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The history of biology is the process of human life research.European RenaissanceIn modern times, biological thought was completely transformed by new empiricism and some new organisms were discovered.In this activity, Andreas Visari and William Harvey, who had conducted experiments and carefully observed physiological functions, and Karl Linnaeus and Buffon, naturalists who began to classify and record organisms, also studied the development and behavior of organisms. The microscope showed the world that had never been seen before and laid the foundation for cell theory.
Although the concept of biology appeared as a single field in the 19th century, biology has appeared since traditional medicine, and can be traced back to the work of Aristotle and Galen in ancient Egyptian medicine and Greco Roman world era according to natural history.In the Middle Ages, Muslim doctors (English: Islamic medicine) and scholars al Jahiz, Avicenna, Ibn Zuhr or Avenzoar, Ibn al Baitar and Ibn al Nafis further developed.The growing importance of natural theology, to some extent, responds to the rise of mechanical philosophy and encourages the development of natural history (although it also consolidates the proof of teleology).
development
From the 18th century to the 19th century, biological sciences such as botany and zoology gradually formed specialized disciplines.Lavoisier and other physicists began to connect the living world with the inanimate world through physical and chemical methods.Exploratory naturalists such as Alexander von Humboldt investigated the relationship between organisms and their environment, which depends on geography, and established biogeography, ecology andAnimal Behavior。Naturalists began to deny essentialism and consider the importance of extinction and species mutation.Cell theory provides a new perspective for the basis of life.These developments, as well as embryology and paleontology, were integrated by Charles Darwin into the theory of evolution of natural selection.At the end of the 19th century, the theory of spontaneity generation began to decline, while the theory of germ theory of disease rose, and the mechanism of heredity was still in a mysterious state.
At the beginning of the 20th century, the rediscovery of Mendel's works brought about the rapid development of genetics of Thomas Hunter Morgan and his students.In the 1930s, population genetics and natural selection were combined to form“New Darwinism”。New disciplines have developed rapidly, especially after Watson and Crick proposed the structure of DNA.With the establishment of the central principles of molecular biology and the interpretation of the genetic code, biology is clearly divided into organic biology, which mainly studies organisms and their populations, and cell biology and molecular biology.By the end of the 20th century, some new disciplines such as genomics andProteomicsThis trend has been broken. Organic biologists have used the technology of molecular biology, and molecular biologists and cell biologists have also investigated the relationship between genes and the environment, as well as the inheritance of natural organisms.
etymology
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The English word biology is composed of the Greek word "bios" (meaning "life") and the suffix '- logic' (meaning "science", "knowledge of" or "knowledge of", derived from the Greek verb "λ ε γ ε ε ν, 'legein'=" select "or" collect ").The modern term biology is composed of Karl Friedrich Burdach (1800), Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus (Biologie oder Philosophie der lebenden Natur, 1802) and Jean Baptiste Lamarck (Hydro é logie, 1802)Use alone.The word itself appears as a title in the third volume of Philosophiae naturalis sive physicae dogmaticae: Geographia, biologia, phytologia generis et dendrologia published by Michael Christoph Hanov in 1766.
Before biology, many terms were used in the study of animals and plants.Natural history refers to the description of biology, although it also includes mineralogy and other non biological fields.From the Middle Ages to the Renaissance, the unified framework of natural history is the natural ladder or the chain of existence (English: Great Chain of Being).Natural philosophy and natural theology contain this concept and the metaphysical basis of animal and plant life, and deal with the problem of why living things exist and their behavior, although this topic usually also includes geology, physics, chemistry and astronomy.Reproductive Physiology(Physiology) and (plant) pharmacology are the categories of medicine.Before the word biology in the 18th and 19th centuries, botany, zoology, and (in the case of fossils) geology replaced natural history and natural philosophy
History of High School Biology
Compulsory Course 1:
（1） Establishment and development process of cell theory
1. 1543, BelgianVesalius Published Human Structure,Reveals the structure of the human body at the organ level。
2、Robert Hooke : British,The discoverer and namer of cells。In 1665, he observed the cork tissue of plants with a microscope and found that it was composed of many regular chambers, and called the "chamber" cell.
3、Leeuwenhoek: Dutchman, he observed with a self-made microscope,Precise description of red blood cells and animal sperm。
4. In the 1830s, German botanistSchleiden(1804-1881) and zoologistsShiwang(1810— 1882)Put forward the cell theoryIt is pointed out that cell is the basic unit of all animal and plant structures.Engels once praised cytology as one of the three great discoveries of natural science in the 19th century.
5、Wilshaw: German, based on previous research achievements, he summarized“Cells produce new cells through division”。
（2） Exploring process of biomembrane flow mosaic model
1. In 1895,OwentonIt was found that lipids were easier to pass through the cell membrane.Put forward hypothesis:The membrane is composed of lipids。
2. At the beginning of the 20th century, the chemical analysis results of scientists pointed out thatThe membrane is mainly composed of lipids and proteins。
3. In 1925, two Dutch scientists used acetone to extract lipids from cell membranes and spread them into monolayer molecules. They found that the area was twice that of cell membranes.Put forward hypothesis:Phospholipids in cell membrane are double-layer
4. In 1959,Oscar Robertson Under the electron microscope, the cell membrane is composed of three layers of "dark light dark" structure.
Put forward hypothesis:Biofilm is a static unified structure composed of three layers of "protein lipid protein" structure
5. In 1970, scientists labeled human and mouse cell membranes with fluorescence and fused the two cells. After a period of time, they found that the two fluorescent antibodies were evenly distributed.Put forward hypothesis:Cell membrane has fluidity
6. In 1972,SangerandNixonproposeBiofilm flow mosaic modelIt emphasizes the fluidity of membrane and the asymmetry of membrane protein distribution, and is accepted by most people.
（3） History of enzyme discovery
1、Spalanzani: Italian, physiologist.In 1783, he confirmed through experimentsGastric juice has chemical digestion.
twoPasteur: French, microbiologist, chemist,It is proposed that the fermentation in liquor making is due to the existence of yeastWithout the participation of living cells, it is impossible for sugars to become alcohol.
3.、Liebig : German, chemist.Think causeCertain substances in yeast cells during fermentationHowever, these substances can only function after the yeast cell dies and breaks down.
4、buchner : German, chemist.He obtained the extract containing enzyme from yeast cells and successfully carried outalcohol fermentation。
5、Sumner: American, chemist.In 1926, he extracted the crystal of urease from the seeds of concanavalin beans, and proved that urease was a protein by various methods.Won 1946Nobel Prize in Chemistry。
6. In the 1980s, American scientistsCechandUltramanfindA few RNAs also existBiocatalysiseffect。
（4） The discovery history of photosynthesis
1. 1648-1653, Belgian doctorvan Helmont The weighing experiment of potted willows was conducted, and it was concluded thatThe weight of plants mainly comes from water rather than soilInference.He did not realize that the substances in the air participated in the formation of organic substances.
2. In 1771, the BritishPriestleyfindPlants can restore the air polluted by burning candles。
3. In 1773, the DutchIngerhouseproveOnly the green parts of plants can renew the dirty air under the light。
4. In 1845, Germanmeyer findPlants convert light energy into chemical energy for storage。
5. In 1864, German scientistSaxprovePhotosynthesis produces starch。
6. In 1880, American biologistEngelmanUsing aerobic bacteriaIt proves that oxygen is the product of photosynthesis。
7. In 1939, the United StatesRubinandCarmenThe tracer experiment with isotope O proves thatOxygen released by photosynthesis comes from water。
8. 1957, American biologistCalvinUtilization of radioactivityIsotope labeling, mark CO with CtwoFound the Calvin cycle。
Compulsory Course 2:
（5） History of discovery of genetic law
1、MendelAustrian, the founder of genetics.He carried out a pea cross experiment for 8 years, and found the law of biological inheritance by analyzing the experimental results.In 1866, he published a paper, "Plant Hybridization Experiment", and proposed the geneticSeparation law, free combination lawAnd genetic factor theory.
2、Johnson: Dane, botanist.In 1909, he renamed Mendel's "genetic factor" "gene" and proposedPhenotype and genotypeThe concept of.
3、Weismann : German, zoologist.He predicted that in the process of sperm and egg maturationMeiosisThe process was later confirmed by microscopic observations of other scientists..
4、Sutton: American, Cytologist.In 1903, he found in his research that the separation of genetic factors assumed by Mendel was very similar to the separation of homologous chromosomes during meiosis, and proposedHypothesis that genetic factors (genes) are located on chromosomes。
5、Morgan: American, geneticist, embryologist.He did a lot of experiments with fruit flies and found thatLaw of linkage and exchange of genesPeople call it the third law of genetics.heIt also proves that genes are linearly arranged on chromosomesAnd laid a cytological foundation for modern genetics.
6. Famous British chemist and physicist in the 18th centuryDalton, the first one foundColor blindness, also the first color blindness patient to be found.
（6） Discovery history of genetic material
1. 1928,GriffithuseDiplococcus pneumoniaeIn vivo transformation experiments were carried out on mice,It is proposed that there are transformation factors in bacteria。
2. American scientist in 1944AveryAnd colleagues to carry out the transformation experiment of pneumococcus in vitro,Determine that the transformation factor is DNA。
The transformation experiment of pneumococcus proved that DNA is genetic material and protein is not genetic material.
3. In 1952,HersheyandChaseCarry out bacteriophage infection experiment,Prove that DNA is genetic material。
4. Later, the experiment of tobacco mosaic virus infecting tobacco proved thatRNA is also genetic material。
5. By comparison: Therefore, DNA is the main genetic material.
The right hand double helix structure of DNA was developed by American scientistsWatson andCrickIt was discovered in 1953.
1. In 1951, the BritishWilkinsShown aX-ray diffraction patterns of DNA。
2. Austrian biochemist in 1952Chargaff The content of four bases in DNA was determined, and it was found that:Adenopterin andThymineThe quantity of ornithin is equal to that of cytosine。
5. In 1962,Watson 、CrickPublished a paper,It clarifies the mechanism of semi reserved replication of DNA。
6. 1957CrickproposeCentral rule
7、NierenbergandMatthew successCracked the first genetic code。
（8） History of biological evolution
1、Lamarck(1744-1829): French, naturalist, pioneer of biological evolution.First proposed the theory of biological evolutionHe believes that organisms are constantly evolving, and the reason for biological evolution is thatRefundAcquired heredity。
2、Darwin(1809~1882): British, naturalist, the main founder of the theory of biological evolution.In 1859, he published a scientific masterpiece《Origin of species》, the book fully demonstrates the evolution of organisms, and clearlyPut forward the theory of natural selectionTo explain the evolutionary mechanism.The influence of his theory of evolution is far beyond the scope of biology. It gives a fatal blow to creationism and species invarianceDialectical materialismThe worldview provides a powerful weapon.
1、Bernard(1813-1878): French, in 1857, he put forward the concept of "internal environment" and speculated thatThe stability of internal environment mainly depends on the regulation of nervous system。
2、Cannon(1871-1945): American, physiologist.In 1926, he put forward the concept of "steady state" and the classic explanation of the steady state maintenance mechanism:Internal environment steady stateIt is realized through the division of labor, cooperation, coordination and unity of various organs and systems of the body under the joint action of nerve regulation and humoral regulation。
3. It is generally agreed that:Neural humoral immune regulatory network is the main regulatory mechanism for maintaining homeostasis
Regulation of animal hormones
（10） The discovery of secretin
1. In the 19th century, the academic community generally believed that:Gastric acid stimulates the nerves in the small intestine, and the nerves transmit the excitement to the pancreas, making the pancreas secrete pancreatic juice。The secretion of pancreatic juice by pancreas is regulated by nerve.
2. French scholarWertherimer According to his paper, there is a stubborn local reflex between the small intestine and pancreas.The experiment is as follows: (1) Directly applyDilute hydrochloric acid solutionWhen injected into the upper small intestine of dogs, pancreatic juice will be secreted.(2) If diluted hydrochloric acid solution is directly injected into dog's blood circulation, it will not cause pancreatic juice secretion.(3) He removed all the nerves leading to the small intestine of the experimental dog, leaving only the blood vessels.When dilute hydrochloric acid solution is injected into this small intestine, it can still cause pancreatic juice secretion.But he stillConvinced that this reaction is a stubborn nerve reflex, because he believed that it was difficult to remove the nerves in the small intestine cleanly and thoroughly.
3. January 1902.As a British scientistBaylissandStalinSeeing Walter's paper, I boldly jumped out of the frame of the traditional concept of "neural reflex" and assumed that this might be a new phenomenon -- "chemical regulation".That is to say, under the action of hydrochloric acid,A chemical substance may be produced in the small intestinal mucosa. When it is absorbed into the blood, it is transported to the pancreas along with the blood flow, causing pancreatic juice secretion。
4. In order to confirm the assumption in the above 3, Stalin immediately cut another jejunum of the same dog, scraped off the mucosa, added sand and dilute hydrochloric acid to grind, neutralized and filtered the extract, made it into a crude extract, and injected it into the vein of the same dog. As a result, it caused more obvious pancreatic secretion than the experiment of anterior facial nerve resection.In this way, their assumption has been fully confirmed.They named the substance secretin.Pancreatin is the first hormone discovered in history.
5、Pavlov: Russian, physiologist, founder of modern digestive physiology.In 1891, he began to study digestive physiology. On the basis of "Hayden Heine's small stomach", he made a "Pavlov's small stomach" that retains nerve innervation, and created a series of chronic experimental methods to study digestive physiology,Revealed some basic laws of digestive system activities。For this reason, he was awarded 1904Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 。At the beginning of the 20th century, his research focus turned to advanced neural activities,EstablishedConditioned reflex theory。
（11） Discovery History of Plant Auxin
1. In 1880,DarwinThrough experiments,The tip of the coleoptile may produce some substance, which will have some effect on the lower part of the coleoptile under the irradiation of unilateral light。
2、Jason: Danish, plant physiologist.In 1910, he proved through experiments that,The stimulation generated by the tip of the coleoptile can be transmitted to the lower part through the agar plate。
3、Bayer: Hungarian, plant physiologist.In 1914, he proved through experiments that,The curved growth of the coleoptile is caused by the uneven distribution of the stimulation generated by the apex in its lower part。
4、Winter: Dutch American, plant physiologist.In 1928, he used experiments to prove thatThe stimulation of coleoptile curvature is a chemical substance, which he thought might be similar to animal hormones, and named it auxin。
5. In 1934, Dutch scientistGuo GeAnd others extracted from plantsIndole acetic acid——Auxin。It is shorted as IAA
（12） History of Population and Ecosystem Studies
44、Gaussian: ecologist.He discovered through experimentsS-curve of Paramecium population growth。
45、Linderman(1915-1942): American, ecologist.Through the quantitative analysis of the energy flow of Saidaberg Lake, a relatively simple natural lake, he found that the energy flow of the ecosystem has two characteristics: one-way flow and gradual decline. The energy transfer efficiency between the adjacent two trophic levels is about 10%~20%.
Elective Course 3:
1、Zhang Mingjue(1908-1991): Chinese American, born in Lanxian County, Shanxi Province, physiologist.He devoted his whole life to the research of reproductive physiologyOne of the first scientists engaged in research on test tube babies and contraceptives, known as“Father of IVF”And“Father of the Pill”。
2、Animal cellIn 1976, Cesar Milstein, an Argentine scientist, and Georges Kohler, a German scientist, passed thePreparation of Monoclonal Antibody by Cell Fusion。Because of their outstanding work, in 1984Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 。
3、StuartF.C. Stewardcell cultureBecame a carrot plant,Proved highly differentiatedplant cellVersatility.
4、Wilmut(I. Wilmut) and others cultivated sheep somatic cells into mature individuals in vitro,It proves that mammalian somatic nucleus has totipotency。High school biology knowledge induction and summary
