synonymBoltzmann(Austrian physicist and philosopher) General Ludwig Boltzmann
Ludwig Boltzmann (full name: Ludwig EduardBoltzmann[1], February 20, 1844 - September 5, 1906), born in Vienna, Austria, physicist, philosopher, academician of the Austrian Imperial Academy of Sciences,Royal Swedish Academy of Sciencesacademician,Royal SocietyForeign academicianUniversity of Viennaprofessor[6]。
Ludwig Boltzmann received his doctor's degree from the University of Vienna in 1866;In 1869, he obtained teaching qualification and was appointed asUniversit?t Graz Professor of Mathematical Physics;From 1873 to 1876, he was professor of mathematics at the University of Vienna;In 1885, he was elected as an academician of the Austrian Imperial Academy of Sciences;President of Graz University in 1887;In 1888, he was elected as an academician of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences;Appointed in 1890University of Munich, GermanyHead of Department of Theoretical Physics;Professor of theoretical physics at the University of Vienna in 1894;In 1899, he was elected as a foreign academician of the Royal Society of England;Invited in 1900University of LeipzigProfessor of Physics;Professor of Philosophy of Inductive Science, University of Vienna, 1902;In 1903, the Austrian Mathematical Society was founded;He hanged himself on September 5, 1906. He was 62 years old and was buried inCentral Cemetery [7]。
Ludwig Boltzmann is mainly engaged in the research of thermodynamics and statistical physics[6]。
One of the founders of thermodynamics and statistical mechanics In 1885, he was elected as an academician of the Austrian Imperial Academy of Sciences In 1888, he was elected as a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences In 1899, he was elected as a foreign academician of the Royal Society of England
On February 20, 1844, Boltzmann was born in Erdberg, Vienna, Austria.stayUpper Austria（Upper Austria）Linz(Linz) High school.
In 1863, he entered the University of Vienna to study mathematics and physics.
In 1866, at the age of 22, he received a doctor's degree from the University of Vienna and studied under Josef Stefan, director of the Institute of Physics of the University of Vienna.
In 1869, he obtained the qualification of teaching (venia legendi);In the same year, at the recommendation of Joseph Stefan, he was appointed as the province of StyriaUniversit?t Graz (University of Graz) Professor of Mathematical Physics;In the same year, I worked with Robert Bunsen and Leo K ö nigsberger in Heidelberg for several months.
From 1873 to 1876, he was professor of mathematics at the University of Vienna.
In 1885, he was elected as an academician of the Austrian Imperial Academy of Sciences.
In 1887, he served as President of Graz University.
In 1888, he was elected as a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
In 1890, he was appointed GermanyBavariaChair of Theoretical Physics, University of Munich.
In 1894, he succeeded his teacher Joseph Stefan as Professor of Theoretical Physics at the University of Vienna.
In 1899, he was elected as a foreign academician of the Royal Society.
In 1900, after the death of Gustav Heinrich WiedemannWilliam Ostwald(Wilhelm Ostwald) invited to the University of Leipzig to take the vacant position of physics professor[3]。
In 1902,Ernst Mach(Ernst Mach) After retiring due to poor health, Boltzmann returned to the University of Vienna to replace Mach as professor of philosophy of inductive science.
In 1903, together with Gustav von Escherich and Emil M ü ller, the Austrian Mathematical Society was founded[2]。
In 1906, he resigned due to worsening mental condition;On September 5, Duino, near Trieste, hanged himself while vacationing with his wife and daughter. He was 62 years old[21], was buried in Vienna Zentralfriedhof[7]。
Key achievements
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Scientific research achievements
Boltzmann distribution
Boltzmann distribution
In 1869, Ludwig Boltzmann extended the Maxwell velocity distribution law proposed by James Clerk Maxwell to the situation under the action of conservative force field, linked the entropy and probability of physical system, clarified the statistical properties of the second law of thermodynamics, and introduced the theory of equipartition of energy (Maxwell Boltzmann law),Boltzmann distribution is obtained[8]。Boltzmann distribution is the probability distribution function of state energy and system temperature, which gives the probability of particles in a specific state.It has the following forms:
among
Is the probability of state i,
Is the energy of state i, constant
J/K is called Boltzmann constant, T is the absolute temperature of the system, and M is the number of known states in the system[13]。
Although James Clark Maxwell and Ludwig Boltzmann worked independently, this theory is called Maxwell Boltzmann distribution and Maxwell Boltzmann distribution statistics.Maxwell Boltzmann distribution was first used to describe particle velocity in ideal gas.Maxwell Boltzmann statistics can be used to extract the Maxwell Boltzmann distribution of ideal gas and describe the distribution of different energy states of matter particles in the heat balance[9]。
Boltzmann equation
In 1872, Ludwig Boltzmann introduced the H function of molecular distribution from the broader and deeper nonequilibrium molecular dynamics, thus obtaining the H theorem, which is the basis of the classical molecular dynamics theory, and established the Boltzmann equation, also known as the Boltzmann transport equation[10], used to describe the transition process of gas from non-equilibrium state to equilibrium state.The general form of the equation can be written as:
The word "force" refers to the external force exerted on particles (not the interaction between particles), "diff" refers to the diffusion of particles, "coll" refers to the collision of particles, and refers to the interaction between particles in the collision.
Boltzmann formula
In 1877, Ludwig Boltzmann proposed "entropy" to measure the degree of disorder of molecules in a system, and gave the relationship between entropy S and the degree of disorder W (that is, an objective state corresponds to the number of microscopic states, or the probability of the appearance of macroscopic states) as follows
This is Boltzmann's equation[11]。
Stefan Boltzmann law
Wien's Law vs. Stefan-Boltzman
In 1879, Joseph Stefan's research made it possible to determine the relationship between the radiation energy of the blackbody and the temperature. His work was based on John Tyndall's experiment, and he reached the conclusion that the energy is proportional to the fourth power of the temperature.A few years later, Ludwig Boltzmann expanded Joseph Stefan's work from a theoretical perspective and created Stefan Boltzmann law[12]This law indicates that the total energy radiated from a black body surface per unit area in unit time (called the radiance or energy flux density of the object) j * is proportional to the fourth power of the thermodynamic temperature T (also called the absolute temperature) of the black body itself, namely:
The radiance j * has the dimension of power density (energy/(time · distance 2)), and the standard unit of the International System of Units is joule/(second · square meter), that is, watt/square meter.The standard unit of absolute temperature T is Kelvin,
Is the radiation coefficient of the blackbody;If it is in absolute boldface, then
=1。The scale coefficient σ is called Stefan Boltzmann constant or Stefan constant.It can be calculated by other known basic physical constants in nature, so it is not a basic physical constant.The value of this constant is:
Academic treatise
Ludwig Boltzmann published many academic papers in his life, and the representative papers are as follows:
Boltzmann L. Zur theorie der elastischen nachwirkung[J]. Annalen der Physik, 1878, 241(11): 430-432.
Boltzmann L. Ueber die Eigenschaften monocyclischer und anderer damit verwandter Systeme[J]. one thousand eight hundred and eighty-five
Boltzmann L. On certain questions of the theory of gases[M]//Theoretical Physics and Philosophical Problems: Selected Writings. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 1895: 201-209.
Boltzmann L. The recent development of method in theoretical physics[J]. The Monist, 1901: 226-257.
Boltzmann L. On a Thesis of Schopenhauer’s”(1905)[J]. Theoretical Physics and Philosophical Problems: Selected Writings, 1974: 185-198.
Boltzmann L. The second law of thermodynamics[M]//Theoretical physics and philosophical problems: selected writings. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 1974: 13-32.[14]
personnel training
Instruct students
Ludwig Boltzmann guided many students in Graz University and Vienna University in his life, including:Paul Ehrenfest(Paul Ehrenfest, January 18, 1880 - September 25, 1933) mainly engaged in the field of statistical mechanics and the research on its relationship with quantum mechanics, including phase transition theory and Ellen Feist theorem[15]；Philip Frank (March 20, 1884 July 21, 1966) is a physicist, mathematician and philosopher, a logical positivist, and a member of the Vienna School[16]；Lise Meitner (November 7, 1878 October 27, 1968) is one of the main contributors to the discovery of protactinium and nuclear fission[17]。
Ludwig Boltzmann's grandfather was a watchmaker who moved from Berlin to Vienna;His father Ludwig Georg Boltzmann, a tax official, died at the age of 15;Mother Katharina Pauernfeind is from Salzburg[3]。
Support women in reading
In 1872, women were not allowed to study in Austrian universities. Henriette von Aigentler wanted to become a math and physics teacher. With the support of Ludwig Boltzmann, she successfully applied for permission to attend lectures[3]。
marriage and family
On July 17, 1876, Ludwig Boltzmann married Henriette von Egendler. After the marriage, they had three daughters: Henriette (1880), Ida (1884) and Else (1891);Another son: Arthur Ludwig (1881)[3]。
health
Ludwig Boltzmann tried to commit suicide twice, but failed that time in 1900.Symptoms in later years show that he is now diagnosed as bipolar disorder[18]。
Anecdotes of characters
Ludwig Boltzmann's "atomism" and Wilhelm Ostwald's "energetics" have always been in dispute[19]。Ernst Mach, who did not recognize the existence of "atoms", was also a supporter of "energetics". Because of Mach's influence in the scientific community, many scientists at that time also refused to recognize the reality of "atoms";Max Planck is also a supporter of "atomism", but Ludwig Boltzmann does not recognize the contribution of Max Planck. Later, Zermelo, a student of Max Planck, wrote an article pointing out a serious defect in Boltzmann's H function, which made him angry,In his later years, when Max Planck reported to him that he derived the law of radiation based on atomism, he became angry and happy.The debate between "atomism" and "energetics" finally won Ludwig Boltzmann[20]。
Character evaluation
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Ludwig Boltzmann is a famous physicist and philosopher. His most famous contribution is to the development of atomic theory and statistical mechanics.Known as both a physicist and philosopher,Ludwig Boltzmann is best known for his contributions to atomistic theories and the development of statistical mechanics. Late in his career he did contribute to the realm of philosophy within natural science）[2]。(Washington University Review)
His earlier contributions clearly became to the kinetic theory of gases[4]。(Stanford University Review)
Commemoration for future generations
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Ludwig Boltzmann Association
In 1961, Ludwig Boltzmann Gesellschaft was founded in memory of physicist Ludwig Boltzmann. This is an Austrian network of professional research institutions, not a university.In 1999, Ludwig Boltzmann Association was composed of 131 research institutes in the fields of medicine, humanities and social sciences[1][5]。
