January 24, 1712-August 17, 786), also translated as Friedrich II, later generations honored him as Frederick the GreatHohensorum DynastyThird place ofKing Of Prussia (from May 31, 1740 to August 17, 1786), a military strategist, politician, and writer.
Frederick II was once influenced by the bourgeois enlightenment movement when he was young, and had a conflict with his father. In 1730, he tried to escape to England. After the incident was revealed, he was imprisoned, and was released only after he gave in.He ascended the throne in 1740.He adhered to the principle of "power is justice"Silesian WarTo defeat Austria, almost the wholeSilesiatake forcible possession of.In the Seven Year War, it allied itself with Britain.By 1763《Treaty of Hubetusburg》It has preserved Silesia and established Prussia as a powerful country in Central Europe, forming the PuaoBinary systemThe situation of hegemony.Participated in 1772First Partition of Poland So that the territory of Prussia can be expanded and paralleled into one piece.Participated in 1778War of the Bavarian Succession In 1785, it united the monarchs of the northern and central German states to form an anti Austrian "Alliance of Marquis", which expanded the influence of Prussia.[27]In 1786, Frederick IIPotsdamWuyou Palace died at the age of 74.
Frederick II took an active part in national governance and carried out reforms.Economically, we should carry out the policy of valuing commerce, expand foreign trade and strictly levy taxes;Politically, everyone is equal before the law;Culturally, we should attach importance to cultural education and strengthen ideological control;In terms of military affairs, we have continued to engage in foreign wars and expand our territory.His military thought has a great impact on later GermanyMilitarismThe formation and development of.Under its iron hand rule, Prussia's national strength rose rapidly and became one of the European powers in a short time, laying the foundation for the unification and revival of Germany in the second half of the 19th century.[1][27]
Frederick II was born in Berlin on January 24, 1712.My father once laid a preliminary foundation for Prussia's military ruleFriedrich Wilhelm I 。Mother is King of Englandgeorge ii 's sisterSophie Dorothea。As a teenager, Frederick was alert, intelligent and full of musical talents. He was also influenced by French culture from his mother.The father, known as the "Soldier King", insisted on training him to be a soldier and tried his best to instill him with military and state management knowledge.However, a dignified father is difficult to control his stubborn son.The antagonism between father and son became increasingly acute. In August 1730, 18 year old Frederick tried to escape to England, but was captured by the guards when crossing the border, and then his father imprisoned him in Qusterling.Hans Herman von Carter, a fellow traveler and his best friend, was beheaded and forced to watch the execution.[18-19]For most of the following year Frederick was closely watched in Tristram.Although he has been released from prison, as a punishment, he received training in the actual administrative affairs of the government, including preaching and worship for four hours on Sundays.[18]
In August 1731, the father and son made concessions, and the contradiction was eased. Only then did they recount the feelings of flesh and blood and determine Frederick's right to inherit the throne.[19]
On March 10, 1732, under the pressure of his father, Frederick reluctantly andElizabeth Christinabe engaged.[20]Elizabeth isHabsburg FamilyA distant relative of.The two did not have children.Frederick basically separated from her and only appeared together on festivals.In April, Frederick was appointed a colonel of an infantry regiment and moved to Luping, the town northwest of Berlin, where the headquarters of the First Battalion was located.Here Frederick studied military affairs tirelessly.[20]
On June 10, 1733, Frederick married Elizabeth Christina.[20]
From 1736 to 1740, Frederick, as the crown prince, lived in Rhinsburg for four years in his favorite way.This period of life has had an important impact on his life path.During this period, he studied philosophy, history and literature with a strong thirst for knowledge, and wrote the book "Opposing Politicism", which was published in The Hague in 1739.[19]
In 1740, Frederick II ascended the throne. He put the army above everything else, and did not hesitate to support the army with all his industrial income.His military expenditure was 13 million taels, accounting for 4/5 of the national income.He adopted a new conscription system, which laid the foundation for the future compulsory military service.Frederick II's troops were well equipped, well-trained and disciplined.The soldiers are ashamed of their dereliction of duty and proud of their absolute obedience. They would rather die in battle than flee from the battlefield.Frederick II adapted the cavalry in order to adopt the tactics of quick battle and quick decision.The cavalry and artillery tactics he created were later widely adopted by various countries in the Napoleonic era.Frederick II was keen on studying strategy and tactics. He believed that the purpose of fighting was to destroy the other side's strength. He advocated that we should try our best to choose favorable fighters, concentrate superior forces, divide the enemy and defeat them one by one.Frederick II advocated "attack" as his "unique spirit of the army".In an instruction to his general, he said: "The genius of our soldiers is to be good at attacking."[19]
Shortly after Frederick II ascended the throne, King of Austria and Holy Roman Emperorcharles vi If he dies without a male heir, his daughterMaria Theresa Succession.Frederick II despised the Queen, coveted her right to the throne, and coveted the rich province of Silesia in Austria.In December 1740, Frederick II launchedSilesian War。At that time, Austria achieved certain success in diplomacy, and its territory continued to expand, but it made many enemies in Europe.Spain, France, Bavaria and Saxony all allied with Frederick II, so Prussia had a stronger side.Frederick II captured Silesia easily by attacking the enemy unprepared with his excellent troops.However, Austria has the support of Hungary.Frederick II was quickly counterattacked by the Austro Hungarian Allied Forces. Feeling that the war situation was unfavorable, he abandoned France, Spain, Bavaria and other allies and made peace with Austria alone in 1742.In 1744, Frederick II launchedThe Second Silesian War。In 1745, he repeated his old trick of negotiating peace alone and concluded the Peace Treaty of Prussia and Austria: Prussia obtained the Silesia Province with fertile land and favorable conditions for industrial development, on the premise that he recognized Franz Stefan, the Grand Duke of Lorraine, the husband of Maria Teresa (i.eFranz I）The Holy Roman Emperor.[19]
althoughWar of the Austrian Succession It officially ended in 1748, but Frederick'sKingdom of PrussiaBut he withdrew from the war in 1745 and stood on the sidelines.Until 1756Seven Year WarFrederick won ten years of peace building.In these ten years, Frederick not only reorganized his army and practiced martial arts, but also developed his economy to prepare for the next seven years' war.[4]
Seven Year War
Frederick
In the 1850s, the diplomatic situation in Prussia became more and more severe.First of all, Frederick made friends with Britain and concluded《Whitehall Treaty》To ensure that the British King's Hanover territory in Germany would not be violated, and use force to "deal with any country that infringes the territorial integrity of Germany", which greatly angered France, which competed with Britain for overseas colonies.And Austrian Archduke Maria Teresa, her prime minister, has never forgotten to endure hardshipsKoenitz RitterbergThe prince successfully united the Russian womenczarElizabeth Petrovna, and the King of DharmaLouis XV Gradually put diplomatic noose around Prussia's neck and actively prepared to recover Silesia.[4]
Frederick II saw that the situation was getting worse and worse, and decided to launch a preemptive strike against Austria rather than wait for the war to come.In August 1756, Frederick II led an army to attack Saxony andBohemian，“Seven Year War”Burst.The Prussian army was fierce and aggressive, which caught Austria off guard.In May 1757Battle of Prague Central Austria suffered heavy losses.However, the development of the war situation after 1759 made the Prussian Army increasingly embarrassed.With the strong support of the Allies, Austria seriously injured Frederick II's spirit in the Battle of Kunersdorf.Nearly 100 Prussian generals died in the war, and dozens were captured. The capital Berlin was once occupied by Russian forces.In January 1762, when the Prussian army was being attacked on all sides and was on the verge of extinction, the Russian czar Elizabeth Petrovna died.Heir to the ThronePeter III He admired Frederick II very much and changed to a pro Prussian policy. He immediately ordered Russia to withdraw its troops and signed a treaty of alliance with Prussia to rescue Frederick II.On February 15, 1763, Austria, Prussia and Saxony signed the《Huber Tusburg Treaty》[22]The treaty recognized Prussia's ownership of Silesia and guaranteed Prussia's powerful position in Central Europe.[19]Frederick II also won the title of the Great Emperor and established the personal honor of military genius.[4]
Positive development
After the Seven Year War, Frederick II devoted himself to the economic revival of Prussia.He has established a strict management system, which is characterized by centralization and unity and practical results.The king was in power and did not tolerate the indiscretion and neglect of his subordinate institutions, so that "management and the army constitute the pillars of Prussia".[19]
Frederick II once issued a series of decrees conducive to agricultural development.For example, the decree of 1763 on canceling the attachment of the slaves in Pomerania, and the order prohibiting the expulsion of farmers from their land.He announced to guarantee the property rights and land inheritance rights of farmers, and instructed the stubborn nobility to allow displaced farmers to settle down in the farmers' homes that were occupied or deserted during the war.The country has improvedOder RiverAnd the marshes of the Natz River;He also provided livestock for farmers, repaired houses and rebuilt villages.At that time, national and military banks were set up respectively.All industrial taxes are included in the military bank, which is responsible for paying all military expenditures.Other funds are controlled by the state.The famous Berlin Bank was founded at this time.The State also controls the sale of tobacco, coffee and salt.Prussia prospered rapidly because of the plundering policy pursued abroad and the orderliness of all aspects of domestic social life.[19]
Between 1764 and 1766, the Polish reformists began to reform with the acquiescence of the king who hoped to strengthen the royal power.However, these reforms have causedcatherine ii Interference.Catherine II's policy towards Poland was supported by Frederick II.The alliance treaty signed by Russia and Prussia in Petersburg in 1764 was aimed at opposing Poland and Osman.A secret clause of the treaty states that the two sides firmly do not allow "the Republic of Poland to lose the right to freely elect a king and turn it into a system of succession to the throne", and "will not hesitate to use force when necessary to oppose the overthrow of the system and fundamental law of the Republic of Poland".The two sides also decided to protect Poland'sThe Orthodox ChurchTuheLutheran They should enjoy the same rights as Catholics.[21]
In 1766, Russia and Poland raised the "pagan issue" to Poland, and through their ambassadors in Warsaw, they asked the Polish Parliament to pass the bill on equal rights between non Catholics and Catholics.The brutal interference of Russia and Prussia caused fierce resistance from many Polish legislators, and also aggravated the contradictions between Russia and Ottoman, Austria and France.[21]
On October 6, 1768,Russo-Turkish warsBurst.With Russia's successive victory over the Ottoman War, Austria was disturbed.The victory of the Russian army directly jeopardized Austria's interests in the Balkans, and Russia's intervention in Poland using religious issues would also cause the reaction of Orthodox Christians in Austria.AndJoseph II Maria Teresa, who was in power together, advocated that the conflict with Russia should be resolved through diplomatic means.Prussia also did not want to see that Russia was too strong, nor was it willing to assume the obligation of providing financial assistance in the war against Austria stipulated in the Treaty of the Russian Prussian Alliance in 1764;And it is eager to take the opportunity to annex the Polish territory that separates East Prussia from its native land (Gdansk Pomory).In view of this, Frederick II first proposed the partition of Poland by Prussia, Russia and Austria in February 1769.[21]
In the summer of 1769 in Nice and in the autumn of 1770 in Noystat, Moravia, Frederick II and Joseph II held two meetings, and reached a tacit understanding on the partition of Poland.The monarchs of the two countries decided to force Russia to give up its territorial claims in the Balkans and accept the proposal to carve up Poland.In July 1771, Austria and Ottoman signed an alliance treaty in Constantinople.Seeing that Austria was about to enter the war, Catherine II and Minister Panning, who was in charge of foreign affairs, had to give up the traditional policy of protecting Poland and accept the Prussian proposal of partition by three countries in order to avoid Russia's diplomatic isolation and prevent Austria from falling to the Ottoman side.On August 5, 1772, Russia, Prussia and Austria signed a treaty to partition Poland in Petersburg.[21]
According to this treaty, the three countries divided up the following Polish territories: Prussia obtainedPomorze Regions (except Gdansk), Heono Province (except Tolen City), Malbok Province, Valmia and other Baltic coastal areas, as well as part of Greater Poland and Cujave, with a total area of 36000 square kilometers and a population of 580000;Russia got itWiener River, West Germany, Druqi River andDnieper RiverBelarusian region (including Rifland Province, the north of Polotsk Province, Vitebsk Province, Mscheslav Province and the southeast of Minsk Province) and part of Latvia, with an area of 92000 square kilometers and a population of 1.3 million;Austria got itVistula River andSang RiverThe area to the south (including the southern part of Krakow Province and Sandmir Province) and most of Garcia (including parts of Lvov, Potoria and Warren) cover a total area of 83000 square kilometers, with a population of 2.65 million.[21]
On September 18, 1772, the three governments of Russia, Prussia and Austria issued a joint declaration, claiming that the partition was to "restore peace and order in Poland".In May 1773, under the pressure of the three countries, the Polish Parliament ratified the partition treaty.In 1775, the three countries signed unequal trade treaties with Poland.This partition resulted in Poland losing 30% of its territory and reducing its population by 35%.Before partition, Poland's territory was 730000 square kilometers, with a population of 11.5 million;After partition, Poland has only 520000 square kilometers of territory and a population of 7.5 million.[21]
In 1778, Austria and Prussia had a serious dispute over the succession of the Bavarian throne.The ruling family of BavariaWittelsbach FamilyThe Elector has no offspring, and his lineal line will be cut off.At this time, Austria asked Bavaria to conclude a treaty after the death of the Elector, Marquez Joseph, to recognize the Habsburg Dynasty's demand for Bavaria. Minderheim territory and Bohemia's former manor in Upper Pfalz should be ceded to Austria immediately, regardless of the objection of local residents.The Austrian army occupied these areas.Prussia, however, wanted to prevent Austria from expanding its territory within the empire, so it strongly opposed it.Frederick II led his army into Bohemia in July 1778, during which only a few small-scale battles took place and the Prussian army won[23]。As an ally of Russia, Frederick II hoped to obtain Russian military assistance, but Catherine II wanted to be the arbiter of this dynastic war.At the same time, she put forward a threatening declaration to Vienna, asking Maria Teresa to "fully meet the legitimate requirements of the German princes";On the other hand, the Russian representative in Prussia "posed as a minister plenipotentiary who came to give orders to Germany on behalf of his own court".According to the requirements of both Prussia and Austria, Russia and France acted as mediators together. On May 13, 1779, Prussia and Austria signed the Chechen Treaty in Tieshen[23]。Russia has maintained good relations with Prussia, but it is not allowed to actually strengthen itself;Austria also failed to meet its own requirements, but it got a small but rich Berghausen area.[21][23]
In July 1785, Frederick II organized the Alliance of Marquis, and 15 German states joined the Alliance.[19]
Died of illness
In August 1785, Frederick II had a fever after being caught in the rain, and suffered from headache and asthma.[24]
In the early morning of August 17, 1786[19], Frederick II inWorry free PalaceZhong died peacefully on his sofa at the age of 74.He has no son behind him. His nephew inherits the throne, which isFriedrich Wilhelm II 。[24]
Measures for politics
Announce
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Frederick II carried out reforms after he ascended the throne. His reforms involved many aspects, including political, economic and military reforms.[10][27]
Politics
Friedrich II
The political reform is mainly administrative reform and judicial reform, aimed at weakening Juncker's aristocratic privileges, strengthening centralization, abolishing harsh laws, and formulating laws and regulations.This is what Frederick II didEnlightened despotismMain contents of[10]
administrative reform
The ancestors of Frederick IIJunckerWe supported them and gave them various privileges.According to the state council decision in 1653,Juncker nobilityThey have the right to collect labor, land rent, etc. from farmers without restrictions, exercise judicial and police power over farmers, and turn farmers themselves and their families into serfs.After Frederick II succeeded to the throne, in order to overcome the centrifugal tendency of the provinces and weaken the privileges of Juncker, he successively set up a series of central management departments.The Ministry of Commerce and Handicraft was established in 1740, the Ministry of Military Management in 1746, the Ministry of Finance and Customs in 1766, the Ministry of Mining and Metallurgy in 1768, and the Ministry of Forestry in 1777.By strengthening the central government, the corresponding departments of each province gradually lose their role.[10]
Frederick II's influence on immigrants and small religious believers（HuguenotCatholic) tolerance and openness is one of the characteristics of his internal affairs.In Berlin's Friedrich Garden, a Protestant church and a Catholic church stand side by side, which can be regarded as a unique scene in the 18th century.But for the discrimination against Jews, Frederick II inherited his predecessor's policy - the general privilege policy revised in 1750.Prussia is the first monarchy in Europe to enjoy limited freedom of publication.Under his rule, homosexuals were not persecuted.[4]
Frederick II wanted to abolish it completelySerfdomHowever, it failed under the strong opposition of the Prussian landlord.However, it was gradually implemented in the king's territory. Frederick II established towns and villages in the newly opened areas to allow free farmers to move in.When the serf contract needs to be extended due to state affairs, these helpers, farm labourers and maids will be asked about their employers' conditions and treatment. Employers with poor management may be transferred to employers with good management records.[4]
Judicial reform
Frederick II contributed a lot to the development of law“Everyone is equal before the law”Principle of.[7]On June 3, 1740, Frederick II, who had just ascended the throne, gave an order to the Minister of Justice, stipulating that apart from opposing the king, treason and major murders, Prussia would no longer have criminal defendants.This also marked the beginning of Frederick II's legislative and judicial reform.[6]
In the mid 1840s, Frederick II asked jurists to draw up a new, universally effective legislative system to unify inconsistent and contradictory legislation in Prussia's provinces.Von Kirktzey was the main assistant and host of the King's legislative and judicial reform.Frederick II, with the help of Von Kirktzey, determined the rules and regulations of the court and unified the constitution of the court and the constitution of the procuratorate.The formulation of the Prussian National Public Law had an important impact on Prussia and other countries in the world. Although this huge legislative work was not completed until five years after the death of Frederick II, Frederick II and von Kirczey undoubtedly laid the foundation for its formulation.[6]
Economics
Industry
firstReform the national economic management department to facilitate the unified leadership of the central government over the economy.[5]
When Frederick II succeeded to the throne, the central government agency in charge of domestic affairs was the Prime Minister's Office, which was established in 1723. It was composed of government ministers and Privy Council advisers. It was responsible for providing advice to the king and was divided into several departments according to the management of each province.Therefore, the Prime Minister's Yamen is an omnipotent government organization. Its principle of existence is that ministers are jointly responsible for the king, and that they exercise their duties by region rather than by function.[5]
Obviously, such an organization has two prominent drawbacks. One is that it cannot make the affairs of the kingdom form an effective whole and implement centralized leadership by the central government;Second, it is not conducive to the central government's professional management and leadership of economic departments.So Frederick II carried out many reforms to this institution.In general, these reforms are mainly to establish some new functional government departments to replace the omnipotent Prime Minister's Yamen and strengthen the leadership of the sector economy.From 1740 to 1777, Frederick II successively established the Ministry of Industry and Commerce, the Ministry of Military Management, the Ministry of Finance and Customs, the Ministry of Mining and Metallurgy, the Ministry of Forestry and other new functional departments. By the end of his rule, he had basically established a sound government economic department in the central government, and strengthened the unified and effective leadership over economic work.[5]
secondlyAnd adopt different policies to promote the development of mining and metallurgical industries according to local conditions.[5]
In order to strengthen the development and leadership of Prussian heavy industry, Frederick II established the Royal Mining Administration in 1768.He instructed the head of the agency, Heinitz, to formulate a plan for restructuring and expanding the Prussian iron industry, and allocated 260000 thals to expand and improve the mining and metallurgical industries.Among the countries participating in the development of heavy industry, the development of Silesia is the most typical.Frederick II passed legislation to expand the royal family's ownership of Silesian mineral resources and vigorously develop state-owned enterprises.Before 1740, the landlords in Silesia owned the mineral deposits found in their territory.In order to facilitate the country's large-scale development and utilization of the mineral resources in Silesia, Frederick II promulgated the "Mining Law" in 1756, stipulating that the royal family should obtain one tenth of the mineral output of the place.During the reconstruction period after the seven-year war, he formulated a new mining law, according to which the state obtained a royalty mining concession to designate a regionLeased landRights.Private miners can mine ore only after obtaining royal concessions.[5]
From 1753 to 1754, the government established threeBlast furnaceIn order to solve the problem of manpower shortage, the government has adopted the policy of not undertaking various obligationsLow tax rateThe preferential policies such as sick wages, housing allowance and exemption from military service have attracted skilled workers and miners from Mansfield, Brandenburg and Saxony to move to Silesia, thus ensuring the quality of employees in state-owned enterprises.[5]
again, trying to change the mode of international trade and actively support the development of the textile industry.[5]
During the reign of Frederick II, the textile industry was the largest and only manufacturing sector in Prussia that could produce export goods.In order to change Prussia's international trade model, which mainly exports grains and raw materials, and reduce theDeficitFrederick II took various measures to protect and support the development of the textile industry.Shortly after his accession to the throne, he issued a ban on the export of furs, wool andspindleThe import of foreign textiles is prohibited, and offenders shall be sentenced to death.In order to solve the problem of insufficient funds, Frederick II provided financial support to textile owners in the form of mortgage bank loans granted by the royal family.He also set up the "Silk Weaving Fund"National creditThe agency provides an initial fund of 100000 thals.The fund is managed by the head of the textile industry and is not controlled by the Finance Bureau.In addition, the government also provided subsidies to the silk weaving industry every month. Even during the seven year war when the funds were scarce, he also provided 50000 thals of financial aid to the owners of the silk industry.In order to solve the problem of the shortage of weavers, Frederick II adopted the privilege of providing machinery, subsidies, annuities and tax exemptions to foreign entrepreneurs and technicians to attract them to work in Berlin.During the Seven Year War, the annual cost of importing foreign skilled craftsmen still amounted to 3000 taels.Thanks to the above measures, the textile industry in Prussia developed rapidly.According to Heizberg's statistics in 1785, the annual export value of Prussian wool textiles reached 4 million thales.The export value of flax in Silesia alone increased from 3.5 million taels in 1748 to 5.9 million taels in 1790.[5]
Agriculture
1. Establish an economically stable peasant stratum[5]
First, develop from "protecting" farmers to "liberating" serfs.Frederick II continued to pursue the policy that his predecessors tried to prohibit the lords from expelling and abusing farmers.In 1750, Countess Gat was sentenced to six years' imprisonment for maltreating female slaves.Frederick II thought the sentence was too gentle and ordered a new trial.Frederick II first reduced the labor of farmers in Pomerania and later in other regions, changing the six days of labor per week to three days.In 1777, he announced that the serf's right to use land could be handed down from generation to generation.Undoubtedly, it is of positive significance to restrict the lords from driving out farmers and depriving farmers of their land.More importantly, Frederick II began to open his eyes to the traditional legal principles, and took a difficult first step on the road of liberating serfs.In 1763, he issued a decree to cancel the attachment of the slaves in Pomerania.On November 8, 1771, he ordered the abolition of all PrussiansPersonal attachmentAnd servitude.Although his policies were strongly opposed by aristocratic lords, their formulation and implementation to a certain extent had an impact on the serf system and laid the keynote of the 19th century's Sitsun Hardenberg and later politicians' policies to liberate serfs.The second is to encourage immigrants and expand the ranks of producers.Frederick II used the neighboring countries to improve every timeTax amountEvery opportunity of natural and man-made disasters encourages and attracts foreigners to move to Prussia.During his reign, a total of 539 new farmers' villages were built, and 420000 farmers moved to Prussia.In addition to carrying a large number of goods, these immigrants also brought their skills.Frederick II spent 25 million taels on immigrants.He also gave preferential treatment to immigrants by reducing taxes and exempting them from military service.This is of positive significance for stabilizing the immigrants' mood, making them quickly adapt to the new environment, settling down and establishing their own businesses, and developing production.[5]
2. Build water conservancy, reclaim wasteland and expand cultivated land[5]
With the development of production and population growth, the demand for food and other agricultural products has expanded.In order to get more arable land, Frederick II encouraged large-scale construction of water conservancy and reclamation of wasteland.In the 1850s, the government implemented a large-scale plan to transform marshlands formulated by engineer Von Harlem, and used the army for this purpose.In 1753, 15000 hectares of marshland were drained, and more than 6000 people moved to this new fertile land.yesOde RiverThe harnessing of the river basin enabled Frederick II to acquire 22.5 square hectares of land and set up 12000 small peasant families here.In this regard, Frederick sighed that he "won a province" without a single shot.[5]
3. Establish an agricultural loan bank to provide loans for agricultural production to landlords and farmers[5]
In order to help landlords and farmers solve the problem of insufficient funds for agricultural production, Frederick II adopted the suggestion of Bure, a Berlin merchant, and established three agricultural loan banks in Silesia, Marque, Brandenburg and Pomerania.These banks provide large sums of money to large property owners by issuing mortgage bonds.The agricultural loan bank in Silesia issued 20 million thals of bonds for the first time, of which Frederick II provided 200000 thals.The money was used for soil improvement, afforestation and agricultural production funds, which promoted the agricultural development of Prussia.[5]
4. Encourage the learning of foreign advanced farming techniques and strive to improve the agricultural production conditions in Prussia[5]
Frederick II paid great attention to the achievements of agricultural production methods in England and the Netherlands.He supported the translation and publishing of Arthur, a British economist·young For books on agriculture, British economists were hired to work in Prussia, and descendants of state-owned land lessees were sent to Britain to study agricultural production methods.Frederick II attached importance to improving the variety and quality of livestock.He introduced fine wool sheep from Spanish Merino and encouraged farmers to raise sheep in captivity in winter.During his reign, the number of livestock increased rapidly. There were 35000 sheep in Silesia and Brandenburg alone.In order to improve the quality of domestic tobacco and save the country's purchaseAmericaIn 1780, Frederick II ordered the chemist Akkad to study and improve tobacco cultivation.When Akkad made some achievements in his research, Frederick II gave him 500 taels to commend his contribution to improving tobacco cultivation.[5]
Trade
When Frederick II ascended the throne, Prussia was not yet Germany's main economic zone, and its domestic and foreign trade was underdeveloped.Therefore, while striving to support the development of agriculture and industry, Frederick II actively took measures to develop domestic and foreign trade.[5]
first, expand the territory of Prussia through war, change the trade routes between China and Europe, and win more markets for Prussia.During the reign of Frederick II, he launched or participated in four foreign wars.Through the war, Prussia's territory changed from decentralization to centralization and continued to expand. The trade routes between China and Europe changed, and Prussia's position in international trade was increasing.In a sense, the status of Prussia in 1786 was achieved at the expense of the interests of neighboring countries, especially Poland, Austria and Saxony.[5]
From 1769 to 1770, Frederick II forcibly occupied his territory under the pretext of protecting it from the threat of plagueWest Prussia Most of the region and the Niez region.In 1772, Poland was annexedthe BalticSeveral provinces along the coast.He redrawed the border several times and took some villages near Danzig and in the Nizi River basin by accident.Frederick II also controlledmemel And Magdeburg.These territories not only bring Prussia 1.7 million taels of income every year, but also transfer its economic and trade privileges originally belonging to Poland to Prussia.[5]
secondlyBuild canals, improve transportation and create transportation conditions for trade development.Improving traffic conditions is an important link for Frederick II to promote trade development.His main measures in this regard are to dig canals, build ports and docks, and have achieved remarkable results.communicateOder RiverThe Feno Canal reconstruction project with the Havel River was completed in 1746 and connected in 1757Elbe RiverAnd the Havel RiverPraunThe canal was opened.Through this waterway, the Elbe River and the Oder River are connected, which is convenientthe north seaAnd many port cities in the Baltic Sea, as well as Berlin, Magdeburg, Breslau andFrankfurtAnd other inland business centers.At the end of 1757, the Oder River was connected withVistula River The completion of Bromberg Canal attracted the Baltic Sea's trade with Prussia;At the same time, rectificationRuhr RiverLarge scale construction was carried out to facilitate the smooth transportation of coal and metal products from Marke County toRhineRegion.[5]
againEstablish overseas trading companies to expand foreign trade.After the first partition of Poland, Prussia gainedWest Prussia, controlling a strip of land in the lower reaches of the Visva River and along the Baltic Sea.At that time, Danze merchants were the main masters of trade in this area.In order to make the most ofFirst Partition of Poland With the economic advantage gained later, Frederick II not only continued to use political, military and other pressures to force the Polish and Danzig authorities to comply, but also set up an overseas trade company in Malvinde in October 1772 in order to seize the trade privileges of this region from Danzig merchants.The company has the franchise to operate salt import trade in the eastern province of Prussia;All paraffin transported along the downstream of the Visva River must be sold to the company;He had the right to acquire land and build warehouses in Stockholm and other Prussian Baltic ports.When the United States declared independence, Frederick II recognized the United States government and reached a trade agreement with the United States in 1785.[5]
finance
In 1768, Prussia's financial revenue was 13.8 million taels. With the increasing government expenditure, the original monetary policy, tax system and management methods have become increasingly incompatible with the needs of the government.Therefore, after the Seven Year War, Frederick II adjusted and reformed the fiscal policy in many ways around the theme of rapidly healing the war wounds, stabilizing the economy and increasing fiscal revenue.The first fiscal policy adopted by Frederick II was to tighten inflation, stabilize prices, stabilize finance and improve the economic environment.After the war, Frederick II realized that the reconstruction of Prussia could no longer rely on the inflation policy, and a stable monetary system was necessary for Prussian economic revival.Therefore, he issued the Mint Act in May 1763, which stipulated thatUndervalue currencyAntebellumMonetary ValueThe exchange rate recovers some currencies with insufficient value;In March 1764, he issued a new coinage law, which stipulated that the value of the taler minted at the ratio of 1:19.75 was 40% lower than the value of the pre war coins, which actually returned to the standard of 14 talers minted with 1 mark of pure silver before the war.This policy has far-reaching significance for the rejuvenation and development of the national economy on the basis of a stable financial system.[5]
The second content of Frederick II's fiscal policy was to implement the monopoly of tobacco, coffee and salt industries in order to increase fiscal revenue.Frederick II established the General Administration of Tobacco in July 1766.The bureau has the absolute power to import, process and sell tobacco, and has established a defense force to investigate and stop smuggling and other violations of professional rights.In 1776, he announced that tobacco monopoly could bring in 1 million taels of income every year.By the end of Frederick II's reign, this income had reached 1.286 million taels.The success of tobacco monopoly led Frederick II to monopolize salt and coffee in 1776 and 1781 respectively.Frederick II required residents to buy at least one peck of salt every year.It also stipulates the amount of salt farmers buy for their cattle, sheep and other livestock.Statistics from 1778 to 1779 showed that the income from salt monopoly was 1.3 million taels.The import business of coffee monopoly is controlled by overseas trading companies, and each province has set up a coffee shop.In order to prevent smuggling, the government has taken unpopular measures, that is, the anti smuggling officers can not only stop pedestrians at the gate of the city, but also stop them in the street for inspection, and residents' houses can be broken into and forcibly searched.[5]
The third item of Frederick II's fiscal revenue is to reform the tax system and strengthen tax management.Frederick II established the Ministry of Finance and Customs in 1776 to collect taxes on the basis of provincesIndirect taxThe work of levying tariffs andexcise taxAn important step has been taken towards unifying Prussian financial management.[5]
An important feature of Frederick II's fiscal policy is to reserve a large amount of gold for war.He has established some permanent stocks, such as Potsdam's "King's Stock", the "Silesian Treasure Vault" for Silesian defense, and the "Magdeburg Grains Fund" for troops stationed in the Elbe River Basin.By the end of Frederick's rule in 1786, the war reserve in the "royal treasury" alone had reached 60 million thales.A large amount of money was withdrawn from circulation and stored as war fund, which made the limited funds idle and could not be used for normal economic development, and had a negative impact on the historical development of Prussia.[5]
military
military streamline
1、 We will develop the arms industry and improve weapons and equipment.When Frederick II succeeded to the throne, Prussia had only one foundry and one powder factory in Berlin, one rifle factory in Spando, several metallurgical factories in KurmakEberswaldThere is a copper factory.Although the demand of the PLA was very small at that time, the arms production was still difficult to meet the demand, and the PLA had to import weapons from the Netherlands and other countries.In order to prevent a large number of funds from flowing abroad and make the demand of the army based on the national armament industry, Frederick II vigorously developed the armament industry.In 1741BreslauThe second large foundry has been established, and a rifle factory has been established in Potsdam, and the production capacity of the existing armament industry has been continuously expanded.From 1741 to 1762, Prussia produced 1500 gatesCannon。From 1746 to 1756, the annual output of the Berlin Gunpowder Factory increased from 4000 to 5000 tons.The development of the armament industry provides a prerequisite for improving weapons and equipment.In 1740, there were 2425 cannons, 252 cannonsMortarAnd 54 doorsHowitzer2731 in total.By the time Frederick II died in 1786, the general army had 6224 guns, or 1860Field artillery4113 doorFortress gunAnd 251 siege guns.The weight of the artillery is also greatly reduced.The new 3-pound gun and 6-pound gun equipped since 1754 weighed only 207 kg and 250 kg respectively, while the 3-pound gun and the new 6-pound gun in 1740 weighed 386 kg and 746 kg respectively.The 12 pound gun equipped before the Seven Year War weighed 375 kg, while the original 12 pound gun weighed 1440 kg to 1600 kg.The weight of the gun is reduced and its mobility is improved.[10]
2、 Reorganize cavalry and artillery.When Frederick II succeeded to the throne, the Prussian cavalry was composed of those who rode clumsy horses and only received shooting trainingHeavy Cavalry form.On April 10, 1741,The First Silesian WarFirst battle ofBattle of Mollwitz The Prussian cavalry, which was inferior in quantity and quality, was soon driven out of the battlefield by the Austrian cavalry.After the meeting, Frederick II and the cavalry commander Zedlitz immediately began to reorganize the cavalry.The restructured cavalry includesCuirassier、DragoonAnd escort cavalry.The first two types of cavalry usually form a regiment with 5 squadrons, while the latter type of cavalry forms a regiment with 10 squadrons, each with about 120 people.To deal with the Austrian borderLight infantryThe troops of Frederick II have been increasedLight cavalryNumber of.In terms of cavalry training, equestrian skills were paid attention to, and shooting and walking on foot took a secondary place.The cuirassiers are no longer equipped with pistols, nor are the dragoonsCarbineThe cavalry's weapons and equipment were greatly reduced, and the forward speed and the ferocity of the charge were improved.The Prussian cavalry is incomparable to any cavalry in terms of the rapid and organized charge, the rapid change of formation, the skillful charge to the wing, the rapid collection and change of deployment after the charge, etc.The most important thing in restructuring artillery is to divide artillery into battalion artillery and heavy artillery.Three pounds and six pounds belong to battalion guns. They are accompanied by infantry in battle and usually placed in the first 20 steps between battalions and regiments in wartime.It requires a lot of manpower to tow guns and fire at a distance of 1200 steps. When it approaches 400 steps, it will turn to the middle zone to occupy the position.When the infantry starts to charge with bayonets, the battalion artillery stops shelling to avoid accidentally injuring the advancing infantry.He also pioneered riding artillery, that is, let some of his gunners ride horses to enhance the mobility of artillery.Artillery has developed from the auxiliary arms at the beginning of the first Silesian War to one of the three arms, which are parallel to infantry and cavalry.[10]
3、 Strict discipline.Aristocrats and the army were the pillars of Prussian kingship.Officers can only be held by nobles, so that the class antagonism between nobles and peasants can be fully reflected within the army.Soldiers are recruited mercenaries who take fighting as their profession, including many foreigners.The vast majority of soldiers are farmers, but there are also many hooligans, ruffians and rascals.To form an army of such a ragtag crowd or to use only young nobles as officers, the opposition between officers and soldiers is very sharp, and soldiers cannot have noble spirits such as serving the country and the people,[10]Therefore, with the rapid growth of the Prussian army, Frederick II urged the army to have iron discipline, raising "strict military discipline" to the height of "military spirit".At that time, Frederick II focused on cultivating the loyalty and obedience spirit of officers and the sense of honor of soldiers, and controlled the whole army through them and strict military laws.The training of soldiers is extremely strict, and the brutal military method of whip and stick permeates the whole army.[1]
4、 Improve strategies and tactics.Frederick II broke the stereotype of relying solely on the military station for material supply by taking the following measures: each soldier's backpack was filled with 3 days' rations, the regimental supply convoy carried 8 days' bread rations, and the military supply convoy carried 1 month's food supplies.At the same time, he also established warehouses in Berlin, Spando, Breslau, Bilger, Kassel, Nice, Grigor and other places, so as to connect the troops and the military stations, creating a very effective transportation system.Strategically, we should make good use of the rapid and agile movement of the army. Before the slow enemy has no time to make an effective response, we should concentrate our superior forces on key positions and directions to attack the enemy, and strive to make quick decisions.[10]
Frederick II alsoLinear tacticsIt has developed to the most perfect level and created the oblique linear tactics.Military useFlint gunLater, the depth of the battle formation became shallower and shallower, and began to reduce from six columns to four or even three columns.This battle formation usually consists of a very shallow and wide front linear formation in the middle, cavalry formations on both wings, infantry artillery deployed in the front or between the formations, and heavy artillery deployed in the two hops.The advantage of linear tactics lies in the full development of firepower. The fatal defect is that the rows with very shallow depth appear extremely thin and easy to break through, and because the front is too wide, the wings cannot rescue each other when attacked.Many tacticians have recognized this weakness and tried to add an infantry line to solve it.The function of the second infantry line is to strengthen the weak points of the first infantry line and repel attacks from flank or back.Most generals put the front of their side as long as possible in order to carry out flanking movements, encircle the enemy's wing, shake the enemy from the side rather than attack and defeat the enemy from the front.However, the longer the battle line, the weaker the force. As a result, the army adopting this tactic lacks the necessary force to succeed.Before Frederick II, some people studied the problem of oblique linear tactics. Frederick II was very familiar with the works of Montecorley and others on oblique linear tactics, and constantly tried, improved and created in the war practice, becoming a master.It is very simple to make one wing stronger than the other, but as soon as the enemy finds out, he will take countermeasures and use the stronger wing against the weaker one.Therefore, in order to defeat one wing of the enemy, ingenious maneuvers are needed.Frederick II usually used the surrounding wing and some of the central forces to attack the selected wing, and the rest of the forces were deployed behind.Other enemy forces cannot rescue the attacked wing because they are fixed in their own positions in the online tactical formation.In this way, after the attack force won the victory in one Hebei Province with superior force, the rest of the forces immediately moved forward to attack the central enemy, and the already successful wing turned to attack the flank of the central enemy.The oblique linear tactics can not only maintain the linear formation, but also attack any part of the enemy's battle formation with superior forces.The oblique line tactics are the tactical reason why Frederick II won many times.[10]
External expansion
Frederick II believed in "power is justice". Under his iron hand rule, Prussia's national strength rose rapidly and became one of the European powers in a short time.On this basis, Frederick II continued to carry out foreign wars and expand territory.[1]In December 1740, Frederick attacked Austria and captured the rich province of Silesia.In 1744, Frederick tore up the Brest Peace Treaty, passed through the Saxony Marquis with a lightning attack, went straight to Prague, the capital of Bohemia Province, Austria, and then marched to Vienna.In August 1756, Frederick commanded the Prussian army to suddenly invade Saxony with swift and violent action, and was the first to initiate the "Seven Year War".[9]By the time of his death in 1786, Prussia's territory had expanded 1.6 times and its population had increased from 3 million to 5 million.The rapid rise of Prussia in the second half of the 19th centuryUnification of GermanyAnd rejuvenation.[1]
education
Friedrich II
Silesian WarAfter that, under the auspices of Frederick II,Berlin Academy Frederick himself became an honorary member.At the same time, Frederick allocated a royal fee as a science scholarship to encourage the development and progress of science and technology.More importantly, Frederick reformed basic education.He required that all noble children must go to school, and male children among them must also go to military schools and serve in the army for at least five years.[9]
Frederick also createdCompulsory education systemDevelopment and improvement.In August 1763, he promulgated《Prussia General School Regulations》It stipulates that children between the ages of 5 and 13 must receive compulsory education.Prussia became the first country in the world to establish a relatively standardized compulsory education system.In 1765, the Silesian School Law was issued.During his reign, Prussia built hundreds of schools.[9]These decrees laid the foundation for the Prussian state to control education and establish the national school system.[8]In addition, he also supports the development of art.Frederick II also often received all kinds of thinkers in the Peace Palace,VoltaireWith Frederick IIPotsdamYes.[7]
Historical evaluation
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Frederick the Great Commemorative Stamps
Duchess of Saxony Gotha: He is indomitable, ambitious, talented and charming.[22]
Lord Macaulay of England: History cannot face up to his evil deeds;His notoriety and satire are shameful to mention.[25]
King Joseph II of Austria: He is really a genius, an incomparable speaker, although every word he says reveals evil.[26]
FranceMiraboDescribe the scene in Berlin when Frederick II died: everything was dark, no one was sad, everything was busy, and no one was worried.There is no face without the expression of relief and renewed hope;No regret, no sigh.Not a word of praise.After creating a regime that lasted for almost half a century, the great man who has experienced many wars and gained fame was treated like this?The whole world wanted him to die, and the whole world congratulated him.[28]
Emyr Du Bois Raymond, Germany: The history of Hohenzolen is now more of the prehistory of the new German Empire.Frederick the Great, who successfully transformed Prussia into a major European country, is indeed the founder of this kingdom.[29]
GermanyGeorg William Friedrich HegelPraise Frederick II for "being the first ruler to stick to the general principles of the country and always regard national interests as the most basic principle."(Lecture on Historical Philosophy)[29]
Napoleon Bonaparte : The more critical he is, the more he looks great. This is the highest praise we can give him.[4]
GermanyHermann Goering In October 1936, in a speech at the Sports Palace, Frederick II was defined as the first "national socialist on the Prussian throne".[30]
Cui Jian, editor in chief of "A Brief Introduction to Western Emperors": Even ignoring his actions as a politician and his contributions to legislation, his military performance alone will be enough to make him occupy a seat in history.In the works of western military historians, Frederick's position among the famous generals in the past dynasties may be second only to Alexander, Caesar, Hannibal and Napoleon.[4]
Anecdotes and allusions
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musical talent
Frederick II loved music and was good at playingfluteHe loves playing flute so much that he plays several nights a week.In fact, Frederick II was a gifted musician.He alone has composed more than 100 flutesSonataAnd 4 songssymphonyIt is even rumored that his works includeThe Second Silesian WarInBattle of Hohenfriedberg "Hohenfriedburg March" written after winning.Frederick II had his own band and musicians. The musicians employed by his court includedCarl Heinrich Graun , John Joachim KuanziFranz Bendaas well asJohann Sebastian Bach Carl Philip Emmanuel Bach, son of.[11]German painterAdolf von MenzelBetween 1850 and 1852, he created and completed the oil painting "Frederick the Great's Flute Concert in the Palace of Worry Free", which depicts the scene that Frederick II is taking the lead for his sister and Countess William Minnie of the frontier, and then performing in person.[11]
Flute Concert of Frederick the Great in the Palace of Worry Free (the flute player is Frederick II)
Worship of France
Frederick II has been an admirer of French culture all his life, and he is particularly keen on French Baroque culture and enlightenment culture, while Frederick has never looked at German culture squarely《Song of Nibelungen》He was full of sarcasm when he was first published.He even disdains to speak German, because in his eyes German is the language used by the rude coachman. He has used French, the diplomatic language commonly used in Europe, to talk and write all his life. Of course, this is also for the sake of the Prussian Kingdom's winning influence in Europe.[16]
Dog Addiction
Frederick II had a quirk: he loved his dog better than his lover.This may be because his father forced him to watch the psychological trauma caused by the execution of Von Carter, a fellow officer who helped him escape.Frederick, who suffered from psychological trauma, never got close to anyone again. He was accompanied by only nine dogs.These dogs accompany him at any time, and even can sleep in the same bed with him.[17]
At that time, there was a saying in the Prussian court: if you want to please Frederick II, the simplest and most effective way is to show that you also like dogs.Others have witnessed that some unlucky servant accidentally stepped on Frederick II's dog, which aroused Frederick II's "unprecedented rage".[17]
Frederick II became addicted to dogs. He not only publicly said that "dogs are the best friends of mankind" (this sentence was first put forward by Frederick II[14]）He also praised that dogs "have all the good human virtues, but no human shortcomings".Beecher, Frederick II's pet dog, was given to him by his most trusted lieutenant, the Duke of Rothenburg. After seeing Beecher, he never left it.In 1745, when the Franco Prussian War broke out, Frederick II, who came to the front line, also took Beecher with him as usual.Unexpectedly, Beecher ran into the enemy camp and was captured by a Hungarian general in the sticky battle.Frederick II, who was sleepless all night, was extremely anxious, but not for war, but for fear that the enemy would kill Beecher.Finally, he ordered the Duke of Rothenburg to preside over the prisoner exchange negotiations in secret and "redeem" Beecher.[17]When the dog returned, Frederick II was almost crazy with joy, hugging his dog, and tears filled his eyes.[14]
Main works
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Frederick II was an influential writer in the 18th century, who wrote a large number of French works.His Anti Machiavell written in 1740 analyzed Machiavelli's national political views from the perspective of progress.[7]In addition, he has also written such works as "Instructions to Generals", "Contemporary History", "Seven Year War History", and "Opposing Machiavellian Doctrine".[19][27]
interpersonal relationship
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father
Friedrich William I (1688-1740), who reigned from 1713 to 1740, was known as the "Soldier King" (Soldaten K ö nig).Although he did not seize land on a large scale, under his rule, he greatly filled the national treasury and created the most powerful army in Europe at that time.[3]
mother
Sophie Dorothea, sister of King George II of England.[19]
wife
Elisabeth Christine von Braunschweig Bavern: Princess of Brunswick Beveren Marquis.[19]
Commemoration for future generations
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palace
Worry free Palace
In 1745, Frederick II commissioned the court architect George Winchslaus von Knobersdorf to build the Worry Free Palace in Potsdam. As an architecture enthusiast, Frederick II personally completed the initial sketch.The palace was originally built as a summer resort for the king, away from the court, to recuperate and focus on personal interests.Frederick II originally only wanted to build a stepped vineyard on the hill.To this end, the architect designed a large single-layer palace surrounded by some curved terraces planted with vines and fruit trees.The special design of no steps or thresholds between the interior and exterior of the palace was explicitly requested by Frederick II to enter the balcony and vineyard directly from his room.The hall of this palace is extremely elegant, but not excessively luxurious.However, this does not prevent the Worry Free Palace from having the characteristics of an audience place at the same time - there are Corinthian colonnades in the spacious and respectful main courtyard to welcome visitors.In the center of the palace, the foyer and the bright oval marble hall occupy the main position;There are columns, golden plaster decorations and ceiling murals in the lobby;The ceiling mural is the focus of the whole building. The oval dome above it is also decorated with gold plaster decoration, and there is a beam of light from the ceiling. The marble is inlaid with exquisite inflorescence and flower patterns.[12]
Tomb site
Before his death, Frederick II intended to be buried next to his dog on the terrace of Worry Free Palace, but his successor, Friedrich William II, buried him in the lower tomb of Potsdam Gleason Church.In 1844, his coffin was moved to the Elisabeth Church in Marburg.In 1852, it was moved toBurg Hohenzollern 。But it was not until August 17, 1891, after the reunification of Germany, that Frederick II settled down in the tomb he had built before his death.His words are "Quand je suis l à, je suis sans souci".People carved a bust of him in the Hall of the Spirit as a memorial.[15]
monument
Frederick on horseback
After the death of Frederick II, many monuments were erectedBerlinUnter den Linden Unter den Linden Horse riding statue of Frederick the Great.[13]World War IIThe statue survived and was rebuilt during the period of Democratic Germany.
