Cheng Zhu's Philosophy

[chéng zhū lǐ xué]

One of the main schools of Neo Confucianism in the Song and Ming Dynasties

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The philosophy of Cheng and Zhu, also known as "Cheng and Zhu Taoism", is Neo Confucianism in the Song and Ming Dynasties It is one of the main schools of Neo Confucianism and one of the schools that have the greatest influence on later generations.

Neo Confucianism in the Song and Ming Dynasties, as well as Buddhism, did not take the Five Classics and sacrificed the quotations of sages to engage in post Confucianism, which is called "ignorance of the origin" (Gu Yanwu in the Ming Dynasty)^[11] 。 In ancient times, there was no "Neo Confucianism". "The name of" Neo Confucianism "began in the Song Dynasty." Although there was no name of "Neo Confucianism" in ancient times, there was the truth of "Neo Confucianism", that is, "Confucian classics".^[11]

The mainstream of Taoism in the Song Dynasty was the study of Lian, Luo, Guan and Min. The Song and Yuan Learning Plan called Zhang Zaizhi's study of Guan: "The study was based on Yi, the doctrine of the mean, etiquette, and Confucius and Mencius." "Following the ancient rites, customs in Guanzhong changed and became ancient.".^[12]

Neo Confucianism Of Heavenly principles It is the science of morality, and it is also the royal power Legitimacy basis^[1] By Northern Song Dynasty Period Henan (present Henan Luoyang ）People Cheng Hao And younger brother of Cheng Hao and forerunner of Zhu Xi Brother started to establish, during which he passed disciples Yang Shi , retransmit Luo Congyan , third pass Li Dong , to the Southern Song Dynasty Zhu Xi All together.^[2-3] Cheng Zhu's Philosophy Southern Song Dynasty There is not much superior position. Since the Yuan Dynasty, the Neo Confucianism of Cheng and Zhu was determined by the rulers as Official school After its prosperity, Cheng Zhu's philosophy Japan North Korea Ryukyu Vietnam? The impact is also considerable.

The fundamental characteristic of Neo Confucianism is to integrate the Confucian society, nation and Ethics And personal life belief idea, form a more complete conceptualized and systematic philosophy and belief system, and make it logical, psychological, abstract and truth oriented. This enabled Neo Confucianism to have a strong sense of autonomy, forming the concept of reason over potential, Orthodoxy The political concept higher than governance and unification is to restrain Monarchical power It provided theoretical support for the popularization of Chinese politics in the Song and Ming dynasties and the participation of the people in political affairs. It also makes the logic, abstraction and systematization of ethics and moralization dominate "heavenly principles" and "heavenly ways", replacing the rough“ View of destiny ”And Personality god , China and the world Philosophical thought A great leap forward.^[4]

Chinese name: Cheng Zhu's Philosophy
Alias: Cheng Zhu Daoism

Creation: Two way （ Cheng Hao 、 younger brother of Cheng Hao and forerunner of Zhu Xi ）
System: Neo Confucianism in the Song and Ming Dynasties

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Cheng Hao

The natural principle of Neo Confucianism is moral theology, which also becomes Theocracy And the legitimacy of royal power^[1] 。

Cheng Zhu Neo Confucianism in the Song and Ming Dynasties One of the main sects of Neo Confucianism, sometimes referred to as Neo Confucianism, and Cardiology relative. It means that after the Song Dynasty in China Cheng Hao 、 younger brother of Cheng Hao and forerunner of Zhu Xi 、 Zhu Xi The school developed by others believes that reason is the origin of all things in the universe (from different perspectives, he has different names, such as heaven, Tao, etc.), and he is good. He endows good to people, which becomes nature, and endows good to society, which becomes "ceremony". In the world of all things, people are easy to lose their natural endowment of "reason", and society loses "ceremony" 。 He also believes that, because reason is the origin of all things in the universe, there must be a "reason" for all things to "be what they are", and the purpose of understanding truth (knowledge) can be achieved by studying the truth of things (things).

Therefore, if we cannot restrain the expansion of selfish desires, we will deviate from the way of heaven, not only unable to become a saint, but also may lose the world. Therefore, we should cultivate, return, and expand the nature endowed by heaven (to preserve the principles of heaven), so as to reach the highest level of "benevolence". At this time, we have completely entered the reason, that is, "the unity of heaven and man", and then we can "follow the wishes of our hearts without exceeding the rules", At this time, human desires have been integrated into the principles of heaven (eliminating human desires is not non desire, but the unity of reason and desire). If there is no intention, no need, no fixation, and no self (from "no" to "no"), no matter what you do, you will not deviate from the laws of heaven.

The philosophy of Cheng and Zhu is a systematic philosophy and belief system, and the academic circles of later generations have theorized about Cheng and Zhu as“ Objective idealism ”, and put Lu Wangxin into“ Subjective idealism ”Is to explain Neo Confucianism from the perspective of philosophy. However, in fact, we can understand Cheng Zhu's Neo Confucianism from a more "thin" level, reducing it to a discipline Political philosophy 。 Although Neo Confucianism emphasizes "internal sainthood", "internal sainthood" is only the starting point, and the end result is still "external king". This should be one of our understanding of Cheng Zhu's philosophy Logical starting point From this logical starting point, we will suddenly understand some unconscionable statements in Cheng Zhu's Neo Confucianism. Cheng Zhu's philosophy is a political philosophy. In other words, this theory is actually told to the monarch and the scholar bureaucrats who govern the country; The "reason" that the Song Dynasty scholars particularly emphasized was also used to restrain monarchs and literati.

Historical development

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Origin of the Song Dynasty

In ancient China, "Neo Confucianism" was also called the study of righteousness or Taoism, whose founder was the Northern Song Dynasty ranked next to Zhu Xi 、 Shao Yong and Zhang Zai 。 Followed by Cheng Hao and younger brother of Cheng Hao and forerunner of Zhu Xi People continued to develop, and finally the Southern Song Dynasty Zhu Xi As a result, this kind of Neo Confucianism is often called "Cheng Zhu Philosophy", which was the official ideology of the state in the Yuan Dynasty and later dynasties. Scholars who study Neo Confucianism are called "Neo Confucianism". In terms of subdivision, Lu Wang has something to do with Neo Confucianism difference Never confuse them. Metaphysics prevailed in the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, and Buddhism and Taoism prevailed in the Tang Dynasty, Confucianism No longer exclusive to one family. Zhu Xi's profound point is that Confucius and Mencius It is authentic, and at the same time scholar-statesman instrumental in institutionalizing Confucianism and civil-service examinations Yin Yang and Five Elements ，把 Zhang Zai 、 ranked next to Zhu Xi 、 Two way The new Confucianism system with profound contents was carefully and meticulously constructed by sorting out the views of "," as well as the Buddhist view of eliminating desire and the spirit of philosophy and speculation.

Seven hundred years after the Song Dynasty《 Recent Thoughts 》、《 Four books or questions 》、《 Notes to the Four Books 》It has always been regarded as orthodox and is very adaptable to the patriarchal system. Many people point out with certainty that due to the influence of Cheng Zhu Neo Confucianism From the Song Dynasty, China began to be introverted, conservative and stagnant. There's even research Costume History Scholars claimed that because of the influence of Cheng Zhu's philosophy, women's clothing in the Song Dynasty tended to be stiff, rigid and tightly wrapped. But in fact, if you look at the women in the Song Dynasty in the paintings of the Song Dynasty, you will find that their clothes are very sexy, usually Underwear wear , crisp chest slightly exposed. There were a hundred schools of thought in the Song Dynasty, and Neo Confucianism was just one of them, Zhu Xi His theory was rejected by the court.

Zhu Xi has a good friend, Zheng Ziming, who "makes friends in one word"（ Zheng Jian ）, official to“ Works by Zoran ”, married the Prime Minister Chen Junqing Daughter of Chen Shizhong, another friend of Zhu Xi Chen Shi As a wife. Ayden In the ninth year (A.D. 1182), Zheng Ziming was unlucky die young , one year later In the shop When the news of Chen Shi's intention to remarry came out, Zhu Xi wrote a letter to Chen Shizhong: "Since the death of the Ming Dynasty, it's time to go, read it and hold it, and hate it as new as new... It's said that a friend who makes his younger sister very virtuous will be able to provide for the elderly and comfort the orphan, so as to make the whole boat through. This is especially true for the Prime Minister and his wife encourage It is also a good thing for people to support and achieve, so that Ziming is not a loyal minister, and his family is born as a wife of honor. Brother Ji, Kun Zhong will not be afraid to win. Mr. Xi Yichuan thought that it was not easy to starve to death, but it was a big breach of integrity. His secular view was really broad-minded. However, he knew that the gentleman's view of the Confucian classics should be in order to know that it was not easy. Kuang Fu, the elder of the prime minister's generation, is a famous religious sect. If you make a mistake, you can't refuse to judge it. Xi has insulted the depth of knowledge, so he has to say nothing about righteousness. He dare not go straight ahead. He is willing to tell the truth because of his brother, and does not know that he is arrogant. "

Zhu Xi means that he hopes Chen Shizhong can persuade his sister not to remarry and stay in the Zheng family to "provide for the aged and comfort the orphan". This is also the only place in all Zhu Xi's articles that quoted Cheng Yi as saying that "death from hunger is a small thing, but dishonesty is a big thing". Zhu Xi Old Master Admit that "from the secular view, sincerity is pedantic". It can be seen that there was no general idea that women would not remarry at that time. However, the Chen family is the home of the prime minister, "a famous religion", and Zhu Xi proposed "arrogating authority", but his actual intention is probably due to his anxiety about the future life of the old and young friends.

Zhu Xi may have sensed that this letter didn't work, and wrote a letter to Chen Junqing, Chen Shizhong's father, imploring Chen Prime Minister to persuade his daughter not to remarry, and explaining that he took the liberty to write this letter, which was "based on human relations customs and cultural influence For the sake of importance, and for the sake of the whole boudoir ear. But the minister of Fu Wei paid close attention to it. Despite Zhu Xi's earnest remarks, Chen still remarried. According to Chen Junqing's Travels, written by Zhu Xi himself, Chen Junqing's "Second Daughter Suits Her Writings", Zuolang Zhengjian, Re Suits Tai Chang Shaoqing Luodian ”。 In fact, in the Song Dynasty, women remarried everywhere from scholar bureaucrat families to common people's families, Wang Anshi 's daughter-in-law Chong Shi Yue Fei Liu's ex-wife Lu You 's ex-wife Tang Wan All are adapted to others.

History of the Song Dynasty scholar Zhang Bangwei Mr. used the Southern Song Dynasty literary sketches 《 Yi Jian Zhi 》According to the statistics of the recorded cases, it is found that: "Only one part《 Yi Jian Zhi 》In, the number of remarriages of women in the Song Dynasty reached 61, including 55 remarriers and six remarriers. Although this is a glimpse, it can also be seen from the social fashion at that time. " Mr. Zhang Bangwei concluded that "women remarried in the Song Dynasty, not very few, but very many"; "In the Song Dynasty, women's remarriage was by no means more and more strictly prohibited, but on the contrary, the restrictions became smaller and smaller, and more and more liberal.". Lu Xun The satire on the Song people "when they saw the word" Chongshi "in history, they made a fuss about it" is an unmistakable slander, if not ignorance.

Song Dynasty Social ethos They are not ashamed of remarriage, and do not discriminate against remarried women, Fan Zhongyan to Fan Clan Welfare fund Concluded《 Yizhuang Rules 》Regulations: "Marry a woman for 30 times, and then marry another 20 times. Marry a woman for 20 times, and then marry no more." The financial aid for remarried women is better than that for men. The royal family of the Song Dynasty did not discriminate against women who had remarried. Liu E, a Sichuan woman, was originally the wife of Gong Mei, a silversmith. Who did Liu E marry? King Xiang Zhao Yuankan. Hou Yuan Kan became the emperor for Song Zhenzong The Liu family was crowned queen. Song Renzong queen Cao Family She was also a remarried woman. She had married the Li family, but her husband fled on the wedding night Accept as Later, it is also true to offer mercy and holy light.

The laws of the Song Dynasty did not contain any provisions that suppressed women's right to remarry, but only prohibited them be in mourning Remarriage, forced remarriage, and remarriage from one's husband should be restricted at any time. Even Zhu Xi himself did not oppose women remarriage. He said, "It's a breach of integrity to marry a husband when he dies, but there are also some who have no choice but to marry a sage." Zhu Xi once discussed a case with a friend: Jianyang County A woman filed for divorce because her husband's family was too poor, and the matter came to the Yamen, county magistrate Divorce. Zhu Xi's friends disapproved of the verdict and said, "How can a couple abandon each other when they are poor? How can a lawsuit be followed?" Zhu Xi said, "You can't look at such things at the same time. If a husband is not talented and can't nurture his wife, and the wife can't support herself, what can you do? It seems that you can't stick to the principle of justice. I'm afraid that the wife's desire to leave her husband should not be tortuous and must be thoroughly investigated." It can be seen that although Mr. Zhu is somewhat serious, he is not unkind.

Some people in later generations think that Cheng Yi is serious, upright, sacred and inviolable, even impersonal, which is actually the "Taoist face" seen in later generations. In women Chastity On the other hand, Cheng Yi believes that "... anyone who chooses to match a person's body with another's integrity is already in breach of integrity." Someone asked Mr. Cheng Yi, "Widows are poor and have no basis. Can they remarry?" Cheng Yi said, "absolutely not. Some people use hunger and cold as an excuse for fear of freezing to death and starvation to death. It is important to know that death from hunger is a small matter, while death from integrity is a big one" (Book of Cheng's Survives, Volume 22), Later learning Zhu Xi (1130-1200 AD) With Chen Shizhongshu He also agreed with the saying: "Mr. Xi Yichuan thought that it was not easy to die of starvation, but it was a big breach of integrity. From the secular perspective, it was really pedantic; however, from the gentleman's perspective, it should be known that it was not easy." However, during the Song Dynasty, when the humiliation of the strong northern neighbor was rampant, social chaos and moral integrity sense of worth Nian and so on have been abandoned and forgotten, so they have been put forward in a targeted way. However, people in later generations often take this out of context, which is regrettable.

Cheng Zhu's philosophy opposed to Buddhism and Taoism nihilism , think it ignores Ethics Order, but at the same time from Taoism He drew on many discourses on Tao as confucian The material of metaphysical philosophy system. Actually, this is the Confucian classic《 university 》The specific expression of the so-called "good knows its evil, evil knows its beauty". Zhu Xi Its ideological system is broad and subtle, and its teaching method is relatively approachable, so it can integrate Song Dynasty Neo Confucianism Zhu Xi is the successor Confucius After, Confucianism He who gathers all the achievements. Many of his works are painstaking. He and Lv Zuqian Jointly compiled a book《 Recent Thoughts 》As an understanding Four Books And he thought Four Books It is the ladder leading to the Five Classics. The Record of Recent Thoughts was once a must read for later Confucian scholars. foot-binding The rise of women's foot binding has nothing to do with the Song Dynasty neo Confucianism.

yuan dynasty Heyday

The development of Neo Confucianism in the Song Dynasty was officially established as the official ideology in the Yuan Dynasty, and was vigorously promoted by the officials“ The great righteousness of monarchs and ministers ”The thought of "Chinese and foreigners" has gone beyond the "debate between Chinese and foreigners" to become the social Universal value 。 Widely accepted by intellectuals including Han people, a large number of "righteous soldiers" gathered by Han people's semu landlords also became repression Red Scarf Army The main force of. But the Yuan Dynasty consumed the Han people Marquis The exclusion of Han intellectuals also made this group dissociate from the central government of the Yuan Dynasty to a large extent The rule of the Yuan Dynasty The foundation is fragile and finally collapses. Famous scholar of meta agency: Wu Cheng 、 Xu Heng 、 Liu Yin 、 Hao Jing 、 Yao Shu ， Lian Xixian ， Zhang Wenqian ， Liu Bingzhong Zhao Pang Wang Kekuan 、 Hua Youwu , Wu Hai Dai Liang Li Qi, Zhang Xian, Liang Yin Su Tianjue wait^[5]

Famous Confucianism in Yuan Dynasty Zhao Fu , Xu Heng, Wu Cheng, Liu Yin Zheng Yu 、 Xu Qian They have played an important role in the dissemination and development of meta agency. Because the Yuan Dynasty was particularly generous to the gentry of Confucian clans Land annexation It was very popular. In addition, during the Western Expedition of the Yuan Dynasty, I saw the world and came into contact with various Western civilizations and religions, Confucianism As a religion, Confucian scholars can not pay taxes. The Yuan Dynasty was deeply missed by Neo Confucianism. Many famous people died for the Yuan Dynasty, and even many Han celebrities followed Emperor Shun of the Yuan Dynasty to the grassland. and Zhu Yuanzhang It was the common people who asked for food. Knowing the farmers' sufferings, the Ming Dynasty began to restrain land annexation (the squires began to annex farmers' land on a large scale in the late Ming Dynasty).

Late Qing Dynasty Zhang Qigan Compiled《 Eight Hundred Yuan Dynasty Poems for the adherents 》, Yuan Dynasty has more than 850 adherents, compared with《 Integration of ancient and modern books 》Contained Song adherents Seven hundred people, of which only a small proportion are Mongolian Semu scholars, and a very large number of Han scholars, mainly concentrated in Huizhou, Fujian, Jiangxi, eastern Zhejiang and other places where the style of writing is prosperous and rich.

Learning Changes in the Ming Dynasty

After Zhu Xi, Wang Yangming, a great Confucian in the Ming Dynasty（ Wang Shouren ）Pushing Confucianism to another extreme—— Cardiology 。 In the late Ming Dynasty, Wang Xue Began to decline. Donglin School Gu Xiancheng 、 Gao Panlong Criticize the learning style of Wang's last school, which talked about emptiness and metaphysics, and introduced Confucianism into Zen Zhu Xue To save its disadvantages and advocate governing the country and saving the world Name and reality Learning. Of the two great Confucians in the late Ming Dynasty Zodiacal week He respected Zhu's learning, and Liu Zongzhou We should reform and develop Wang Shouren's thought based on the principle of "prudent independence".

Distortion of the Qing Dynasty

Bear Gives Shoes He advocated the theory of Cheng and Zhu, emphasizing that "the learning of Zhu is the learning of Cheng and Zhu. The learning of Cheng and Zhu is the learning of Confucius and Mencius. If Cheng and Zhu are not, then Confucius and Mencius are not. The learning of Cheng and Zhu is also the learning of Confucius and Mencius. The learning of Cheng and Zhu is also the learning of Confucius and Mencius. To learn from Confucius and Mencius but not from Cheng and Zhu is to want to leave their home and close their doors if they want to enter." Qianlong In the fifth year (1740), an imperial edict was issued to say that the learning of Cheng and Zhu "gained Confucius and Mencius" Heart to heart ... To follow the rules is a gentleman, and to disobey the rules is a villain; It is beneficial to transform the people into the common customs and cultivate the essence of self governance. "

“ republican revolutionary It is said that "the learning of Qing Dynasty is different from that of Ming Dynasty. The learning of Ming Confucianism is used to adapt to the world, and the learning of Qing Confucianism is used to protect oneself".

“ Zhang Taiyan Also said, "Song Ming Confucian scholar More Geng Jie, Qing Confucians with more power ".

"(Wang Mingsheng) 'The book hasn't been abolished for a day'. He is dealing with sages every day, but reading and standing up have been divided into two things, and sages can't influence him."

"Shen Yao in the Jiadao period said:‘ Qianlong After the middle period, scholars' habits were verified in places where they did not have to take the exam, and the upper and lower levels were mutually influenced. Academic decline and talent deterioration occurred.

Cheng Zhu's philosophy was really castrated when Manchu The most telling thing is Lv Liuliang What happened under the rule of Manchu.

Many people know that Lv Liuliang was born in the Qing Dynasty Literary inquisition Know that he is a strong Fighting against Qing Dynasty and restoring Ming Dynasty The national thought figure of Qing government But I don't know that Lv Liuliang is exactly the most firm believer and propagandist of Cheng Zhu's philosophy.^[6]

Qian Mu It was said that "Lu Liuliang, for example, was the Zhu Zi who set up a division to select scholars in the Qing Dynasty《 Four Books 》Yizhong Dazhang nationalism , was sentenced to death by cutting the corpse. Issued by Emperor Yongzheng《 Mystery of Great Justice 》It is a book that shows that the world is ready to give birth and everyone must read it. Soon, his book was also imprisoned, and no one in the country could see it. It was not until the end of the Qing Dynasty that this book was reprinted by the people, and it was seen again by the Chinese people together with Lv Liuliang's book. Most people today can talk about the literary inquisition of the Qing Dynasty. Yong Zheng is the one who has repeatedly used literary inquisition, and Yong Zhengyu is also imprisoned for writing books. This is an old story.

In Lv Liuliang's view, Cheng Zhu's philosophy and Confucianism itself provide criticism Absolute monarchy And the ideological weapon of alien domination. In Cheng Zhu's philosophy, he criticized selfishness and utilitarianism. His target was not the common people, but the monarchs and officials Ruling class 。

However, Lv Liuliang said, "Since the Han and Tang dynasties, people have regarded the world as if it were a village, and people as if they were tenants. However, the profit came from the outside, so those who did not dare to break the rules and take all the profits were also afraid to follow them. There was no need to worry about the profit." This statement is similar to the statement in some political textbooks after liberation, that is, the emperor is the head of the landlord, Even if it is good for the people, it is also to safeguard their own long-term interests. "Therefore, those who dare not break the rules and take everything, but also consider that it will not benefit them".

As for "Since the Son of Heaven the life All of them are called Tianlu. Tianlu is based on agriculture, and salaries are derived from agriculture ", which means that the salaries of the emperor and officials are actually provided by farmers, and farmers support them. Strictly speaking, Lv Liuliang's interpretation and exposition of Cheng Zhu's Neo Confucianism is not his personal invention, but the original meaning of Cheng Zhu's Neo Confucianism. In the Ming Dynasty, many intellectuals also understood Cheng Zhu's Neo Confucianism in this way, and based on Cheng Zhu's Neo Confucianism, they made various normative constraints on the emperor's behavior, even directly blamed the emperor, scolded and attacked the emperor, Only Lv Liuliang's explanation seems more popular.^[6]

Facts of the Late Qing Dynasty

In the traditional academic pattern of the late Qing Dynasty, Cheng Zhu's philosophy, as the official philosophy and social ideology , the revival of late clean-up studies, except Qing government In addition to constantly strengthening the social status of Cheng Zhu's philosophy when formulating academic policies, it is mainly reflected in the following aspects. First of all, there were a large number of followers of Neo Confucianism, and some more active academic groups emerged, which once strengthened the momentum of Neo Confucianism.

After Daoguang Dynasty, with the decline of Sinology, the followers of Neo Confucianism became active. Especially in Song Dynasty Neo Confucianism In Hubei, Henan, Shaanxi, Anhui, Fujian and other places where Jia Zhou, Cheng, Zhang, Zhu and others once talked about learning, religious scholars are connected and form groups. Their scale and momentum are not comparable to those in the Qianjia period. Hunan was less influenced by Sinology in the Qing Dynasty, and the camp of Neo Confucianism was huge. Most scholars and officials respected Neo Confucianism, such as Tao Shu 、 He Changling 、 He Xiling 、 Tang Jian 、 Hu Dayuan 、 Luo Zenan Zeng Guofan Zuo Zongtang 、 Hu Linyi All are good at science. Famous Neo Confucianism scholars in Henan include Liu Tingzhao, Wang Weixin, Wang Dixin, etc. Since the Song Dynasty, the Guanzhong area has a tradition of emphasizing Neo Confucianism. In the late Qing Dynasty Li Yuanchun 、 Zhou Zhi Of Luther 、 Sanyuan Of He Ruilin They respected Neo Confucianism, and through lectures and apprenticeship, they cultivated a large number of backward Neo Confucianism. From Anhui to Tongcheng Be the backbone and have Fang Dongshu 、 Yao Ying 、 Fang Zongcheng , Fang Qian and a group of scholars who adhere to the principles of Cheng and Zhu Huo Shan Of Wu Tingdong 、 Lu'an Of Tu Zongying 、 Dangtu Xia Xinhe of Xia Jiong Brothers are also famous for Neo Confucianism.

Basic viewpoints

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The basic viewpoints of Cheng Zhu's philosophy include: 1. Rationality monism Of idealism System Heavenly principles It is the combination of natural things and human society The fundamental law of; 2、 The difference between reason and point^[6] It is different to think that everything has its own reason. The reason of things and people is derived from the natural reason, which is called "reason one"; 3、 Preserve justice and destroy human desires The natural principles constitute the essence of human beings, which are embodied in the world Ethics "Three cardinal principles and five constancy". "Human Desire" is the desire and violation beyond the maintenance of human life Etiquette norms The behavior of is opposite to the heavenly principle.

Buddhist influence Confucianism The biggest is its ontological thinking model "Although Song Confucianism is mainly a political and ethical theory, its philosophical basis is no longer the 'unity of heaven and man', but the 'ontological' mode of thinking" Mode of thinking From Buddhism.^[9] The development of Confucianism in the six hundred years of the Song and Ming dynasties is known as "Neo Confucianism in the Song and Ming Dynasties". If it is not targeted to the point, it will be empty and difficult to grasp its essence, let alone its relationship with pre Qin Confucianism.

Neo Confucianism in the Song and Ming Dynasties is a "theory of human nature", which is also a combination of morality and religion. (This religion is not a western religion of worshiping gods, but a religion of patriarchal nature or original mind.) This "theory of human nature" is not just a way of learning Yichuan Zhu Xi's "nature is reason" also contains the meaning of "nature is reason", which is Luxiangshan 、 sunny Issued“ Mind is reason ”。 We can also call it“ The science of mind and nature ”。 Buddhism itself is an introverted religion about the nature of the heart. The emergence of Zen in the Tang Dynasty marked the completion of the sinicization of Buddhism, and Buddhism has become a religion about how to awaken the heart. In Buddhism and Zen Theory of mind and nature Under the influence of ideology, Taoism in the Tang and Song Dynasties completed the transformation from external alchemy to internal alchemy Neo Confucianism From advocating "nature is reason" to advocating "mind is reason", it has become a kind of mind oriented Confucianism focusing on internal transcendence.^[10]

This kind of learning of mind and nature is the learning of inner sages. It lies in the individual himself, consciously doing the work of sages and moral practice to improve his own virtue and knowledge of perfect personality. The study of internal sages has become a foregone conclusion in the pre Qin Confucianism, and after 600 years of development and promotion by the Confucians of the Song and Ming Dynasties, it is beneficial to the development of a very high level. The learning of inner sainthood can also be called the teaching of virtue. The highest goal of "virtue" is to become sainthood, benevolence and adult. Its practical significance is to expand the limited life of individuals to infinite perfection.

This "education of virtue" can also be called "moral philosophy" only in terms of knowledge. Its central problems are two: one is to discuss Moral practice The reason for the possible transcendence is the problem of mind and nature; How to start the moral practice of the two is the problem of time. Moral philosophy can be complete only by giving consideration to these two aspects. On the issue of mind nature, it is not only the noumenon of moral practice, but also the noumenon of universe biochemistry, and the noumenon (basis) of all existence. In this way, moral philosophy naturally leads to a moral metaphysics 。

"Moral Metaphysics ”Approaching metaphysics through the moral approach, so as to make an "ontological statement" and“ Cosmology Statement of ". In the West, Kant only established "moral theology", and he did not actively realize and fully prove "moral metaphysics", but Kant's free will, Thing itself , as well as the idea of using aesthetic judgment to communicate the moral world and nature, contains the trend of "moral metaphysics". Song and Ming Dynasties Confucian scholar According to the rules of the pre Qin Confucians' "education of virtue", the "study of mind and nature" it promoted is the full completion of "moral metaphysics". This is also Mou Zongsan Mr. Liu's basic characterization and positioning of Confucianism in the Song and Ming Dynasties. Therefore, Confucianism in the Song and Ming Dynasties is not only a general moral theory, but also a true metaphysics, which makes the position of Confucianism in the Song and Ming Dynasties in human culture truly recognized, and also opens a new horizon for us to understand Confucianism in the Song and Ming Dynasties.

Theory formation

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Cheng Zeng, a master of Neo Confucianism in the Northern Song Dynasty ranked next to Zhu Xi , whose work was co edited by later generations《 Two-way set 》。 They put "reason" or“ Heavenly principles ”As the highest category of philosophy, he believes that reason is omnipresent, immortal, not only the origin of the world, but also civil life The highest principle of. In terms of poor reasoning method, Cheng Hao "Static", emphasizing "sincerity"; Cheng Yi“ Reverence ”, emphasizing "learning from facts". stay Theory of human nature On, Zhu Xi It advocates "keeping the natural principles, Destroy human desire ”And further explain this view to make it more systematic.

Zhu Xi

Two way The emergence of theory marks Song Dynasty Neo Confucianism The formal formation of the ideology. Southern Song Dynasty At that time, Zhu Xi inherited and developed the Two Cheng Thought, and established a complete and exquisite Objective idealism The ideological system of. Broadly speaking, it also includes the "Five Sons" of the Northern Song Dynasty absorbed by Zhu Xi（ ranked next to Zhu Xi 、 Shao Yong 、 Zhang Zai And the second Cheng), and extended to the thoughts of Zhu Xi's disciples, later scholars and the believers of the whole Cheng Zhu. As Zhu Xi is the largest representative of this school, it is also called Zhu Zixue 。 Zhu Xi used the Buddhist metaphor of "the moon prints thousands of rivers" to explain“ The difference between reason and point ”We regard the "heavenly principles" as the source of all values. He said:“ Buddha Cloud: 'All water appears in January, and all water is photographed in January', which is what Shi Shi also sees. " (《 Zhuzi Genre 》Volume XVIII) with Huayan Sect“ One is everything ”"Ten thousand are one, and one is ten thousand" (Volume 94 of Zhu Zi Yulei).

The philosophy of Cheng and Zhu began to be accepted and respected by the ruling class in the late Southern Song Dynasty, Jingyuan By the Ming and Qing Dynasties, it officially became the ruling ideology of the country. So if Neo Confucianism in the Song and Ming Dynasties If there is no special provision for the concept of "Li", it usually refers to the Neo Confucianism of the school of Cheng and Zhu.

During the Song, Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties, the rulers of the past dynasties mostly turned the Neo Confucianism of Er Cheng and Zhu Xi into the official ruling ideology, and thus Cheng Zhu's Neo Confucianism became the main content of people's daily right and wrong standards and understanding and practice. In the historical process of more than 600 years after the Southern Song Dynasty, Cheng Zhu's philosophy has promoted people's Theoretical thinking Educate people Literacy It has played a positive role in shaping people's sentiments, maintaining social stability and promoting historical progress.

In terms of human nature, Zhu Xi Think people have“ Nature of Destiny ”And“ Nature of temperament ”The former originates from the principle of Tai Chi and is absolute goodness; The latter is divided into clear and turbid, good and evil. People should pay homage and be unreasonable Changing temperament 。

Renaissance of Neo Confucianism

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Academic atmosphere

In terms of time, in the 20th year of Daoguang (1840), Tang Jian "Regaining the capital as a teacher and advocating formal learning" can be regarded as an important symbol of the revitalization of Neo Confucianism. Gu Yun The Records of Chong Mountain said: "In the last days of Daoguang, the Confucians talked about the Han scholars soaking in the micro, so the Tang Dynasty was really careful to learn from the public End male Japanese Ren, Wu Shilang, Tingdong and others started to talk philosophical theories of Song scholars Zeng Wenzheng's vassal will also be there. " (Gu Yun: Farewell Biography of Jiang Xiaolian in Luo Literature, Volume V of Records of Chong Mountain) This year, Tang Jian passed the imperial edict Taichang Temple Minister Around him gathered Japanese benevolence Wu Tingdong 、 Zeng Guofan 、 He Guizhen , Lv Xianji Dou 垿 Wait for a group of famous scholars of Neo Confucianism to form a neo Confucianism Academic groups 。 At the end of Daoguang's reign, this trend of advocating orthodox learning was in sharp contrast to the situation of "scholars and officials did not respect Song Confucianism" in the Qianjia period.

Official support

Tang Jian was the leader of the revival of Neo Confucianism, while Wu Ren, Wu Tingdong, Zeng Guofan and others were the main leaders of the revival of Neo Confucianism. Tongzhi During the reign of Wu Ren, Wu Tingdong Li Tang Stage The establishment of the dynasty with "orthodox learning" greatly promoted the position of Neo Confucianism. Fang Zongcheng It is said that Wu Tingdong "was in the same dynasty with Duke Geng Feng and Duke Li of Wenyuan Bachelor As a master, Mr. Li is a scholar military aircraft In spite of their respective positions, they failed to conquer the enemy. However, morality and justice are in harmony. They can secretly praise each other and learn from each other. They are called the three great sages in China. All those who aspire to study seriously in the capital regard Sangong as their guide. " (Fang Zongcheng: Chronicle of Wu Zhuru, see Wu Tingdong Appendix to the Continuation of Humble Repair Collection) Hunan army led by Zeng Guofan The group also gathered a large number of Neo Confucianism people, except the leaders of the Hunan Army Zuo Zongtang 、 Hu Linyi Outside, Luo Zenan 、 Liu Rong , Li Yuandu Guo Songtao 、 Liu Changyou 、 Ding Shanqing 、 Wang Xuan 、 Li Xubin 、 Li Xuyi 、 Jiang Yili He Xingfan, Zhong Jinheng Liu Dian Tu Zongying, Fang Zongcheng, etc., or a member of the Hunan Army, or once a staff member of Zeng Guofan, all have a Neo Confucianism background. In a sense, the Hunan Army Group is a base camp of Neo Confucianism.

In the late Qing Dynasty, religious scholars Cheng Zhu Orthodoxy He inherited the orthodox school and wrote a number of academic works. Among them, the academic history works that commend Cheng Zhu's Neo Confucianism include Pan Shien Of《 Edited by Zhengxue 》, He Guizhen's "Continuation of the Authenticity of Neo Confucianism", Tang Jian's《 A little knowledge of learning plans in the National Dynasty 》、 Wang Fen Taiwan Xuetong by Xu Dingwen, Anhui Xuebian by Xu Dingwen Huang Sidong Lian Xue Bian and Tao Xue Yuan Yuan Lu; The works defending the orthodox position of Cheng Zhu's philosophy include Fang Dongshu Of《 Sinology Exchange 》Luo Zenan's "Yao Jiang Xue Bian", Liu Tingzhao's "Li Xue Zong Zhuan Bian Zheng", etc. In addition, such as the Japanese Duan Gong Diary of Japanese Ren Wu Tingdong His Humble Repair Collection was also influential at that time. Although these Neo Confucianism works are uneven, they have improved the academic status of Cheng Zhu's Neo Confucianism from different aspects and strengthened its social momentum.

Uprising

The revival of Neo Confucianism in the late Qing Dynasty was largely related to the suppression of the followers of Neo Confucianism Taiping Rebellion And“ dynastic revival in the Tongzhi period ”The achievements made in the process are related. Zeng Guofan Group was put in high position by the imperial court because of its suppression of the Taiping Rebellion. Xianfeng At the end of the year, Zeng Guofan was awarded Governor of Liangjiang , Imperial envoys, with power devoting to the southeast, hold half of the country in seclusion. During the Tongzhi period Mao Hongbin 、 Luo Bingzhang 、 Peng Yulin Li Xuyi was successively appointed governor of Hunan, Sichuan, Anhui, Hubei and other places. The governor power of Jiangxi, Zhejiang, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Shaanxi, Yunnan and Guizhou and other areas was once controlled by Zeng Guofan Group, so there was a saying that "Xiang army generals are used from the west to Sichuan, and from the east to the sea, and they all rely on the national vassals."（ Wang Kaiyun ：《 Hunan Military Records 》， Yuelu Bookstore 1983, p. 61).

In the capital, in the first year of Tongzhi (1862), Japanese people moved several times in a short period of eight months minister of public works Tongzhi Emperor's Master, Imperial Academy Master's Degree 、 Associate Bachelor , Bachelor minister of works 、 Wenyuange Bachelor 。 Li Tang Stage 、 Wu Tingdong Also in the first year of Tongzhi, he was called into the capital and promoted many times. Other masters of Tongzhi Emperor are as follows Li Hongzao 、 Xu Tong 、 Weng-tung-ho It is also good for Cheng Zhu Neo Confucianism. It was the first time in the political history of the late Qing Dynasty that Neo Confucianism became a famous scholar at the same time, and it was rare in the history of the development of Neo Confucianism.

Zeng Group has a strong Neo Confucianism color. Zeng Guofan Although running the army does not depend solely on Neo Confucianism, Daniel Learning to manage the world and governing the army with Neo Confucianism are his characteristics. As a result, his political success or failure will directly affect the world's view of academia and the fate of academia. just as Liang Qichao He said: "Luo Luoshan (Zenan) and Zeng Disheng (Guofan), at the turn of Taoism and Xianyang, forged ahead with Song learning alone, and their successors were known as scholars who committed great difficulties and succeeded. Most of the people they worked with were students or friends who taught at ordinary times. Since then, scholars have changed their attitude of disdaining Song learning." (Liang Qichao:《 Academic History of China in Recent 300 Years 》，《 Collection of ice drinking rooms 》Seventy five of the monographs, Zhong Hua Book Company 1989 edition, page 26) It can be said that the social crisis triggered the landlord gentry and feudal literati to attach importance to ethical order, and promoted the revival of Neo Confucianism; The revival of Neo Confucianism strengthened the feudalism of the feudal gentry and the scholar bureaucrats ideology , which strengthened their influence on the feudal monarchy centripetal force So that they will eventually become Qing government overcome Insurgent army Of dependence power. From this point of view, the rise of the Hunan Army Group can also be seen as the result of the religious scholars defending morality.

As for the combination of Cheng Zhu's philosophy and feudal politics, Reform Movement of 1898 During this period, the conservative Zeng Lian He once said: "It is in the brilliance of virtue When, Tang Jian He advocated learning from the capital, while the disciples of Wu Ren, Zeng Guofan and He Guizhen gave lectures from Xiangcong for several years. Luo Zenan He and his disciples, Wang Xuan and Li Xuyi, also gave lectures to the poor and worked tirelessly. Later, he praised the maintenance of the aircraft inside and took control of the military outside, so he moved the world and has been called it so far. It is not the effect of unorthodox learning. " [Zeng Lian: "Responding to the Imperial edict", "Reform Movement of 1898" (II) Shanghai People's Publishing House 、 Shanghai Bookstore Publishing House 2000 edition, page 493]“ dynastic revival in the Tongzhi period ”In terms of the relationship with the "rejuvenation of Neo Confucianism", in a sense, the "Wenzhi" and "Wugong" of such Neo Confucianism scholars as Wei Ren and Zeng Guofan contributed to the so-called "Tongzhi" in the late Qing Dynasty; And what religious scholars have achieved political status The political situation created by the "harmony", in turn, improved the social position And achieved the "rejuvenation of Neo Confucianism".

Thirdly, Cheng Zhu's philosophy still had a huge social foundation in the late Qing Dynasty, and occupied a dominant position in the thought and belief world of the majority of middle and lower class people.

In the late Qing Dynasty, although the philosophy of Cheng and Zhu suffered from various impacts, as a whole feudal society In the later period, the ideology was still valued by the government and had a large number of believers and supporters among the people.

Folk influence

Imperial examination system It was the most important official selection system of the Qing government, and The imperial examination Then use Zhu Xi 《 Notes to the Four Books 》For this, its purpose is to respect the Neo Confucianism of Cheng and Zhu.

As a kind of ideological belief and moral theory, Cheng Zhu's philosophy has a broad foundation among the people. Local local records There are extensive and detailed records of this. In terms of compiling ideas, local chronicles all over the country regard the promotion of Zhu's philosophy and its ethics as the primary responsibility, which in fact well illustrates the views of local society and grassroots people on Neo Confucianism. The substantial increase in the number of loyal, filial, virtuous and fierce people recorded in the local chronicles, on the other hand, shows that the general public has not been able to break through the moral code in a short time due to the intensification of the social crisis Mingjiao And lost faith in feudal ethics. On the contrary, under the complex effect of various factors, Feudal system Sometimes, the crisis of the Communist Party of China has also strengthened their ideological belief.

Although Cheng Zhu's philosophy is not equal to the feudal moral ethics theory, it is the main theoretical source of the latter. As Neo Confucianism scholars have said, "The principle of life falls among the monarch and his subjects, father and son, couples, brothers and friends." Cheng Zhu's philosophy and feudalism Patriarchal clan system Feudal morality and ethics are closely combined. From this perspective, people's maintenance of the feudal code of ethics is actually the maintenance of the Neo Confucianism of Cheng and Zhu.

The so-called "Neo Confucianism revival" in the late Qing Dynasty was mainly reflected in the Tongzhi Dynasty and the period before it. After the Tongzhi Dynasty, famous Confucian scholars died one after another, especially under the impact of western culture and enlightenment thoughts, Cheng Zhu's philosophy declined rapidly. Guangxu reign period 、 Xuantong During the period from to, religious scholars ignored the tide of the times, and their adherence to Confucianism was often associated with obstinacy, which was rejected by progressive people. With the demise of the Qing Dynasty, Cheng Zhu's philosophy lost its dominant position in official philosophy cultural life Its influence is also declining.

Critical viewpoint

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zhi

At the end of the Ming Dynasty, Hubei people came up with Confucianism zhi For orthodox rationalists“ Preserve the heavenly principles and destroy human desires ”He put forward the proposition that "dressing and eating is the physics of human relations" and that "reason" challenges orthodox ideas in the daily life of the people.

After the Qing Dynasty, the anti abstinence proposition once took shape. Yan Yuan Later, he fought against Cheng Zhu and the old Buddha's meditation and empty learning, in which he denounced Zhu Xi It's "full of nonsense", "self deception", "one point will be broken and one point will be gained Confucius and Mencius ”"The way of Cheng and Zhu is not extinguished, and the way of Confucius is not followed"^[7] ； He also criticized Cheng Zhu for "seeing the Tao on paper, talking about it in the mouth, and examining it in the pen". He deeply felt that "people in the Song Dynasty learned from those who failed in talent and world affairs". He said, "Lead the world into the old paper, exhaust physical and mental strength, and be a weak patient and useless person. It is also the work of Hui'an (Zhu Xi)!".

the Qing dynasty Dai Zhen He thinks: "The reason is the desire."（《 On the Meaning of Mencius 》Volume I) "Everything is done by desire. Without desire, nothing can be done And then make a difference It is said that there is no easy reason to make achievements. How reasonable is it to do nothing without desire? " (The second part of the Book of Mencius' Word Interpretation).

Zhu Xi, a great theorist in the Southern Song Dynasty, advocated "restraining human desires and preserving the heavenly principles", which was first regarded as a dogma by popular Confucianism in the Ming and Qing dynasties, and evolved into Absolutism "Preserve the reason of heaven, destroy the desire of people"; Later, it was regarded by the modern enlightenment as the criminal evidence of "ritual education eats people".

Contemporary Studies

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In the 20th century, the study of the philosophy of Cheng and Zhu in mainland China can be roughly divided into four periods.^[8]

Pioneering period

Lv Simian

From 1900 to 1949. During these 50 years, most of the papers on Cheng Zhu's philosophy focused on individual cases. The earliest research Two way Cheng Yichuan's Cosmology (1921), the earliest research Zhu Xi His paper includes Cheng Nanyuan's "On Zhu Lushu's Fourth Book with Friends" (1915) History of Chinese Philosophy Or the history of ideas, which are all about Northern Song Dynasty "Five Sons", Zhu Xi and their later thoughts are discussed, but there are few monographs on individual case studies. The earliest monograph on the history of Chinese philosophy was published in 1915 Thank you very much History of Chinese Philosophy.

The book is written in a simple way Daoism (Neo Confucianism) Zhou Lianxi 、 Shao Kangjie 、 Zhangheng Canal 、 Cheng Mingdao Cheng Yichuan Gate Scholars Zhu Hui'an 、 Zhu Zi School of disciples. Lv Simian "Outline of Neo Confucianism" (1931) can be said to be an earlier book on the history of philosophy dating. In this book, Lv Simian, like Xie Wuliang, believes that "stability should be promoted when learning in the Song Dynasty（ Hu Yuan ）, Taishan（ Sun Fu ）, Culai（ Mesolith ）”However, Zhou Lianxi was the first scholar of Song Confucian philosophy.

Lv Simian's comments on Mingdao Yichuan He has a unique view that the nature of Yi Chuan, the bright way in Luo's learning, is different, and those who learn from it are also different because of their proximity to nature. Lv Simian also discussed the theory of Hui'an earnestly, and believed that Philosophical thought Then there is no reason why Zhou, Zhang Two way In addition, the research is more in-depth and more incisive. Therefore, Zhu Zi is not the creator of Song Xue, but Song Xue A master 。 a noted philosopher Of《 History of Chinese Philosophy 》In the same way Cheng Zhu A school of Taoism gave details.

internationally known sinologist The Review Report made by Mr. Zhu when he reviewed the book was quite pertinent, and he thought that the book had many inventions in Zhu Xi's studies. At this point, History of Chinese Philosophy There are also works on Fan Shoukang General Theory of the History of Chinese Philosophy (1936). Although the research on the Neo Confucianism of Cheng and Zhu has been basically carried out here, most of them are only generally elaborated, and the analysis of many problems is not clear enough, so the research on the Neo Confucianism of Cheng and Zhu in this period is called the pioneering period.

Exploration period

From 1950 to 1965. The articles and works on Cheng Zhu's philosophy here basically adopted idealism Materialism It is generally believed that Cheng Zhu represents Objective idealism Theory. The works on the history of Chinese philosophy and the history of thought published during this period are roughly Yang Rongguo Of《 Concise History of Chinese Thought 》(1952) Hou Wailu Anthropogenic《 General History of Chinese Thought 》(1959) Ren Jiyu Of《 History of Chinese Philosophy 》(1964), among which there are special chapters on Cheng Zhu's theory. There are also some papers on Cheng Zhu's philosophy here, among which there are two papers devoted to Cheng Er Zhu Xi There are about 14 articles of. The vast majority of these works hold a negative attitude towards the Neo Confucianism of Cheng and Zhu, and believe that their philosophy and their political stand Correspondingly, they are extremely reactionary.

The role of Zhu Xi's philosophy in history is only to stimulate the development of materialistic philosophy, but if there is no criticism and understanding of Zhu Xi's philosophy, it cannot stimulate the development of materialism, but will play a destructive role. Of course, some scholars have a positive view of Cheng Zhu's Neo Confucianism, believing that Cheng Zhu's philosophy includes Dialectics This is a reasonable thought in the philosophy system of Cheng and Cheng. But generally, the idea of Cheng Er is idealism For feudalism ruling class Service.

On the whole, the research on the Neo Confucianism of Cheng and Zhu mainly focused on the "Five Sons" and Zhu Xi Wait for a few main characters, yes Gate And Zhu's later studies are less. Although it was studied and read in a materialistic and idealistic way at this time, compared with the first period, the research on the problem has been relatively in-depth. because Methodology Therefore, this period can only be called the exploration period

Setback period

From 1966 to 1976. This period coincided with the "Cultural Revolution" and was deeply influenced by“ idealism It is equal to the influence of the formula of reactionary conservatism, so the criticism of Cheng Zhu's Neo Confucianism is heating up. This paragraph Time study Two Cheng's works include a collection of critical essays, and two Cheng's comments, which are《 Cheng Hao younger brother of Cheng Hao and forerunner of Zhu Xi And his ideological criticism (1974), Selected Comments of Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi (1975). There are approximately 54 papers on Zhu Xi. “

During the Cultural Revolution, the main content of the criticism of Cheng Zhu's Neo Confucianism was to place Cheng Zhu in the history of the struggle between Confucianism and Legalism, as a reaction to the opposite of Legalism Confucian figures And criticize them. In addition, he criticized younger brother of Cheng Hao and forerunner of Zhu Xi The consequence of "chastity kills without blood" brought about by requiring widows to observe chastity. In short, during the "Cultural Revolution", Cheng Zhu's philosophy and even the whole History of Chinese Philosophy The study of the history of thought can be described as a period of withering flowers and weeds, so this period can only be called a setback period.

Development period

From 1977 to the end of the 20th century. During this period, the study of Neo Confucianism of Cheng and Zhu has really achieved rapid development Neo Confucianism in the Song and Ming Dynasties The study of the history of philosophy in different dynasties has become more in-depth, and the study of individual cases has also been developed. A large number of papers and monographs have been published, which is really "a hundred schools of thought contend and a hundred flowers bloom".

The emphasis of Cheng Zhu's philosophy on feudal ethics to some extent bound people's thoughts, which to a large extent affected the aesthetic and ideology , many artistic form Pursue ethereal, implicit, natural and plain. For example, Song Ci swept away the bright colors of the Tang Dynasty, pursuing delicate infiltration and simple colors; In the Song Dynasty, the landscape paintings used ink and wash in light colors to show the intimate blend between human and nature and the pastoral mood and thoughts; In terms of clothing style, this point is more obvious. The court has repeatedly customized and declared that "simplicity" and "extravagance" should be avoided. Many scholars have also advocated that clothing should be simple and simple. Yuan Cai In the book "World Garden", women's dress is required to be "clean and not different from others".

In the fifth year of Shaoxing, Song Gaozong It also advocates: "Jin Cui is a woman's dress, not for consuming goods and harmful things, but for extravagant habits. It is really a matter of decency. No one has committed crimes in China and abroad and ordered not to enter the palace, and no one is afraid that the citizens' homes could not be completely reformed. It is advisable to apply for a ban, but to sell gold and Harvesting Gold and jade are rewarded for their sins. " Therefore, the clothing style of the whole Song Dynasty tended to be slender, slender and plain; It is not as luxurious, exaggerated and open as the Tang Dynasty in form; The color is simple and clean.

Evaluation of later generations

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There is a view that, Neo Confucianism in the Song and Ming Dynasties Is suppression Monarchical power The theory of, Zhu Zi The proposition that reason is higher than power requires the emperor to be sincere. It is precisely to construct a concept of reason that is higher than imperial power, and to establish a set of ideological system , making the power lose its rationality Legitimacy 。 Neo Confucianism in the Song and Ming Dynasties Chinese philosophy A great breakthrough. Song and Ming Neo Confucianism is right Early Confucianism We should inherit and carry forward, rather than regress and deny. The idea of praising Neo Confucianism is that Neo Confucianism inherits personality cultivation Confucius and Mencius Wait for the ancestors and carry them forward.

In addition, such as British scientists Joseph Needham It is believed that the Neo Confucianism of the Song and Ming Dynasties was the driving force of ancient China scientific progress The key to. On the other hand, another view holds that Neo Confucianism in the Song and Ming Dynasties is Chinese feudal society The biggest helper of centralized rule is the power to prevent social progress. Such as thinkers in the Qing Dynasty Gu Yanwu Such philosophers as Ren Jiyu They tend to regard the Neo Confucianism of the Song and Ming Dynasties as the opposite of scientific development Masao Maruyama He Shimada Qianci regards the Neo Confucianism of the Song and Ming Dynasties as an envoy Modernization of China The main reason for "frustration" of the process.

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