fromBohrThe modern times derived from the theory ofQuantum physicsIt is considered that the possible states of electrons outside the nucleus are discontinuous, so the corresponding energy of each state is also discontinuous.These energy values are energy levels[1]。The energy level is used to express the electrons in a certain energy layer (K, L, M, N, O, P, Q) and with a certain shape of the electron cloud.
Social energy level theoryIn, the term "energy level" is a concept borrowed from physics, which originally means that atoms are composed ofNucleusIt is composed of electrons running around the nucleus and electrons running around the nucleus according to their different orbits because they have different energies, that is, electrons with different energies are at different levels. This phenomenon also exists in management science.Energy level principleIt means that in modern management, institutions, laws and people all have energy problems. According to the size of energy, certain order, norms or standards can be established.
Late 19th century and early 20th century[2], human beings began to entermicrocosmicIn the world, physicists have put forward many suggestions onatomThe model of the mechanism includesrutherfordThe kernel model of.The kernel model can well explain the experimental phenomena, which is supported by many people;However, there is a profound contradiction between this model and the classical electromagnetic theory.
By ClassicElectromagnetic theory(Physics established before the end of the 19th century is usually calledClassical physics）, the electron rotates around the core with acceleration,Accelerated motionThe charged charge (electron) will radiate electromagnetic waves to the surrounding space. The frequency of electromagnetic waves is equal to the frequency of the electron rotating around the nucleus. With the constant outward radiation of energy, the energy of the atomic system will gradually decrease, and the orbital radius of the electron movement will also become smaller and smaller. The frequency of the rotation around the nucleus will continuously increase, and the electromagnetic wave frequency of the electron radiation will also change continuously. Therefore, the spectrum presented should beContinuous spectrum。
Because electrons radiate outward continuously when they move around the nucleuselectromagnetic wave, the electron energy decreases continuously, and the electron willscrewShape track gradually approachingNucleusFinally, it falls on the nucleus. In this way, the atom should be an unstable system.
Experimental facts:
Atoms are highly stable, and even if they are disturbed by the outside world, they are not easy to change the properties of atoms;Andhydrogen atomThe emitted spectrum isLinear spectrum, which is completely different from the conclusion of classical electromagnetic theory.
Energy layer theory
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Ergosphere(English:Energy level）Theory is an explanationNucleusA theory of the trajectory of external electrons.It believes that electrons can only move in specific, discrete orbits, and the electrons in each orbit have discrete energies, which areenergy level。Electrons can occur between different orbitstransition, electron absorption energy can be reduced fromEnergy level transitionTo high energy level or from high energy level to low energy levelphoton。hydrogen atomThe energy level of can be shown by its spectrum[3]。
Energy level property
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The various energy states of an atomic nucleus.They directly reflect the interaction between nucleons and the motion law of nuclear many body system.aboutNuclear gradeWe have a certain understanding of the properties of, especially the properties of low excitation levels[4]。
Calibration of energy levelsThe nature of atomic nuclear level depends onnucleonThe latter mainly includesStrong interaction(i.eNuclear force）AndElectromagnetic interaction。In a multi-body system, the invariance of the interaction between particles provides a good performance for this multi-body systemQuantum number。Due to nuclear force andElectromagnetic forceBoth have rotational invariance and spatial reflection invariance, so angular momentumISum parityπThey are good quantum numbers of atomic nuclei (i.e. conserved quantum numbers), and they are the most basic quantum numbers for calibrating energy levels except energy.In addition, the nuclear force also meetsisospinSpace rotation invariance, but the electromagnetic force does not have this invariance.So when the latter plays a small role, for example, in light nuclei, isospinTIt is still an approximate good quantum number (seeNucleus）It is meaningful to use it to calibrate energy levels.
Even evenNuclear gradeEven even nuclei have some very simple laws in terms of energy levels, such as the ground state of all even even nucleispinParityIπBoth are 0+, except for a few double full shell nucleifourHe、sixteenO、fortyCa、ninetyZr、two hundred and eightExcept Pb, the spin parity of the first excited state of all even even nuclei is 2+。This simple rule is obviously related to the internal structure of the nucleus and the interaction between nucleons.
Energy level widthexceptStable nucleusThe energy levels of all nuclei have a certain width
。This is because they can emit nucleons, nucleon clusters or otherhadron；Emission of γ by electromagnetic actionphoton；Or viaWeak interactionEmitting electrons andneutrinoAnd decay to a lower state or the excited state or ground state of the adjacent nucleus.Due to energy level lifetimeτAnd width
Therefore, all unstable energy levels have a certain width
。
It varies from several megaelectron volts to far less than one electron volt.Generally, the higher the energy is, the denser the energy levels are, and the greater the width is, so that the energy levels overlap each other and enter the continuous region.
Exciting properties of energy levelsThe excitation properties of a certain energy level can be determined from the nuclear decay, reaction properties and nuclear structure theory.There are two typical types of excitation: one is single particle excitation (or single particle excitationholeExcitation), such as in some oddAIn a nucleus, odd nucleons transition from one single particle state to another.The other is collective excitation, which is the coherent superposition of many single nucleon excitations.
When the excitation energy increases, the properties of the energy levels become more and more complex, and the energy levels become more and more dense.This is a meaningfulphysical quantityIs the energy level densityρ(E，Iπ）, itsPhysical meaningIs the excitation energyEWithin the unit energy range nearbyIπThe energy series of the value.Experimental low-energy neutron（E<100keV) can provide more accurate data of energy level density.aboutA"W60" nuclear utilization (p, p), (p,α）Some knowledge about the energy level density can be obtained by such reactions.In addition, the neutron evaporation spectrum is used to eliminateDirect nuclear reactionThe produced neutrons can also be obtainedρ(E，Iπ）Knowledge.Theoretically, since the degree of freedom of a single particle is dominant when the excitation energy is high, the energy level density can be derived approximately using the Fermi gas model
Where,
，
Is the single particle energy level density on the Fermi surface,E*=E-u, is the equivalent excitation energy. This formula can only be used in regions with dense energy levels.
The atomic nuclear energy level and its distribution is a very complex problem, which involves the internal motion law of the nuclear multi-body system and the emergence of new degrees of freedom.With the increase of energy, different types of degrees of freedom are successively excited, and the continuous spectrum and discrete spectrum can also overlap (like the spin like state). In addition,nucleonExcited state and othersbaryonIt can also appear in the nucleus to form new energy levels.The knowledge of these aspects is still very immature.
In the normal state, the atom is at the lowest energy level, and the electron moves in the orbit closest to the nucleusStationary stateIs called ground state[1]。
The stationary state in which the atom absorbs energy and transitions from the ground state to a higher level, and the electron moves in a far orbit is called the excited state.
③ A hydrogen atom is in theQuantum numberWhen it is an excited state of n, the number of possible spectral lines radiated is:
N=n-1
④ A grouphydrogen atomWhen in the excited state with quantum number n, the number of spectral lines that may be radiated is:
N=n(n-1)/2
The frequency v of the emitted light is determined by h ν=Efirst－EendDecision, where h isPlanck constant。
New theory
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In 1913, Danish physicist Nie Bohr put forward his own atomic structure hypothesis, believing that the radius of the electron orbit moving around the atomic nucleus can only take some discrete values. This phenomenon is called orbitalquantumDifferent orbits correspond to different states. In these states, although electrons are moving at a high speed, they do not radiate energy, so these states are stable.Atoms have different energies in different states, so the energy of atoms is alsoquantizationOf.
Energy level transition
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The energy level transition was first proposed by Niels Bohr, but Bohr applied the macroscopic laws to it, so in addition to the energy level transition of hydrogen atom, Bohr encountered great difficulties in exploring the transition laws of other complex atoms[5]。
There are different numbers of particles (electrons) distributed at different energy levels in the atoms that make up the substance. When a particle at the high energy level is excited by a certain photon, it will jump from the high energy level to the low energy level. At this time, it will emit light with the same properties as the light that excites it
Energy level of hydrogen atom: the energy corresponding to each steady state of the atom is discontinuous, and these energy values are called energy levels.
① Energy level formula: En=Eone/ntwo
② Radius formula: rn=rone·ntwo
In the hydrogen spectrum,
N=2,3,4,5,... transitions to n=1 to form Lyman lines;
N=4,5,6,7... transition luminescence to n=3 to form Paschen line system;
N=5,6,7,8... transition luminescence to n=4 to form a Bragg line system,
Only the first four spectral lines of the Balmer line system fall in the visible light region.
③ The lowest energy level is called the ground state, and the other levels are called the excited state.The state when the electron is "far away" from the atomic nucleus and no longer attracted by the atomic nucleus is called the ionized state. The energy level of the ionized state is 0 (when the electron transitions from the ground state to the ionized state, it absorbs the maximum energy).
Social energy level theory
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The major theoretical innovation result of applying energy level theory to social science isSocial energy level theory，Social energy level theoryIt is generally used to analyze the change of social status of organizations or individuals embedded in the macro social network[6]。The main contents of the social energy level theory include: the macro social network is a pyramid type energy level structure, in which each organization or individual, high or low, must have a network position of its own, and the fundamental factor determining the position of an organization or individual in the social network is the total resource stock of the organization or individual;The more the total resource stock of an organization or individual, the greater its social energy, the stronger its social influence, and the higher its position in the social network;Divide organizations or individuals with similar total resource stocks into one energy level, and the higher the energy level, the closer to the network top;In a social energy level, there are upper and lower energy limits. If an organization or individual's social energy exceeds the upper limit, its social energy level will jump to a higher social energy level;On the contrary, if its social energy is lower than the lower limit, it will be reduced to a lower social energy level.
As an organizational network nested in the macro social network, the shape of the organizational network is similar to that of the social network. It is also pyramid shaped and occupies a specific position within a certain level of the social network.The total resources contained in the organizational network come from each stakeholder of the organization, which is the organic sum of all kinds of resources that can be provided by various stakeholders of the organization.The amount of various resources that can be provided by various stakeholders of an organization depends mainly on their respective social energy and the strength of contact between them.
