The Oura is a nomadic people in the Mongolian Plateau in northern China, mainly active from the 13th to the 17th century,[6]Also calledOuirates 、Oyirad 、ErutEtc.[1]
goldTaiheThe first year (1201),To mediate and stab peopleIn order to compete for forest land and hunting places, move west toSelenge RiverThe tributary Deleger River (today's Mulun River) to the upper reaches of the Huakemu River in the Xishide River area.YuantaizuIn the winter of the second year (1207), the Ministry of Ouyila voluntarily submittedGenghis KhanThe army helped it conquer more than ten tribes in the forest, which was appreciated and rewarded by Genghis Khan. It established a thousand household system in the Ouyila area, appointed the nobility of the Ouyila clan as the head of thousands of households, and gradually enfeoffed tribal territories. The Ouyila society began to gradually transform into an early feudal system.[7]great virtueIn the eleventh year (1307), the Ouyila tribe belonged to the Yuan DynastyLingbei Provincehave jurisdiction over.brightYongleIn the 12th year (1414), Oura wasEmperor Chengzu of the Ming DynastyHe was defeated and forced to pay tribute to the horses to apologize.[8]Two years later, the leader of OuraMahamuTartar LeaderArughtai Defeat and the Dalai Lama will decline.After that, Chengzu of the Ming Dynasty made three northern expeditions, Arutai and the khans he foundedAdai KhanKilled, Western Warsaw UnionHamiEtc,orthodoxIn the fourth year (1439), the Dalai Lama entered its heydayAlso firstIt established the largest Mongolian empire after the Yuan Dynasty fell,In the 14th year of orthodoxy (1449), he committed a massive crimethe ming dynasty, onCivil fortress(East of Huailai County, Hebei Province today)captureMing Yingzong, historical title“Tumu Crisis ”。Jingtai EmperorAfter succeeding to the throne, the army and government were rectified. Although the Dalai Lama repeatedly attacked the northern part of the Ming Dynasty, they were repulsed. In the first year of Jingtai (1450), they returned to Yingzong and resumed paying tribute to the Ming Dynasty.[9-10]thisIn the next five yearsToghtoa Bukha First to lose, first to stand up for sweatAlechi HouseThere were three major events before the killing, and the Dalai Lama gradually declinedDayan KhanDefeated and trapped in the northwest.ArriveQing Dynasty, known as Vetra in history books, is divided intoJunggar、Dulbert、Khoshut 、TorgutFour major parts and theHuite DepartmentAnd continue to migrate and fight for survival and development.[2][11-19]
Chinese name
name used for western Mongolian tribes during the Ming Dynasty
"Wala" is a general term for all the tribes of Weitra Mongols in the Chinese historical books of the Ming Dynasty. It is the Chinese translation of Mongolian oira (plural: oirad or oyirad), which means "close" in Chinese.In the Mongol period, it was called Ouyila, Ouyilaoti, Wai La, Wai La, Wai La, Wai La, Ou La; in the Ming Dynasty, it was called Oula; in the Qing Dynasty, it was also called Weilat, Erute, Erute, etc.During the Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties, it was also called "the Weitra Alliance" because it formed alliances with other Mongolian tribes and Turkic tribes.Foreign scholars follow the habit of Turkic language family and call it "Kalmyk".[1]
Historical evolution
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Wala traceability
The ancestors of Wuyila belong to the Mongolian language family.In order to fight for dominance, trees and hunting places, in the 7th century, Mongolian people left the dense forests of the Erguna River (located in Hulunbeier, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of China today) and gradually moved from the east to the west to Mobei (located in East Gobi, South Gobi, Gobi Altai and other provinces in the south of Mongolia), under the jurisdiction of the Turks and the Tang Dynasty.In the middle of the 9th century, Mongolian tribes originally living in the east moved westward in a large scale, occupying the former places of the Uighurs in Mobei and Monan (now distributed between the People's Republic of China and Mongolia).[24]
During the Liao and Jin Dynasties, some "people in the forest" of Mongolian tribes entered the upper reaches of Yenisei River.This includes the ancestors of Ouyila.From the end of the 12th century to the beginning of the 13th century, Ouyilatiin was involved in the war of competing for power and land on the Mongolian Plateau. They moved from the far east to the Selenge River basin, then northward through the current Xishi Xide River basin, and then westward into the upper reaches of the Yenisei River, where they began to develop.[24]
Mongolian Yuan Dynasty
Attach to Mongolia
In the fifth year of Jin Cheng'an (1200), ten ministries, including Ouyila and Hongjila, vowed to fight against Tiemuzhen and Wang Han in Alequan. In the next four years, they fought against Tiemuzhen and Wang Han in Yuer Haizi, Hailar River, Kuoyitan, Nahu Mountain and other places, all of which ended in failure.In order to compete for the forest area, he led his tribe to herd and hunt in the area from Leger River (today's Mulun River), a tributary of the Selenge River, to Loshijis (today's Xishide River on the upper reaches of the Huakemu River).[6]In the second year of Emperor Taizu of the Yuan Dynasty (1207), Genghis Khan ordered Humble Red to lead the right-handed army to fight against "the people in the forest". The leader of Ouyilai, Kudu Hebeiqi, took the initiative to join Genghis Khan, and led the way to the Wanwuyilai (ti) plant.When the Sijis region was lost, the other nationalities were successively reconciled.[7]Kudu Hebeiqi played a role in guiding and pacifying Taimati in this expedition, and became the actual owner of Taimati area (near today's Baikal Lake). From then on, Ouyilai gradually moved to the northwest into the old place of Taimati, as far as the mouth of the eight rivers in the upper reaches of Qianhe River (Yenisei River).Since then, the Ouyila nobility has always maintained the marriage relationship with the Genghis Khan family, and promoted the change of Ouyila's own social system through the exchanges between the two ethnic groups.[2]
After the unification of Mongolia by Genghis Khan, a thousand household system was established in the Wuyila region, which was organized into four thousand households, and the Wuyila clan nobles were appointed heads of thousands of households, and the tribal lands were gradually enfeoffed.After the establishment of the Yuan Dynasty, the Emperor Shizu of the Yuan Dynasty, in order to strengthen his rule over the northwest region, set up Wanhu Mansion and five officials in turn in Qianhe River and Yenisei River.After the establishment of Lingbeihang Province in the 11th year of Dade (1307), Ouyila became part of the jurisdiction of Lingbeihang Province.[12]
Savings development
From the middle of the 13th century to the beginning of the 14th century, in order to fight for the throne with Kublai Khan, Ali Buge and Haidu rebelled, so Ouyila was divided into two parts. Some Ouyila people moved westward with Ali Buge and Haidu;The other part of Wuyila people living in the upper reaches of Yenisei River migrated from the forest to the grassland at the western foot of Altay Mountain to engage in nomadic industry.Under the influence of the surrounding advanced Mongolian tribes and the feudal mode of production in the Central Plains, the nomadic feudal system of Ouyila was further developed.In addition, due to the peasant uprisings and the incessant infighting among Mongolian feudal aristocratic groups, Mongolia's control over Ouyila became weaker and weaker in the late Yuan Dynasty, which also provided space for the further development of Ouyila.[12]
Ming Dynasty
The first stage of rise
a situation of tripartite confrontation
In the first year of Hongwu in the Ming Dynasty (1368), the inland peasant uprising army overthrew the rule of the Yuan Dynasty, and the Ming Dynasty replaced it.Therefore, under the pursuit of the Ming army, the Yuan force gradually declined and retreated to the northern part of the Great Wall. The Dalai Lama seized the opportunity to rise and break away from the control of the Mongolian Khan, becoming a powerful force in northern China.As a result, the eastern and western Mongols in the desert split into three forces. The three major forces include: the Tartars, who were called East Mongolia in the Ming Dynasty, were regarded as orthodox in the Yuan Dynasty because their leaders were descendants of the Yuan Dynasty;The three tribes of Wala and Ulangha, which were called Western Mongolia in the Ming Dynasty.In order to fight for the domination of Mongolia, the three parties sometimes fought with each other and sometimes married.[13]
Kill sweat and seize power
At the end of the Yuan Dynasty and the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, the power of the Dalai Lama became stronger and stronger. In the struggle for the Mongolian throne, the Dalai Lama supported the descendants of Ali Buge as Khan. At the same time, he tried to find the descendants of Kublai Khan who were considered orthodox.In the 21st year of Hongwu (1388), the Ali Buge clan took the khanate from the Kublai clan, and its descendants also Sudiere and Zienke successively inherited the Mongolian khan. But in the 26th year of Hongwu (1393), the khanate returned to the Kublai clan Elbok Khan. In order to take back the khanate, the Wara feudal lord and the descendants of the Ali Buge clan led to the political corruption of the Wara lord Ugqihashha KhanIn 1399, on the ground of killing his younger brother and seizing his concubines, he sent troops to kill Khan and supported Kuntimur, a descendant of Ali Buge, to inherit the Khan's throne, from which the Dalai Lama took over the real power of Mongolia.[14]
Phase II unification
Mongolian split
Mongolian situation in the early Ming Dynasty
After the death of Elbokhan, the forces on the Mongolian plateau were divided into two parts: the feudal lords of East Mongolia represented by Alutai, Yesuntai and Malhazan, and the feudal lords of Wala represented by Mahamu, Taiping and Batuboro.[27]The abolishment of the Khan became a manifestation of the strength of the political forces on both sides.In the first year of Yongle (1403), Arutai abolished Kun Timur and set up Guilichi as Khan. In the past five years, there were frequent conflicts with the Dalai Lama.Later Gui Lichi was deposed by his subordinates. Alutai set up Benyafuli as Khan, controlled Hami and Hexi to the west, and conquered Wu Liangha Sanwei to the east, which was feared by the rulers of the Ming Dynasty.[28]foreverIn the May of the seventh year of Le (1409), the Ming government made Waramahamu, Taiping and Taboro king.[32]In the autumn of the same year, Benya lost his life and killed the Ming envoy Guo Ji. The Ming court sent general Qiu Fu to lead the army to attack and defeat.[29]In the following year, Ancestor Mingcheng led his army to go deep into the Mongolian grassland, defeated Benyafuli at the bank of the Ounan River (now the Enn River), and defeated Arutai eastward.[30]hisIn the middle, the area of Benghelin (the upper reaches of the Orhun River in the central part of Mongolia today) was killed by Mahamu.[31]In the ninth year of Yongle's reign (1411), Mahamu also named Taliba, a descendant of the Albe clan, as the Khan, hence the name of the East and West Khan.[19][26]
In the 10th year of Yongle's reign (1412), Alutai was attached to the Ming Dynasty. The Ming government supported Alutai and granted him the title of King Hening on the grounds of the arrogance and threat of the Ming border.[33]In the 12th year of Yongle's reign (1414), Mingcheng Zu led an army of 500000 troops to invade the Dalai Lama in person. The two sides fought fiercely in Hulan Quwen (today's Ulaanbaatar East, Mongolia), and Mahmou retreated westward along the Tula River.[8]In the 13th year of Yongle (1415), when the foreign invasion was not pacified, there was another internal conflict among the Oirats. Taleba, Mahamu and Ugqihashha died one after another, and Eseku succeeded the Khan.In the spring of the next year, Alutai, together with the three guards of Wuliangha, broke through the Waal. In order to contain Alutai, the Ming court turned to help the Waal and ordered the son of Mahamu Tuohuan to attack the throne of Shunning.[19][34-35]
Unify Mongolia
From the 1920s to the 1930s, Tuohuan merged with Taiping, brought the people of Balbot, and absorbed Heshuote into the alliance. In the summer of 1423, the 21st year of Yongle in the Ming Dynasty, Tuohuan defeated the weak Arutai in the north of Yinma,[36]And in the next two years, he put an end to peace,[37]stayDuring the Xuande period (1426-1435), the Turhute and Huite Ministries were gradually made to serve their subordinates, reorganized their internal affairs, and took control of the power of the Ouala.In the sixth year of Xuande (1431), Tuohuan led his troops to attack Adai Khan and Arutai. Arutai was defeated in the Great Khingan Mountains, fled southward, and its power gradually declined. Since then, the power of the Warai gradually pushed southward and occupied the eastern part of Mobei.[38-39]Outwardly, Tuohuan embraced Tuohuo, who did not spend money as sweat, and stabilized the interior by virtue of his status as a descendant of Genghis Khan's golden family.At the same time, Tuohuan and the three guards of Wu Liangha attacked Adai Khan and Grand Master Arutai, and killed Arutai in July of the ninth year of Xuande (1434).[40]In the third year of the orthodoxy (1438), Tuohuan killed Adai Khan, and finally unified the East and West Mongolia, laying the foundation for the growing prosperity of the Dalai Lama. However, Tuohuan, who was eager to call Khan, did not escape the end of the hero, and soon died.[19][41]
Phase III breakthrough
Connect forces
Also first
The eldest son of Tuohuan also continued to unite Tuohua after he became the Grand Master in the fourth year of the orthodox era (1439), to attract or conquer the surrounding princes, and surrounded the Central Plains with the three guards of Wu Liangha and Shazhou as the left and right wings.At the same time, by means of marriage, feudal lords or force suppression, people were attracted to control Hami, an important road in the west, and connected Shazhou, Handong, and Chijin Mongol guards to the east of Hami to control the trade routes in the western region.To the west, he fought with the Empress Chagatai many times, forcing his tribe to migrate.The Qierjisi in the north of the Dalai Lama is sometimes subordinate to East Mongolia and sometimes to the Dalai Lama.The strategy of the Dalai Lama to unite the east and the west and consolidate the two wings disintegrated the northwest guards and the three Wuliangha guards in the northeast set up in the early Ming Dynasty to contain Mongolia, forcing the Ming Dynasty to shift from attack to defense.[15][42]
Civil service
Tumu Crisis
In the 13th year of the orthodox era (1448), he also lied about the number of envoys who paid tribute and attempted to falsely claim the reward. The Ming court saw through it and became angry first. He attacked the Central Plains in the name of the Ming court's dishonesty and bad marriage. The next year, he successively captured the border outside Datong, Yanghekou, Xuanfu and other places, went straight to the Central Plains, and captured the Emperor Yingzong of the Ming Dynasty three or four miles (about 1500~2000 meters) south of Tumbuo,Most of the Ming army died and wounded.It is called "Civil Engineering Change" in history.[16][43]
Jingtai Peace Talks
First, he wanted to hold the Ming Emperor Yingzong to pursue the victory, but after he ascended the throne, Emperor Jingdi of the Ming Dynasty quickly reorganized his internal defense, leading to a series of defeats.At the same time, the burden and death brought by the long war also make it lose the support of the people day by day.In the first year of Jingtai (1450), when the two armies discussed peace, they were first released to Yingzong, and the two sides resumed normal exchanges.[9-10][16]
The fourth stage of decline
At the beginning of Jingtai, Tuotuo Buhua and Yaxian fought each other. Tuotuo Buhua was defeated and fled to Wu Liangha.It also advanced a step to weaken the feudal power of East Mongolia, strengthen its internal rule, and established itself as a Khan in the fourth year of Jingtai (1453), known as the "grand Khan of Dayuantian".Yexian's autocratic rule caused internal opposition among the tribes. In the fifth year of Jingtai period (1454), an internal dispute occurred, and he was also killed by Ala first. The Weitra Alliance was no longer strong, and the Mongolian region fell back into fragmentation.During the Chenghua period of the Ming Dynasty, the Dala was attacked by the Dayan Khan of East Mongolia and forced to abandon the eastern part of Mobei and move westward.[17][44-45]
Late Ming Dynasty and Qing Dynasty
At the end of the Ming Dynasty and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty, the Dalai Lama divided into four divisions in a long period of development: Junggar, Durbert, Heshuote and Turhute, and the Huite division attached to Durbert.[11][18]
Durbert Department
In the first 30 years of the 17th century, under the leadership of the leader Dalai Taishi, Durbert's power continued to develop.Around the 44th year of Wanli in the Ming Dynasty (1616), Durbert successively conquered Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, and gradually formed a Wala Group - the Weitra Alliance led by Dalai Taishi in the middle and upper reaches of the Ertix River (flowing through Altay City, Altay Prefecture, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region).In the first year of tomorrow's opening (1621), the two Durbert nomadic tribes of Dalai Taishi and Melbourne Taishi settled in the Obi grassland (now in Siberia).In 1625, the internal struggle of the Oura led to the disintegration of the Wetra Alliance, and there were conflicts between tribes from time to time.Therefore, the Durbert tribe gradually moved eastward and began to decline.After the death of Dalai Taishi in 1637 (the 10th year of Chongzhen's reign), the tribes in Duerbote began to split.Two of them followed the Turhute tribe and moved to the Volga River to settle down, while most of the Durbers moved back to Altay from the middle reaches of the Ertix River, first attached to Junggar and then to the Qing Dynasty, becoming the Durbers who settled in Khovd, the Mongolian People's Republic today.There are also some people who do not want to attach themselves to Junggar. Since the Kangxi Dynasty, they have attached themselves to the Qing Dynasty and scattered throughout Inner Mongolia.[46]
Heshuo Special Department
Gushi Khan[25]
In the ninth year of Chongzhen's reign (1636), Turu Baihu (Gushi Khan or Gushi Khan) led part of the Heshuo Special People. With the help of the Batur Huntaiji Union Army, they set out from Talbahatai, passed through Ili, Tarim Basin, the river and marshland of Astengtag, and arrived in Qinghai at the beginning of the next year to defeat Quetu Khan.In 1638 (the 11th year of Chongzhen's reign), he went to Lhasa to meet with the Dalai Lama V and the Panchen Lama IV, and was honored as "Gushi · Danzeng Qujie" (national teacher · Dharma holder).In the 13th year of Chongzhen era (1640), the Baili Chieftain of the Kaikang District was killed.In the second year, in the name of maintaining the Yellow Sect, troops were mobilized into Tibet, thus controlling the Qinghai Tibet Plateau.At that time, there were mainly four branches living in the north and south of Tianshan.[11][18]In the ninth year of Shunzhi's reign in the Qing Dynasty (1652), Emperor Shunzhi granted Turu Baihu the title of "following the culture and wisdom of Gushi Khan", and officially recognized him as the commander of the plebeian state. Heshuote Khanate became a subsidiary of the Qing Empire.[47]
Junggar Ministry
The Junggar tribe rose in the early years of Kangxi (1661), occupied the north and south of Tianshan Mountains, and controlled Xinjiang, Qinghai and Tibet.In the middle of the 17th century, the Junggar nobility gradually became the ruling core in northwest China, and developed into a powerful regime including the Wara tribes and other Turkic tribes, Mongolian tribes, and some historical books called it the Junggar Khanate.In the early Qing Dynasty, Junggar occupied the northwest under the control of Geerdan, Cewang Alapotan, and Geerdan Seling, maintaining close political and economic exchanges with the Central Plains, and also competing with the Qing government.In 1758, the 23rd year of Qianlong's reign, Junggar was pacified by the Qing army.[11][18]
Turgut Department
Turhute returned to the east[51]
Around the first year of Chongzhen (1628), Turhute and Erlek, with the consent of the Weilat Alliance, led their subordinate and part of the Heshuote and Durbert tribes, about 50000 accounts, defeated the Nogai people, crossed the Kazakh grassland, and moved to the lower reaches of the Ejil River (now the Volga River) along the Caspian Sea in the third year of Chongzhen (1630).In the 36th year of Qianlong's reign (1771), Turhute broke through the barriers of Tsarist Russia to return to the motherland.So far, the whole Mongolia was under the effective control of the Qing government.[11][18]
territory
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Mongolian Yuan Dynasty
Ouyilati, the forefather of Wara, is mainly distributed in the Mulun River, a tributary of Seleng River, and the vast area in the upper reaches of the Sishside River and Yenisei River to the north.Later, due to the influence of politics, war and other factors, they gradually scattered to the Ertix River and Ili River basins.The Ouyala people who stayed in the local area also gradually migrated to the grassland area in the south, the Kungui River and the Zabukhan River basin (located in the northwest of modern Mongolia), and some of them nomadized in the Hara'erqis River area.[48]
Ming Dynasty
From the 15th century to the 17th century, the territory of the Dalai Lama changed greatly with the war, development and migration. It can be divided into three periods: first, from Mengkemteer to Yaxian, the Dalai Lama developed from the upper reaches of the Yenisei River to the southeast and southwest, and then unified Mongolia to occupy Mobei. Its power extends to the east, to the three garrisons of Wuliangha and Nuzhen, and to the three garrisons of Shazhou, Hami and Bieshuba in the west.2、 From Ashetimul, Keshe, Asha Grand Master to the early 16th century, the Wala migrated westward, but still occupied the northern desert area west of Helin.3、 From the middle of the 16th century to the beginning of the 17th century, the Wala region centered on the Tianshan North Road, moved to the middle reaches of the Ertix River, the Ob River and the Kazakh grassland in the northwest, and moved to the Ili River, the Chu River and the Talas River basins in the southwest.Migrate southeast to Qinghai.At the end of the Ming Dynasty and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty, the northwest of Wala was roughly from the present Krasnoyarsk, along the Tomsk and Omu Estuaries, up the Ertix River to Yameshevosk, then south, west through the Balkhash Lake, across the middle reaches of the Chu River to Talas, adjacent to the Yerqiang Khanate in the south, Urumqi and Balikun in the east, and the Altay Mountains in the northeast,It is adjacent to Zasaktu Khan.[49]
Qing Dynasty
From the 17th century to the 18th century, after a long period of development and change, the various departments of the Wala finally merged into four major departments, Junggar, Durbert, Heshuote and Turhute, as well as Huite attached to Durbert.During the Qing Dynasty, the four major parts of the Wala and the Huite part were roughly distributed as follows: 1. The Ejil River basin along the Caspian Sea (today's lower reaches of the Volga River), mainly distributed with Turhute tribe and some Heshuote tribe.2、 Along the Qinghai Tibet Plateau, there are mainly Heshuo Tebu people.3、 In the north and south of Tianshan Mountains, there are mainly Junggar, Durbert, Huite, and some branches of Heshuote and Turhute.4、 From both sides of the Emin River to Urumqi and to the south of Lake Ala (located in Kazakhstan), Heshuote people are mainly distributed.5、 Talbahatai (now the western border of Xinjiang and the eastern border of Kazakhstan) and its north are mainly distributed with Huite people.6、 Along the Ertix River (flowing through China, Kazakhstan and Russia), there are mainly Durbert people.7、 The Ili River Basin (located in Ili Prefecture, Xinjiang) is mainly inhabited by the people of Junggar tribe.[50]
interior
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In the 13th and 14th centuries, the social system of clans, slaves and feudalism was still maintained in the interior of the Oirah, and a relatively simple but hierarchical Ulus system was established politically, involving various aspects of social life such as administration, justice, war and taxation.In terms of military affairs, it inherited the decimal system of military and political integration of the ancient nomads in Mobei.[3]
social system
Clan, slave and feudalism coexist
From the 13th century to the 14th century, there were several modes of production coexisting in the Ouyela region. In the early feudal society, when the production relations dominated, the remnants of the clan system were preserved and slaves emerged.The opposite classes and main contradictions of the society are as follows: the contradictions between the feudal lords at all levels who master vast forests, pastures, livestock and herdsmen, and the vast herdsmen who are dominated, enslaved, have certain property and freedom, and the slaves who have no property and freedom.[20]
After the unification of Mongolia by Genghis Khan, a thousand household system was established in the Wuyila region, which was divided into four thousand households. The Wuyila clan nobles were appointed heads of thousands of households, and the tribal lands were granted level by level, promoting the transformation of Wuyila's clan nature based on blood relationship to the early feudal system.[12]
political system
Ulus structure
At the end of the Yuan Dynasty, Mongolian society was in a closed and independent state, and the 10000 household system set up by Genghis Khan was gradually replaced by Ulus in the second half of the 15th century.The structure of Ulus includes: First, the ruling class: Khan, Dataiji.2、 Management class: Tushmaer (meaning "official" in Mongolian), dealing with major events related to Otok;De Moqi, in charge of the affairs of the royal palace;Zarghuqi, in charge of justice;Albaqi is in charge of the affairs of tribute;Kutuzenar is the "owner of all yurts and branch accounts" of Khan or Dataiji;Zhahaqin is in charge of defending the border;Urut is in charge of blacksmiths, and is responsible for casting weapons and various appliances;Baozinar manages military camps, guns, etc;Zaisang, who manages Etok, is usually a hereditary lord;Under Zaisang, there are Daruga, Zhasagur, Demuqi and Shouleng, respectively responsible for managing officials, governing, supervising and collecting taxes;Etuoke, the original thousand households, is not only the basic economic unit of Mongolian society, but also the basic military unit of Turkmenistan, also known as "Heshuo".Each Otok is composed of several different Emaks, in charge of war, defense, administration, justice, taxation, etc.3、 Civilian class: Ayin Le Shepherd Household, responsible for providing taxes and military service to the Altok Lord, and handling internal disputes, mutual aid and other matters.From this, a relatively simple governing body of the Oura was formed.[3]
military system
Decimal military political integration organization
In the Ming Dynasty, the military system of the Oirah basically inherited the decimal military and political integration organization of the ancient nomads in northern desert. The smallest unit was a team of ten people. One of them was chosen to command the other nine people, named Paizitou or Shihu, Shichang.There are hundreds of households in charge of nine brands, each with its own team directly under the Central Government.Above a hundred are thousands of households, and above them are ten thousand households.The position of one hundred, one thousand or ten thousand leaders is usually hereditary.Adult men are enlisted in such organizations for military service.[3]
diplomatic relations
Mongolian Yuan Dynasty
After submitting to Genghis Khan, Ouyilacong kept the relationship of clan marriage with the Mongol khanate or the Yuan Dynasty, and was often granted a peerage by its officials. The two had close political, economic and military relations.At the same time, Ouyila has also established an inseparable relationship with the Han, Qierjisi, Weiwuer and other ethnic groups. Its footprints also extend westward to Persia, Arabia, Syria, Ilkhan and other countries. The upper nobles of Ouyila either maintain marriage relations with them or have made contributions to local development, such as Alhun Ahe, the son of Ouyila thousand head of household Taichu, in IlkhanPersia and other places have successively worked as a book historian, secretary, and chief executive, and later went to Iraq and other places to rectify civil affairs and abolish illegal taxes, which had an important impact on local affairs.In addition, the Ouyila people are closely related to Jilijis and other ethnic groups. In the 12th year of the Emperor Taizu of the Yuan Dynasty (1291), Ouyila moved into Bahekou in the upper reaches of the Yenisei River, crisscrossing with Jilijis residence. At the same time, the Yuan Dynasty also opened a post road from Ouyila to Jilijis, which has a profound impact on the agricultural, handicraft and cultural development of Ouyila.[52]
Ming Dynasty
During the reign of the Ming Dynasty, the Dalai Lama maintained a prosperous relationship of tribute and mutual trade with the Ming government for a long time.From Tuohuan to Yexian, by means of marriage, knighthood or threat of force, the Dalai Lama kept close contact with the guards of Wuliangha, Shazhou, Handong, Chijin Mongolia and Qierjisi, trying to besiege the Ming Dynasty.At the same time, from the second half of the 15th century to the beginning of the 17th century, the Oirats also maintained complex diplomatic relations with Turpan, Uzbek, Kazak and other ethnic groups during wartime.[15]
Economics
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At first, Wala was mainly hunting, supplemented by fishing and animal husbandry. Later, with the development of animal husbandry, it gradually transited to a grassland nomadic economy dominated by animal husbandry.Therefore, the clothes, food, housing and transportation of the Oura people reflect the characteristics of nomads.At the same time, the level of handicraft industry in Ouala has also improved, both in technology and variety.At the same time, it also maintained trade relations with the Central Plains through tribute and mutual market.[23]
Animal Husbandry
At the end of the Yuan Dynasty and the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, Wala migrated to the Altay Mountains, where there were abundant water and grass, and the animal husbandry developed rapidly.From the 14th century to the 15th century, the economy of semi hunting and semi nomadism had transited to grassland nomadism dominated by animal husbandry.Mainly engaged in horses, cattle, camels, sheep, goats, etc., with horses and sheep as the bulk, camels and cattle less.Animal husbandry has become the main mode of economic development in Ouala.[53]
Hunting industry
Its economic status is second only to animal husbandry.The place where the Dalai Lama lives is densely forested and has many wild animals. The common ones are leopards, foxes, deer, lynx, otters, minks, chinchillas, silverrats, etc. The residents of the Dalai Lama often hunt animals to make up for the shortage of nomadic life and obtain a lot of precious fur. It is one of the important sidelines of the Dalai Lama people.[53]
handicraft industry
With the development of animal husbandry and hunting industry, the handicraft industry of the Khwara has also improved. It can produce some daily necessities, such as blankets, cushions, belts, leather bags, dishes, carriage supports, and other weapons, such as arrows, armor, bows and crossbows, and hook guns.[53]
Tonggong Mingting and Horse Market Trade
During the reign of Emperor Chengzu of the Ming Dynasty, the court of the Ming Dynasty also carried out the policy of soliciting and rewarding the people of all ethnic groups of Mongolia under the condition of suppressing them by force. Since the reign of Yongle, the tribute trade between Mongolia and the Ming Dynasty has been carried out in an all-round way after the Dalai Lama and the Tartars had paid tribute to the Ming Dynasty.During the reign of Emperor Yingzong of the Ming Dynasty, the Dalai Lama maintained a good and prosperous tributary trade relationship with the Ming government, and completed more than 50 tributary trades in 29 years.The tribute trade between the Ming court and the Mongolian ethnic groups such as the Dalai Lama carried out the good policy of "going from thick to thin", and often gave generous rewards such as Chinese silk, silk, colored silk, ramie silk, weaving gold and cultural treasures to appease them.However, the Dalai Lama often pays tribute with horses and leather, followed by camels, jade, square objects, etc., which reflects the characteristics of being easy to have and being complementary to agriculture and animal husbandry.[54]
Under the official control of the Ming Dynasty, the Han and Mongols exchanged horses at designated places, usually opening the market once or twice a year for three to fifteen days each time.During the Yongle period of the Ming Dynasty, the Ming government opened irregular horse markets in Ganzhou, Liangzhou, Lanzhou, Ningxia and other places, becoming an important place for the trade between the Dalai Lama and the mainland.After the increase of the power of the Oirats, the Ming government could not restrict the use of force, so it was only allowed to open the market in Datong in the third year of the orthodoxy (1438) to ease the conflict.At that time, the horse market was divided into official and civilian markets. The official market horses were priced by the Ming government. Only after the official market was completed could the remaining horses flow into the civilian market.In the people's city, Mongolia used horses, mules, donkeys, cattle, sheep, camels, furs, horsetails and other things to exchange satin, silk, fine, cloth, needles, thread, food, etc. with Han merchants. However, "weapons, copper and iron are prohibited", and the government will issue a certain amount of reward.At the same time, the private market is also growing. The two sides have broken the ban of the Ming Dynasty, and the Han people often exchange weapons and other items with the Mongols.[55]
Social customs
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In terms of religious culture, the Dalai Lama was influenced by Buddhism, Lamaism and Shamanism in the Central Plains, and mixed with multiple religious beliefs.Their marriage, marriage and funeral culture have obvious patriarchal social imprint.[21-22]
Habits
Due to the migration from forest to grassland, the living custom of the people of Ouara has changed into nomadic herding by water and grass, without permanent residence. In Xiazefeng, grass beds are used for camping and grazing. In winter, they live in warm valleys and hunt in groups. At the same time, the housing has gradually changed from a shed covered with birch bark to a tent with felt walls.When migrating, we only need to dismantle the tent and carry it on camels. We live a life of "riding on a cart is a room, stopping on a mat is a house, and riding on grass along the water is a career".[21]
Food and clothing
The food and clothing of the Oirats are all from livestock. Beef, mutton and cheese are their staple foods, and the Oirats especially regard horse meat as a delicacy.In addition, the clothes of the Oura people are also made of the skins of livestock.With the increasingly frequent trade exchanges and the import of handicrafts and agricultural products, the Warai feudal lords often wear brocade leather robes in winter, eat beef and mutton rice, wear clothes made of silk in summer, and eat buttermilk and wheat rice.Generally, the life of herdsmen has not changed much.[21]
religious belief
In the early 13th century, influenced by the Central Plains, Mongolia believed in Buddhism.Since Kublai Khan in the Yuan Dynasty, Red Hat Lamaism (Red Hat Lamaism for short) was introduced from Tibet, and it was mainly spread among the upper nobles.However, Shamanism still has influence among Mongolian people and nobles.In the early Ming Dynasty, the Dalai Lama worshipped Lamaism for political reasons.In the middle of the 16th century, the Yellow Hat Sect (Gelug Sect) Lamaism expanded rapidly in Mongolia. Around the 44th year of Wanli (1616), the Dalai Lama officially declared the Yellow Hat Sect as its religious belief under the advocacy of Baibagas.[21]
Marriage
In the Ming Dynasty, the marriage system of the Dalai Lama was monogamous, but polygamy was often prevalent among aristocrats and wealthy families, and became increasingly serious with the introduction of the Yellow Sect.The marriage and family of the nobles and herdsmen in the Oura are protected by customary law and written law, strictly controlled by the patriarchy, and intermarriage is practiced outside the clan. It is popular that after the death of the father, the son marries a concubine;After the death of brother and uncle, brother marries widow and sister-in-law, nephew marries aunt;The custom of a father marrying his son after his son's death.However, the punishment for crimes of rape and abduction is extremely strict.Before marriage, there should be an engagement and betrothal gifts. Both parents or their breeders have the right to receive betrothal money and the obligation to dowry their daughters.If you repent, you should return the betrothal gifts and accept punishment.Marriage requires the ceremony of "paying homage to heaven and earth".Women have a very low status in the family.[22]
funeral customs
After the death of the Dalai people, ask the shaman to dance or the Lama to transfuse the dead.Cremation is generally practiced.After the rich died, they were wrapped in white cloth and transported to Pingdian firewood on the plateau. Lamas chanted sutras and burned them with fire.After the bones are burned, they celebrate each other, take ashes and powder mixed with soil to make a statue, and build an earth tower as an epitaph.[22]
