proposelight quantum hypothesis , solved the problem of photoelectric effect FoundedSpecial relativity、General relativityetc. Won the Nobel Prize in Physics Participate in the anti war peace movement Selected as the "Great Man of the Century" by Time magazine
On March 14, 1879, Einstein was born in Ulm, Baden W ü rttemberg, GermanyBanhoff Street135[5], both parentsIsrael。[10]
In 1880, Einstein moved with his parentsMunich。[11]
In 1888, Albert Einstein entered Louipord High School to study.He received religious education at school and received the rite of ordination. Friedman was the instructor.[1]
In 1889, under the guidance of medical college student Talme, he read popular science books and philosophical works.[12]
In 1892, Einstein began to readImmanuel Kant Works of.[37]
In 1894, the Einstein family moved toMilan, Italy。[1]
In 1895, Einstein finished self-studyCalculus。In the same year, EinsteinSwiss Federal Institute of TechnologyEnrolment ofFailed the exam。Einstein began to think about what would happen when a person moved at the speed of light.Confused by the internal contradiction of classical theory.[38]
In 1896, Einstein was awarded the graduation certificate of Arau State High School.On October 29, Einstein movedZurichAnd onSwiss Federal Institute of Technologyattend school.[5]
In August 1900, Einstein graduated fromZurich Federal Institute of Technology[2]；In December, the thesis "Inference from Capillary Phenomenon" was completed and published in Germany the next yearLeipzig《Physical yearbook》Journal and Swiss citizenship.
On March 21, 1901, Einstein officially acquired Swiss nationality.To be completed from May to July of this yearPotential differenceThe thermodynamic theory of the paper.[1][5]
On June 16, 1902, Einstein wasberneEmployed by the Patent Office.In 1903, he and his college classmatesMaleva Maric Marriage.They had a daughter before they got married.
In September 1904, Einstein was transferred from a probationary staff member in the Patent Office to a formal Level III technician.
In March 1905, Einstein published the "quantum theory" and proposedlight quantum hypothesis , solving the problem of photoelectric effect.AprilUniversity of ZurichHe put forward the paper "New Determination of Molecular Size" and obtained a doctor's degree.Complete the thesis in May《On Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies》, independently and completely put forward the principle of special relativity, and created a new era of physics.This year is therefore called“Annus Mirabilis Papers ”。[5]
In April 1906, Einstein was promoted to the second level technician of the Patent Office.In November, the paper on specific heat of solids was completed, which is the first paper on quantum theory of solids.[39]
Einstein and his first wife Mileva
In 1907, he was promoted to the first level technician of the Patent Office.In October 1908, Einstein served concurrentlyUniversity of BernNon editorial lecturer.[39]
In October 1909, Einstein leftberneAssociate Professor of Theoretical Physics, Patent Office[3]。In October 1910, Einstein completedCritical opalescenceThesis of.[39]
In 1911, Einstein moved from Switzerland toCzech RepublicBragg。In 1912, Einstein proposed the "photochemical equivalent" law.
In 1913, Einstein returned to Germany asBerlinEmperor William, Director of the Institute of Physics andHU Berlin Professor, and was elected as an academician of the Prussian Academy of Sciences.[1]
Berlin years
Einstein and his wife and son
In April 1914, Einstein accepted the invitation of the German scientific community and moved toBerlin[3]。In August, the First World War broke out.Although he lives in the cradle of war.Living under the siege of war advocates, he resolutely expressed his anti war attitude.In September, Einstein took part in launching the anti war group "New Motherland Alliance". When the organization was declared illegal and a large number of members were arrested and persecuted and went underground, Einstein still resolutely participated in the secret activities of the organization.In October, German scientific and cultural circlesMilitarismUnder the manipulation and instigation of the elements, the "Declaration of the Civilized World" was issued, which was launched for Germanyaggressive warDefend and advocate that Germany is above everything, and the world should accept the "true German spirit".Ninety three people signed the Declaration, all of whom were famous scientists, artists and priests in Germany at that time.EvenNernst、Roentgen、Ostwald, Planck and others signed on it.When asking for Einstein's signature, he flatly refused, while at the same time he resolutely signed his own name on the anti war "Message to Europeans".[1]
In November 1915, Einstein put forward the general theory of relativityGravitational equationAnd successfully explained the perihelion motion of Mercury.[1]
In March 1916, Einstein completed his concluding paper "The Basis of General Relativity".In May, Einstein proposedCosmic spaceThe hypothesis of finite and unbounded.In August, the Quantum Theory of Radiation was completed and summarizedQuantum theoryThe development of stimulated radiation theory.
At the beginning of 1917, Einstein suffered from many diseases (includinghepatopathyandgastric ulcer）。His cousin Elsa takes care of him.This will continue for several years until he fully recovers.He wrote a book on cosmology, whose cosmology language will guarantee a limited universe.He will later call this cosmic academic phrase his "biggest idiot".On October 1, he took over the management of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute of Physics.[1]
In 1919, Einstein divorced Mileva and married his cousin Elsa the same year.[1]
Master of Physics
Einstein visited New York in 1921[3]
In 1921, Einstein obtained theThe nobel prize in physics, his research has promotedquantum mechanicsDevelopment of[5]。In January, he visited Prague and Vienna.On January 27 of the same year, he made a report on Geometry and Experience at the Prussian Academy of Sciences.February, go to HollandAmsterdamAttend the conference of the International Trade Union.From April 5 to May 30IsraelJerusalemicHebrew UniversityTo raise funds, the same asWeizmann First visit to the United States together.Obtained at Columbia UniversityBarnardMedals.He was received by President Harding at the White House.During his visit to Chicago, Boston and Princeton, he gave four lectures on relativity.In June, I visited Britain and paid my respectsNewtoncemetery.[1]
In January 1922, he completed the first paper on unified field theory.Visited France from March to April, striving to normalize Franco German relations.Make a speech criticizing Mach's philosophy.In April, attendLeague of NationsCommission on Intellectual Cooperation.In July, he was threatened with murder and temporarily left Berlin.Visit Colombo, Singapore, Hong Kong and Shanghai along the way.
On February 2, 1923, EinsteinJapanOn the way back, toPalestineVisit and stay for 12 days.[1]
On February 8, 1923IsraelThe first honorary citizen of Tel Aviv.fromPalestineOn the way back to Germany, I visitedSpain。In March, EinsteinLeague of NationsHe was disappointed in his ability and submitted his resignation to the League of Nations.From June to July, we helped to establish the "New Russian Friends Association" and became itsexecutive committeecommittee member.July, toGothenburgAccept 1921Nobel Prize。And give a lecture on relativityNobel PrizeThank you.In December, the first conjectureQuantum effectMay come from over constrainedGeneral relativityField equation。[1]
Participate in anti war
In 1924, Einstein joined the Jewish organization in Berlin and became a member who paid the membership dues.In December, the last major discovery was made fromStatistical fluctuationAn independent demonstration of the association of wave and matter is obtained from the analysis of.At this time, we also found thatBose Einstein condensate。[1]
In 1925, Einstein was employed as a director of the German Soviet cooperation group "Oriental Culture and Technology Association".From May to June, Einstein visited South America.Together with Gandhi and others, sign the declaration of refusal to perform military service.Accept the Science Popularization Medal.byHebrew UniversityThe work of the board of directors.Published Non Euclidean Geometry and Physics.
In 1927, Einstein and others attended the Fifth Solvay Conference
In February 1927, EinsteinBarbusse Signed on the draft anti fascist declaration.International participationAnti imperialist Alliance, was elected honorary chairman.Attended the fifth session in OctoberBrusselsSolvay Physicssymposium, beginning withCopenhagen SchoolThere is a heated debate on the interpretation of quantum mechanics.Published Newtonian Mechanics and Its Influence on the Development of Theoretical Physics.[3]
In January 1928, he was elected as a member of the "German Human Rights Alliance" (formerly the "New Motherland Alliance" of Germany).In spring, due to overwork and poor healthSwitzerlandDavos Recuperate and give lectures to young people.Published Basic Concepts of Physics to Recent Changes.In April, Helen Dukas began to serve as the private secretary of Einstein's family for life.
In February 1929, he published the Unified Field Theory.In March, Einstein spent his 50th birthday, hiding in the countryside to avoid birthday celebrations.First visitBelgiumThe Royal Family, andQueen ElizabethFormed friendship and corresponded with the Queen of Belgium until her deathPlanck Medal。In September, Einstein argued with French mathematician Adama about war and peace, and insisted on unconditionally opposing all wars.[3]
In 1930, Einstein was dissatisfiedLeague of NationsImprovinginternational relationAnd submitted his resignation.In May, he signed the World Disarmament Statement of the International Women's Alliance for Peace and Freedom.In July, he argued with Tagore about the truthobjectivityQuestion.From December 11 to March 4 of the next year, Einstein paid his first visit to the United States, mainly inCalifornia Institute of Technology。On December 13, Mayor Walker presented a gift to EinsteinNew YorkThe golden key of the city.From December 19 to 20, Einstein visitedCuba。Published articles such as My World View and Religion and Science.[1]
In March 1931, Einstein returned to Berlin from the United States.In May, Einstein visited BritainOxfordgive lectures.In November, we called on all countries toEconomic blockadeTo stop its military aggression against China.In December, Einstein went to California again to give lectures.To participate in 1932International Disarmament Conference, specially published a series of articles and speeches.Published Maxwell's Influence on the Development of the Concept of Physical Reality.[1]
Immigration to the United States
In February 1932, Ositsky, a German pacifist, was identified asTreasonEinstein protested in Pasadena.In March, Einstein returned to Berlin from the United States.In May, Einstein went to EnglandUniversity of CambridgeLecture with Oxford University, then arrivedSwitzerlandGenevaI was extremely disappointed to attend the Conference on Disarmament.In June, Einstein and Murphy made a talk aboutCausalityQuestions.In July, Einstein and psychologistsFreudCommunication, discussing warPsychological problems。Call on the German people to defendWeimar Republic , fully opposedfascist。On December 10, Einstein and his wife left Germany for the United States.Originally intended to visit the United States, however, they never set foot on German territory again.[5]
In 1934,Einstein Anthology《My World View》Edited and published by his stepson-in-law Rudolf Kaiser.From May 1935 toBermudaTake a short trip.Official application for permanent residence in the United States in Bermuda.This is also the last time he left the United States, and he wonFranklin Medal , in cooperation with Podolsky and Rosen, published a paper challenging the Copenhagen School, claiming that the description of reality by quantum mechanics is incomplete.To makeThe Nobel Peace PrizeGift locked inNazi concentration campOsitsky in the.[1]
In 1936 Einstein began to work withInfieldCooperate with Hoffman to study the motion problem of general relativity.On December 20, his wife Elsa died of illness.Published Physics and Reality and On Education.[2]
From March to September 1937, Einstein participated in the popular book written by Infield《Evolution of physics》The preparation of.In March, we expressed solidarity with China's "Seven Gentlemen".In June, I worked with Enfeld and Hoffman to complete the paper "Gravitational Equations and Motion Problems", which was derived from the field equation of general relativityEquation of motion, further revealing the unity of space and time, matter and motion.This is a major development of general relativity and Einstein'sScientific creationThe last major achievement on the.
In 1938, Einstein andBergmanCo authored the paper "Promotion of Karucha's Electrical Theory".[1]
World renowned
On August 2, 1939, EinsteinLeo SillardWith the help of othersFranklin Roosevelt(Historically known as the "Einstein Sillard Letter"), it is suggested that the United States should pay close attention to atomic energy research and preventNazi Germany Preemptive masteryAtomic bomb, which directly contributed to theManhattan Project Start of.[4-6]My sister Maya came to America from Europe and stayed in Einstein's parents' period.
Acquired American nationality in 1940
On May 15, 1940, Einstein published "Examination on the Basis of Theoretical Physics".On May 22, callFranklin Delano Roosevelt, anti Americanpolicy of neutrality。On October 1, he acquired American nationality.In the same year, Einstein wrote a famous paper to defend his proposition that "I do not believe in a personal god".[1]
In 1941, Einstein published articles such as Science and Religion.In October 1942, Einstein warmly praisedSoviet UnionAchievements in all aspects.[2]
In May 1943, Einstein participated as a scientific adviserAmerica NavyDepartment work.
In 1944Anti-Fascist War Einstein auctioned the manuscript of his 1905 special theory of relativity paper for $6 million.Publish onRussellEpistemological comments.In December, we discussed with Stern and Bohratomic weaponAnd post-war peace issues, listen toBohrKeep silent for a while.[2]
In March 1945, Einstein andLeo SillardDiscussing the danger of atomic armament and writing a letter to introduce Silard to Roosevelt failed.In April, he retired from the Institute of Higher Academic Research (in fact, he continued to work as usual).In September, he issued a series of statements on atomic war and the world government.
In May 1946, Einstein initiated and organized the "Extraordinary Committee of Atomic Scientists" as the chairman.In May, accepted Lincoln University (Black School)Honorary Doctoral Degree 。Write a long "Self Narration" to review the path of scientific exploration in your life.In May, my sister MayainapoplexyShe was paralyzed and read to her every night.October, hereUnited Nations General Assemblywriteopen letter, urging the establishment of a world government.
Einstein and Oppenheimer in 1950
In 1947, Einstein continued to make a lot of remarks about the world government.In September, Einstein issued an open letter proposing to reorganize the United Nations into a world government.[2]
In April 1948, Einstein cooperated with astronomer Sharpley to oppose the United States' preparation for the Soviet Union“Preventive war”。Protest against universal military training by the United States.In the same year, he published Quantum Mechanics and RealitySwitzerlandZurichDeath.In December, a laparotomy was performed on the abdomenaortaI found a biganeurysm。[2]
On January 13, 1949, Einstein was discharged from hospital.In January, he wrote "Answers to Criticism" to counter criticize the criticism of the Copenhagen School in the anthology Albert Einstein: Philosophers Scientists.In November, the "extraordinary committee of atomic scientists" ceased its activities.
Einstein, who just finished his 72nd birthday party (talking at the same time)
On February 13, 1950, he made a televised speech against American manufacturingHydrogen bomb。On March 18, he signed and sealed the will.Dr. Nathan was named executor.The estate is co hosted by Dr. Nathan and Dukas.The final repository of letters and manuscripts isHebrew University。Among other terms: violin for grandsonBernhard Caesar Einstein 。[2]In April, published On General Gravitation.Later Years Collection was published.
In 1951, Einstein successively published articles and letters, pointing out that the US policy of expanding its military and preparing for war was a serious obstacle to world peace.In June, Einstein's sister Maya died after a long period of paralysis.In September, the "extraordinary committee of atomic scientists" was dissolved.
In 1952, Einstein published his Theory of Relativity and Space Problems and Introduction to Some Basic Generalities.In November,IsraelFirst PresidentHaim WeizmannAfter his death, the Israeli government asked him to serve as the second president, which was rejected.[3]
On April 3, 1953, Einstein wrote "Ode to the Academy of Sciences of Olympia" to his old friends in Bern's era to remember the life of his youth.On May 16, he wrote back to the persecuted teacher Fraunglass, calling on the United StatesintellectualRise up and resolutely resist the persecution of fascism, causing great repercussions.To commemorate Bohn's retirement, he publishedquantum mechanicsExplained the paper, which caused a heated debate between the two people.Published Preface to Space Concept.[1]
Sickness in old age
In March 1954, Einstein celebrated his 75th birthdayCivil libertiesExtraordinary Committee ", calling forAmerican peopleGet up withfascistForces struggle.In March, Einstein was elected by the US senatorMcCarthyPublicly denounced as "the enemy of the United States".In May, Einstein issued a statement protesting the political persecution of Oppenheimer.Autumn, because of troubleHemolytic anemiaSick and bedridden for several days.On November 18, Einstein made a statement in the "Journalist" magazine that he would rather be a craftsman or peddler than a scientist in the United States and complete the "Theory of Asymmetric Relativity".[5]
In February 1955, Einstein andsociologistBertrand Russell Communication to discuss the issue of the peace declaration and oppose its usenuclear weapon, and signed《Russell Einstein Declaration》[4-8]。In March, Einstein wrote "Self Narrative Fragments", recalling the way of learning and scientific exploration in his youth.On April 3, Einstein talked with Cohen aboutHistory of ScienceAnd so on.On April 5, he refuted that American fascists had labeled him a "subversive".On April 11, he signed the declaration.On April 13, I was drafting a TV articlespeaking scriptWhen seriousabdominal pain, the rear diagnosis isArterial hemorrhage。He entered Princeton Hospital on April 15.
On April 18, 1955, Einstein was diagnosed withaortic aneurysm , caused by ruptured aortic aneurysm in his sleep at midnight that daycerebral haemorrhageHe died in Princeton at the age of 76.One namedThomas Stoltz Harvey By taking the opportunity of dissecting Einstein's body, his doctor "stealthily" took away Einstein's brain and eyeballs behind Einstein's family's back.ThisPathologistHope for the futureneuroscienceThe world can study Einstein's brain to discover the reason why Einstein was clever.[1]
In order to comply with Einstein's will, after his death, no funeral ceremony was held, no tomb was built, and no monument was erected. His body was cremated according to his will. His ashes were scattered in a place that will never be kept secret, so that the place where he was buried would not become a holy place.[1]
Main impacts
Announce
edit
Scientific achievements
Special relativity
At the age of 16, Einstein learned from books that light moves at a very fast speedelectromagnetic wave, in connection with this, heReally want toDiscussion on the so-called Ether related to light waves[13]。The term "ether" originates from Greece and is used to represent the basic elements of the heavenly objects.Descartes in the 17th century and laterChristian HuygensHe pioneered and developed the theory of the ether, believing that the ether isLight wave propagationIt fills all the space including vacuum and can penetrate into the material.AndEtherealDifferent,NewtonProposedCorpuscular theory of light。Newton believed that,IlluminantThe emission is based onRectilinear motionThe particle stream impinges on the retina and causes vision.eighteenth centuryNewtonOfCorpuscular theoryIn the 19th century, onlyFluctuation theoryOccupiedabsolute advantage。The theory of ether has also been greatly developed: wave propagation requires medium, and light propagates in vacuummediumIt is the ether, also calledLight ether。At the same time, electromagnetism has developed vigorously, and through the efforts of Maxwell, Hertz and others, a matureElectromagnetic phenomenonAnd proved that light is certain in theory and practicefrequency range The electromagnetic wave inside the, thus unifying thewave theory AndElectromagnetic theory。The ether is not only the carrier of light waves, but alsoelectromagnetic fieldThe carrier of.Until the end of the 19th century, people tried to find the ether, but never found it in experiments. On the contrary,Michelson Morey experimentBut the ether is unlikely to exist.[14]
electromagneticsThe development ofNewtonian mechanicsHowever, when explaining the electromagnetic process of moving objects, it is found thatPrinciple of relativityatypism.according toMaxwell theoryThe speed of electromagnetic wave in vacuum, that is, the speed of light, isConstant；However, according toNewtonian mechanicsSpeed ofPrinciple of additionThe speed of light is different in different inertial systems.For example, two cars, one approaching you and one leaving.You see the lights of the previous car approaching you, and the lights of the latter car away.According to Galileo's theory, the car coming to you will emit light with a speed greater than c (vacuum light speed 3.0x10 ^ 8m/s), that is, the speed of light emitted by the car in front=light speed+vehicle speed;And driveDepartureThe speed of light emitted is less than c, that is, the speed of light emitted by the rear vehicle=speed of light - vehicle speed.But according to Maxwell's theory, the speed of these two kinds of light is the same, because in Maxwell's theory, the speed of the car does not affectPropagation of lightTo make it clear that no matter what the car is like, the speed of light is equal to c.[14]
Einstein seems to be the man who will build a new building of physics.Einstein seriously studied Maxwell's electromagnetic theory, especially the electrodynamics developed and elaborated by Hertz and Lorenz.Einstein firmly believed that the electromagnetic theory was completely correct, but there was one problem that upset him, which was absoluteFrame of referenceThe existence of the ether.He read many books and found that all attempts to prove the existence of the ether failed.After studying Einstein, it was found that the ether has no practical significance in Lorentz's theory except as an absolute reference frame and a load of electromagnetic field.[2]
Einstein likes to read philosophical works and absorb ideological nutrition from philosophy. He believes in the unity of the world and the consistency of logic.During the period of "Olympia Academy of Sciences"David Hume(David Hume) YesLaw of causalityUniversality ofEffectivenessThe resulting doubts had an impact on Einstein.The principle of relativity has been widely proved in mechanics, but it cannot be established in electrodynamicsTheoretical systemEinstein raised doubts about the logical inconsistency.He believed that the principle of relativity should be universally held, so the electromagnetic theory should have the same form for each inertial system, but here the problem of the speed of light arises.Whether the speed of light is a constant quantity or a variable quantity has become the primary question whether the principle of relativity is universally valid.Physicists at that time generally believed in the ether, that is, there was an absolute reference system, which was affected by Newton's concept of absolute space.At the end of the 19th century, Mach criticized Newton'sAbsolute space-time viewThis left a deep impression on Einstein.One day in May 1905, Einstein and a friend Besso discussed the problem that had been explored for ten years. BessoMachismThe two discussed for a long time.All of a sudden, Einstein realized something. After thinking over and over again when he came home, he finally figured out the problem: time has no absolute definition, and there is an inseparable relationship between time and the speed of light signals.He found the key to the lock. After five weeks of hard work, Einstein presented the special theory of relativity to people.[14]
On June 30, 1905, the German Physics Yearbook accepted Einstein's paper《On Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies》, published in the journal in September of the same year.This paper is the first article on special relativity, which contains the basic ideas and contents of special relativity.Special relativity is based on two principles: relativity principle andPrinciple of invariance of light speed。Einstein's starting point for solving problems was his conviction thatRelativityPrinciple.Galileo first expounded the principle of relativity, butHe did not have.Time and space are clearly defined.Newton establishedMechanical systemHe also talked about the idea of relativity, but also definedAbsolute space、Absolute timeandAbsolute motionHe is contradictory on this issue.Einstein greatly developed the principle of relativity. In his opinion, there is no absolutely static space, nor does there existAbsolute identityAll time and space are connected with moving objects.For any reference system andCoordinate system, only those belonging to this reference system and coordinate systemSpace and time。For all inertial frames, the form of the physical laws expressed by the space and time of the reference frame is the same, which is the principle of relativity. Strictly speaking, it is the principle of relativity in a narrow sense.In this article, Einstein did not discuss taking the invariance of the speed of light as the basis of the basic principle. He proposed that the invariance of the speed of light is a bold hypothesis, which was put forward from the requirements of the electromagnetic theory and the principle of relativity.This article is the result of Einstein's many years of thinking about ether and electrodynamicsSimultaneous relativityThis serves asBreakthrough, established a new theory of time and space, and gave the electrodynamics of moving bodies a complete form on the basis of the new space-time theory. Ether is no longer necessary,Ether DriftIt does not exist.[14]
Generally speaking, the public willPass signalTo confirm the relativity.In order to learn about events in other placesSimultaneityYou must know the transmission speed of the signal, but you must measure the space distance between the two places andsignal transmission Time required,Spatial distanceThe measurement of is very simple. The trouble is to measure the time. We must assume that there is a clock that has been aligned in both places. From the readings of the two clocks, we can know the time of signal transmission.But if you want to know whether the clock in another place is right, you need a signal.If it needs a new signal according to the previous thinking, it will retreat infinitely, and the synchronism of different places cannot be confirmed actually.However, it is clear that simultaneity must be linked with a signal, otherwise it is meaningless for us to say that these two things happen at the same time.[14]
Einstein's old age
optical signalIt may be the most suitable signal for the clock, but the speed of light is not infinite, which leads to a novel conclusionObserverThe two things at the same time are not the same for the observer of movement.Let's imagine a high-speed train, whose speed is close to the speed of light.Train passingWhen Party A is standing on the platform, there are two lightning flashes in front of Party A, one at the front end of the train and the other at the rear end, leaving traces at both ends of the train and corresponding parts of the platform. Through measurement, the distance between Party A and both ends of the train is equal, and it is concluded that Party A sees two lightning flashes at the same time.Therefore, for A, the two received optical signals are the sameOne timeThe two events must occur at the same time, they are simultaneous.But for B in the middle of the train, the situation is different, because B moves with the high-speed train, so he will first intercept the front-end signal transmitted to him, and then receive the optical signal from the rear.For B, these two events are different.That is to say, simultaneity is not absolute, but depends on the observer'smotion state 。This conclusion negatesNewtonian mechanicsThe absolute time and absolute space framework based on.[14]
relativityIt is believed that the speed of lightInertial reference frameIt is the maximum speed of the object movement.becauseRelativistic effect, the length of the moving object will become shorterTime dilation。However, due to the problems encountered in daily life,Movement speedBoth are very low (compared with the speed of light), and there is no relativistic effect.[15]
Einstein inSpace-time viewBased on the radical change ofRelativistic mechanicsIt is pointed out that the mass increases with the increase of speed. When the speed approaches the speed of light, the mass tends to infinity.He also gave the famousMass energy relation：E=mc^2, the mass energy relation has a significant influence on theatomic energyThe cause played a guiding role.
General relativity
In 1905, after Einstein published his first article on special relativity (i.e《On Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies》）, did not immediately cause a great response.But Germanyphysical scientistPlonkHaving noticed his article, he thought that Einstein's work could be comparable to Copernicus. It was just because of Planck's promotion that relativity soon became the subject of research and discussion, and Einstein was also noticed by the academic community.[15]
The solar eclipse on May 29, 1919, photographed by Arthur Eddington
In 1907, Einstein followed his friend's advice and submitted the famous paper applicationfederalAs an extra lecturer in the University of Technology, I got the reply that I could not understand the thesis.Although Einstein is very famous in German physicsSwitzerlandHowever, he could not get a teaching post in a university, and many famous people began to complain for him. In 1908, Einstein finally got the position of a non editorial lecturer, and became an associate professor the next year.In 1912, Einstein became a professor. In 1913, he was invited by Planck to serve as the newly established Emperor WilliamInstitute of PhysicsDirector andUniversity of BerlinProfessor.
In 1907, Einstein wrote a long article on the special theory of relativity, "On the principle of relativity and the conclusions drawn therefrom", in which Einstein first mentionedPrinciple of equivalenceAfter that, Einstein's thought on the principle of equivalence continued to develop.He usedInertial massandGravitational massdirectly proportional natural lawAs the basis of the equivalence principle, it is proposed that the uniformgravitational fieldCompletely replaceableAccelerated motionThe reference system of.Einstein also proposedClosed boxThe statement that an observer in a closed box can not determine whether he is stationary in a gravitational field or in a space where there is no gravitational field but is accelerating, no matter what method he uses. This is the most commonly used statement to explain the principle of equivalence, and the equality of inertial mass and gravitational mass is a natural corollary of the principle of equivalence.[14]
In November 1915, Einstein submitted four papers to the Prussian Academy of Sciences, in which he put forward new ideas and proved thatMercuryPerihelionOfPrecession, and gives the correctGravitational field equation。So far, the basic problems of general relativity have been solved, and general relativity was born.
In 1916, Einstein completed a long paper, "The Foundation of General Relativity". In this article, Einstein first referred to the former theory of relativity applicable to the inertial system as the special theory of relativity, and called the principle that only the physical laws of the inertial system also hold true asPrinciple of special relativityAnd further describesGeneral relativity principleThe laws of physics must be valid for the reference system moving in any way.[14]
The significance of relativity:Special relativityandGeneral relativityIt has been a long time since its establishment. It has withstood the test of practice and history and is a truth universally recognized by people.Relativity forModern PhysicsThe development of modern human thought has a tremendous impact.Relativity is logically unifiedClassical physicsTo make classical physics a perfect scientific system.Special relativityUnified on the basis of the principle of special relativityNewtonian mechanicsandMaxwell electrodynamicsTwo systems, point out that they are subject toPrinciple of special relativity, are covariant to Lorentz transformation,Newtonian mechanicsIt is just a good approximation of the law of the object moving at low speed.General relativityOn the basis of the generalized covariant, the relationship between the local inertial length and the universal reference coefficient is established through the principle of equivalence, and the generalized covariant forms of all physical laws are obtained, and the generalized covariantGravitational theoryNewton's theory of gravity is only itsFirst order approximation。This has fundamentally solved the problem that physics was limited to inertial frames before, and logically got a reasonable arrangement.Relativity strictly examines the basic concepts of time, space, matter and motion, and gives a scientific and systematic view of time and space and matter, thus making physics a perfect scientific system in logic.[14]
Special relativityThe motion law of the object at high speed is given, and theMass and energyCorrespondingly, the mass energy relationship is given.These two achievements have a great impact on theMacroscopic objectNot obvious, but in the studyMicroparticleBut it shows extreme importance.Because the motion speed of microscopic particles is generally fast, some close to or even reach the speed of light, the physics of particles cannot be separated from the theory of relativity.The mass energy relation not only creates necessary conditions for the establishment and development of quantum theory, but alsoNuclear physicsThe development and application of.[14]
For these new concepts introduced by Einstein, most physicists on earth at that time, includingrelativityFounder of transformation relationshipLorentz, they all found it hard to accept.Some even said that "only two and a half people in the world knew relativity at that time".The obstacles of the old way of thinking made this new physical theory not known to physicists until a generation laterRoyal Swedish Academy of SciencesIn 1922The nobel prize in physicsWhen awarded to Einstein, he simply said, "Because he hadTheoretical physicsBecause he discoveredphotoelectric effect"Einstein's theory of relativity was not mentioned in his Nobel Prize for Physics.(Note:relativityNoNobel Prize, an important reason is that there is still a lack of a large number of facts.)[14]
photoelectric effect
Einstein's "Dadaism" photo
In 1905, Einstein put forward the photon hypothesis and successfully explained the photoelectric effect, so he was awarded 1921The nobel prize in physics。[2][14][16]
Light irradiation on metal causes changes in the electrical properties of the material.This kind of light to electricity phenomenon is collectively calledphotoelectric effect（Photoelectric effect）。[2]
Hertz discovered the photoelectric effect in 1887, and Einstein was the first to successfully explain the photoelectric effect (metal surfaceIrradiationUnder the effect of emitting electrons, the emitted electrons are called photoelectrons).Light wavelength is less than a certaincritical valueThe electrons can only be emitted when the wavelength is limited, and the corresponding light frequency is calledLimiting frequency。The critical value depends onMetallic materialsAnd the energy of emitted electrons depends on the wavelength of lightlight intensityIt doesn't matter. This can't be used upVolatilityExplain.Another point contradicts the fluctuation of light, that is, the photoelectric effectInstantaneous, according to the volatility theory, ifincident lightWeak, the irradiation time should be longer, so that the electrons in the metal can accumulate enough energy and fly out of the metal surface.But the fact is that as long as the frequency of light is higher than the limit frequency of metal, the brightness of light, no matter how strong or weak,photonThe generation of is almost instantaneous, no more than ten seconds to the negative ninth power.The correct explanation is that light must be composed of strictly specified energy units (i.e. photons or photons) related to wavelength.[2]
In the photoelectric effect, the emission direction of electrons is not completely directional, but most of them are emitted perpendicular to the metal surface, independent of the light direction. Light is electromagnetic wave, but light isHigh frequency oscillationOrthogonal electromagnetic field,amplitudeVery small, it will not affect the direction of electron emission.[14]
Although these two great laws have been discovered one after another, people think that they are two unrelated laws that explain different natural laws.Some people even think that the law of immortality of matter is aChemical lawThe law of conservation of energy isLaws of physicsThey belong to different scientific categories.[17]
Einstein believed that the mass of matter is a measure of inertia, and energy is a measure of motion;Energy and mass are not isolated from each other, but interrelated and inseparable.The change of object mass will cause the corresponding change of energy;The change of object energy will also cause the corresponding change of mass.[17]
In special relativity, Einstein proposed the famous mass energy formula: E=mc ^ 2 (where E represents energy, m represents how much mass, and c represents the speed of light,Approximate value3 × 10 ^ 8m/s, which means that energy can be created by reducing mass).[14]
Einstein'sMass energy relationThe formula correctly explains various nuclear reactions: takehelium4 (He4), its nucleus is composed of two protons and two neutrons.Normally, the mass of helium 4 nucleus is equal to the sum of the mass of two protons and two neutrons.In fact, this arithmetic doesn't hold truemass ratioThe sum of two protons and two neutrons is 0.0302 u less（Atomic mass unit）！Why is this?Because when two deuterium [d à o] nuclei (eachDeuteronThey all contain 1 proton and 1 neutron), which will release a lot of atomic energy when they are aggregated into a helium 4 nucleus.Generate 1 g helium4Atomic time, about 2.7 × 10 ^ 12 will be releasedjouleOf atomic energy.Because of this, the mass of helium 4 nucleus is reduced.[16]
This example vividly illustrates that when two deuterium nuclei converge to one helium 4 nucleus, it seems that the mass is not conserved, that is, the mass of helium 4 nucleus is not equal to the sum of the masses of the two deuterium nuclei.However, using the formula of mass energy relationship, the mass lost by the helium 4 atomic nucleus happens to be equal to that due toReaction timeMass reduced by the release of atomic energy.[17]
From a new height, Einstein clarified the essence of the law of eternal matter and the law of conservation of energy, pointed out the close relationship between the two laws, and further deepened human understanding of nature.[14]
When Einstein put forward the theory of relativity, he once defined the cosmological constant (to explain that the density of matter is not zeroStatic universeHe introduced an equation withMetric tensorThe proportional item is represented by the symbol ∧.ThisProportional constantVery small, inGalaxyThe scale range is negligible.Only on the cosmic scale can Λ be meaningful, so it is called the cosmological constant.The so-calledAntigravity) into his equation.He believes that there is an anti gravity that canGravitational equilibrium, making the universe finite and static.When Hubble willExpanding universeOfAstronomical observationWhen the result was shown to Einstein, Einstein said: "This is the biggest mistake I have made in my life."[14]
The universe is expanding.Hubble and others believed that antigravity does not exist, and the intergalactic gravitation makes the expansion speed slower and slower.There is a twisting force between galaxies, which promotes the expansion of the universe, namely dark energy.Seven billion years ago, they "defeated" dark matter and became masters of the universe.The latest research shows that according to the mass composition (only the actual mass, not theVirtual matter）It is calculated that dark matter and dark energy account for 96% of the universe.It seems that the universe will continue to accelerate its expansion until it disintegrates and dies.(There are also other arguments, which are controversial).Although the cosmological constant exists, the value of anti gravity far exceeds gravity.Linde said interestingly, "I finally understand why he (Einstein) likes this theory so much and still studies the cosmological constant many years later. The cosmological constant is still one of the biggest questions in modern physics."[14]
"Every child has an inborn curiosity, but it disappeared very early." Einstein expressed his own views on education as early as 1930 in a conversation.Einstein was not an educator, but he had extraordinary insight and foresight on education.He said, "I don't have any special talent, but I have a very strong curiosity."
"Knowledge is not power, but curiosity for knowledge is power", EinsteinEducational concept, recognized and respected by German educational circles."Imagination is more important than knowledge. Imagination summarizes everything in the world!" Knowledge is a child's curiosity through his own understanding of the outside world, further exerting his imagination, and finally getting the answer through his own understanding, which is also the cultivation of self-learning ability.Educators who advocate German Einstein's educational philosophy also believe that to cultivate children's curiosity, first of all, we should understand children's natural nature, and let children know their world in the form of play education.[1]
Einstein and a friend of his
Einstein's educational philosophy emphasizes that learning is a happy process.Cultivating children's interest in learning and focusing on the process of learning can constantly stimulate children's motivation to seek knowledge.Therefore, create loose, free and harmoniouslearning environmentIt can increase children's learning fun, thus stimulating their ability to think about problems. Too many complicated subjects and tasks will only increase children's burden, which will do great harmIndependent thinkingThe development of their ability even makes them hate learning.Einstein once mentioned that education should be a precious gift for children, not a hard task.The duty of the school is to train people to be an individual who can think independently and develop independently, not an expert. Professional knowledge can only make people become a useful machine, but not a person who can develop harmoniously.[1]
Historical evaluation
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General comment: Einstein is one of the most creative talents in human history.In his life, he created four fields of physics:Special relativity、General relativity、cosmologyandUnified field theory。He is one of the main creators of quantum theoryTheory of molecular motionAnd quantum statistical theory.Einstein is the greatest scientist and thinker in the 20th century.HisScientific thinking, Philosophy（Philosophy of science、Social philosophy、Philosophy of life）Ideas are insightful and extraordinary.Einstein's contribution to modern physics is unmatched. In his scientific career, he has always been assiduously searching for universal and constant laws in the field of physics.His theory covers all the basic problems of nature, from the universe to the smallSubatomic particle。He revised the traditional concepts of time and space, energy and matter.His theory of relativity has not only impacted the theoretical system of classical physics since Newton, but also changed the traditional spaceTime concept。Einstein createdModern science and technologynew era, recognized as the successorGalileoAnd the greatest after Newtonphysical scientist。[1-5]
TagoreEinstein is often called a lonely man.The field of mathematical imagination helps to free the spirit from the numerous worldly things. In this sense, I think he is really a lonely person.His philosophy can be called a transcendentalmaterialismThis philosophy has reached the forefront of metaphysics, where the entanglement of the self world can be completely cut off.For me, science and art are both expressions of our nature. They are higher than our biological needsUltimate value。[34]
Einstein
Yang ZhenningAmong the three major contributions of physics in the 20th century, two and a half were made by Einstein.[19]
HawkingIn the past 100 years, the world has experienced unprecedented changes. The reason is not politics, nor economy, but science and technology - directly from advancedBasic scientific researchScience and technology.No other scientist can represent the advancement of this science more than Einstein.[35]
Einstein's old age
Li XingminEinstein is another peak standing in front of us.His thoughts are like a symbiotic mine with a wide range of categories and high taste, which contains rich spiritual treasure.Although many people of insight have successively carried out valuable exploration and mining, as long as they change a new perspective of exploration, or dig deeper in the original place, they will often have unexpected discoveries and gains.It seems that Einstein's wealth of ideas is inexhaustible.[20]
Fang ZaiqingAlbert Einstein is a person that almost everyone knows but does not knowBig scientist；As a scientist, Einstein was undoubtedly the most influential person in the 20th century.[30]
Isaacson: He is kind and detached, brilliant and a bit confused.With an absent-minded and cynicalSense of humorEinstein drifted everywhere and became a family.He is honest about his shortcomings and mistakes, and sometimes (but not always) he is really as naive as he seems.He is concerned not only about the fate of the whole human race, but also about specific people.His focus on the truth of the universe and world issues made him seem not to care much about the things in front of him.No one should give up for the sake of the countryPersonal freedom。[40]
Anecdotes and allusions
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academic record
On October 8, 2020,Nobel PrizeThe official released Einstein's transcript when he was studying at a high school in Arau, Switzerland in 1896.In the scoring standards at that time, 6 points were the highest score and 1 point was the lowest score.According to the transcript, Einstein's achievements in algebra, geometryProjective geometry6 points for physics and history,German Language and Literature, Italian language and literaturenatural history 5 points for subjects such as chemistry, 4 points for geography, painting and industrial drawing, and the worst isFrench Language and Literature, only 3 points.In general, Einstein's achievements were outstanding in high school, and he was good in both literature and science.Later, he entered Switzerland with excellent resultstop-levelUniversityZurich Federal Institute of Technology。[28]
The secret of success
Einstein often tells people that learning time is a constant, but its efficiency is a variable. It is unwise to pursue learning time alone. The most important thing is to improvelearning efficiency。He believed that only through cultural and sports activities can we gain sufficient energy and keep a clear mind. Einstein also summarized a formula, A=X+Y+Z, according to his own experience.A means success, X means correct method, Y means hard work, Z means less nonsense.He summarized the content of this formula into two sentences:Work and rest are the steps to success. Cherishing time is an important condition for success.[21]
Great people
Einstein likes humorists very muchChaplinWorks.He once praised Chaplin in his letter that he would become a great man.Chaplin replied, "I should praise you more. Few people in the world can understand your theory of relativity, and you have become a great man."[21]
Support for the restoration of the country
In the spring of 1921,Zionist MovementleaderWeizmann Come to the United States, take the initiative to invite Einstein to go with him, and fully mobilize the Jewish big boss in the United States to pay for and supportJerusalemOfHebrew UniversityandIsraelOfZionist Movement。In order to cooperate with his old friend's Zionist movement, two years later, Einstein came to the important place of the Zionist movement he longed forTel Aviv City.staySkops MountainEinstein had a hard time usingHebrewHe delivered an important speech to express his strong support for the Zionist movement.In Einstein's view, "arabThe establishment of normal relations among the people is undoubtedly "the most important political goal of the Zionist movement"[29]。
Refusal to elect President
On November 9, 1952, Einstein's old friend Weizman, the first president of Israel, died.The day before that, the Israeli ambassador to the United States conveyed to EinsteinPrime Minister of IsraelA letter from Ben Gurion formally proposed Einstein as the presidential candidate of the Republic of Israel.
Einstein was indeed moved by the kindness of his compatriots, but he thought more about how to politely refuse the ambassador and the Israeli government without disappointing them or embarrassing them.Soon after, Einstein made a statement in the newspaper and officially refused to take officePresident of Israel。In Einstein's view, "It's not easy to be president." At the same time, he quoted his own words again: "Equations are more important to me, because politics is for the present, but equations are an eternal thing."[29]
religious belief
Before his death, Einstein left his house at 112 Mercherrain Street in Princeton to his secretary, Miss Ducas, who had worked with him for decades, and stressed that "this house should not be turned into a museum." He did not want to turn Mercherrain Street into a pilgrimage site.He did not worship the personified God all his life, nor did he hope that future people would worship him as a god.《The God Delusion 》A book is a record of his belief in ridiculing the idea of a personified God.Here is the summary of the book.
Since Einstein's death, more and more religious defenders have tried to claim Einstein as one of them for understandable purposes.But the religious disciples of Einstein's time did not think so.In 1940, Einstein wrote a famous paper to defend his proposition that "I do not believe in a personal god".This and other similar statements provoked a storm of angry letters from orthodox and conservative religious figures, many of whom alluded to Einstein's Jewish origin.
The latter serves the worldChristian UnionAmerican Roman Catholic lawyer wrote to Einstein:
We deeply regret your statement... You laughed at the idea of a personal god in your statement.In the past 10 years, it is surprising that Hitler had some reason to expel Jews from Germany;It is also surprising that you should make such a statement.Even though I admit that you have the right to freedom of expression, I still want to say that your statement has made you one of the most important fuse for creating conflicts in the United States.
U.S.AKansas City"It is sad that a person from the race mentioned in the Old Testament and its teachings denies the great tradition of that race," said the Roman Catholic Bishop of the Catholic ChurchclergyThey also agreed: "Except for a personal god, there is no other god... Einstein did not know what he was talking about. He was totally wrong. Some people think that because they have achieved high academic achievements in a certain field, they are qualified to express their views in all fields.
Albert Einstein: "I believe in Spinoza. He shows the order and harmony of the universe, not the God who will interfere with human destiny and behavior."
Einstein: "This belief suddenly stopped when I was 12 years old. After reading popular science books, I soon believed that many stories in the Bible could not be true.[18]
interpersonal relationship
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Parents and sister
Einstein's interpersonal relationship
relationship
full name
birthday
father
Hermann Einstein
August 30, 1847
mother
Pauline Koch
February 8, 1858
younger sister
Maya
November 18, 1881
wife
Mileva Elsa/Mileva Malik
unknown
Reference source:[10-11][22]
Wife and children
Einstein and His First WifeMaleva Maric There was an unmarried illegitimate daughter, Liselle Einstein (missing), but between 1903 and 1919 Einstein married Mileva, who later gave birth to two sons for EinsteinHans EinsteinandEduard Einstein 。[1][22-24]
Einstein and his second wife, Elsa Einstein
Einstein's second son Edward suffered from schizophrenia due to the influence of Mileva's family heredity and never married.[22][24]The eldest son, Hans Einstein, is BerkeleyUniversity of CaliforniaHe has four children, the eldest sonBernhard Caesar Einstein He was an engineer, his second son Klaus Martin Einstein (1932-1938), his third son David Einstein (died prematurely), and his adopted daughterEvelyn Einstein 。[23][25]Bernhard Kaiser Einstein had five children, the youngest of whom, Thomas Einstein, became a doctor, and Paul Einstein wasViolinist。[26]Einstein's grandson Bernhard Kaiser Einstein's letter records that his grandfather Einstein's most treasured objects are violin and pipe.
Einstein's second wife, Elsa Einstein, was his cousin and also hiselder female cousinBecause their mother wasSister in lawTheir great grandfather was Rupert Einstein.[1][27]This marriage lasted from 1919 to 1936 when Elsa Einstein died.[27]
Commemoration for future generations
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Social aspects
From 1965 to 1978, the United States Post Office issued a set of "Famous Americans" series stamps, including Einstein, with a face value of 8 cents.
1990《times》The magazine named Einstein as the man of the 20th century.
The year 2005 marks the 100th anniversary of Einstein's miracle year. The German government engraved Einstein's political motto "The country is established for people, but people do not live for the country" on the governmentOn the building。[31]May 16, GermanyBerlinThe exhibition "Einstein, the Engineer of the Universe" was held.[32]The International Union of Pure and Applied Physics designated 2005 as the International Year of Physics.On July 16, China held the "Einstein: The Great Master of the Universe" photo exhibition.[32]
In 2008, Einstein entered the United StatesNew JerseyHall of Fame.[33]
On May 31, 2010, the world's largest Einstein exhibition was held for the first time inBeijingHold?
WashingtonNational Academy of SciencesThere is a bronze statue of Einstein on the Constitutional Avenue in the southwest corner of the National Academy of Sciences.[31]
Scientific aspects
In August 1955, four months after Einstein's death, element 99 was named "Einstein" to commemorate Einstein's contribution.
Found on March 5, 1973Asteroid 2001Was named Einstein.
November 13, 1978X-rayObservation satelliteHEAO-2 launch;On March 14, 1979, HEAO-2 was named after Einstein to commemorate his 100th birthday.[31]
