Qing Burma War

The war between the Qing Dynasty and the Gongbang Dynasty in Myanmar at the end of the 18th century

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The Qing Burma War was in the winter of 1762 Myanmar Invade China Yunnan Pu'er region, Qing Army Self defense and counterattack as the beginning, centering on China and Myanmar Border areas Territory of control power A war took place.

From the Border of the Qing Burma War Chieftain The skirmish began and evolved into a battle between the elite and the main force. In November 1769, Myanmar became a vassal and paid tribute. In the battle, the Qing army commander Ming Rui led 10000 Qing troops to break through the Myanmar army and attack near the Myanmar capital Awa. However, under the large-scale wall clearing and wilderness clearing of the Myanmar army, the Qing army retreated and was surrounded by 50000 main forces of the Myanmar army. The Qing army retreated along the path at night. To ensure the smooth retreat of the army, Ming Rui Zalafona 、 Guanyinbao Let the army go first, lead hundreds Eight Banners All the soldiers died in the war and died in the country. More than 10000 officers and soldiers of the Qing army, the wounded and the infirm civilian officers had to retreat smoothly. The Burmese army is afraid of Mingrui. It doesn't know that Mingrui died in the country and has begged for surrender many times, Qianlong no In the final battle, 18000 soldiers were dispatched from the front line of the Qing army. The Burmese army dispatched more than 30000 main soldiers, as well as hundreds of French soldiers. The military strength of Myanmar is still dominant, but there is a certain gap between the field capabilities of both sides. In the whole campaign, the Qing army kept the offensive, while the Myanmar army kept the offensive defensive 。^[1]

Although the Qing army won the surrender of Myanmar, it recovered Wanli years Plundered by Myanmar Meng Yang , Mubang, Manmu (Manmo) and other chieftains, but the Qing army suffered heavy losses. Chief Wu Shisheng, Deputy General Ali Gun Navy commander Ye Xiangde Fu Heng also fell ill and stayed in bed. This war caused Southeast Asia A big change, Myanmar Indochina Peninsula The hegemonic position has been greatly weakened, Siam Therefore, the country will be restored; Myanmar has also re recognized the power of China, thus establishing a good neighborly relationship lasting more than 200 years.^[1-4]

Name: Qing Burma War
Time of occurrence: 1762-1769
Location: China Myanmar Border
Belligerents: Qing Dynasty ， Myanmar （ Gongbang Dynasty ）

Results: Myanmar became a courtier and the Qing army recovered Ming Burma War The lost chieftains such as Mengyang and Siam became independent from Myanmar
Forces of the participating parties: 52000 people in Myanmar
Principal Commander: Aixin Jueluo Hongli 、 Meng barge

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War background

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Early relationships

China and Myanmar have had official exchanges since the Han Dynasty. During the Yuan and Ming Dynasties, China Myanmar relations It has entered a new era. Emperor Shizu of the Yuan Dynasty To yuan Eight years (1271), Emperor Shizu of the Yuan Dynasty Kublai khan Dispatch envoy edict Pagan Kingdom The Narathi Habord King of Myanmar paid tribute to the envoy, and the king of Myanmar killed the envoy and refused to pay tribute. Kublai Khan ordered Xiangwuda'er, Taibu Rare catty The army led by the army attacked Myanmar on a large scale and broke through Jiangtou City (also known as Taigong City, the capital of the Pugan Dynasty), and set up the Burma Province in the following year. Narathihapod, the king of Myanmar, fled to Boson Later, the King of Myanmar sent envoys to apologize and pay tribute, and Myanmar established a tribute relationship with the Yuan Dynasty. from Jiajing reach Wanli During the period of Taungoo Dynasty The rise of the Ming Dynasty and the gradual weakening of its rule challenged the rule of the Ming Dynasty in the southwest border. Bayinnaung Continue to move north and begin to encroach on China's southwest frontier. Although the Ming Dynasty had six Department of Publicity and Comfort , and Chieftain However, due to its remote location, central government The influence exerted gradually weakens.^[5]

King of Myanmar in the ninth year of Wanli (1581) Bayinnaung Death, his son Mang Ying Li In succession, he further intensified his efforts to encroach on China's southwest border areas. Burmese Army Continuously Attacks Yunnan It has caused great damage to the social stability and economy of China's Yunnan border areas. In the 11th year of Wanli (1583), the Ming Dynasty finally sent Liu Juan 、 Deng Zilong He led his army to the southwest. The two-year war ended with Liu Chuan's victory in recovering all the lost land. The Burmese army was defeated, and the unstable chieftains returned to the Ming Dynasty. But when the war ended, the Ming Dynasty did not take active and effective measures to reorganize the border defense and prevent Myanmar from Yunnan Chieftain Instead of interfering with Myanmar affairs. As a result, the Burmese army continued to harass the southwest border of China.^[5]

Qing Myanmar Contact

Emperor Qianlong

In the early Qing Dynasty, China Myanmar relations were at a standstill. The Qing Dynasty was pacifying Southern Ming In the process of political power, although we had contact with Myanmar, we did not establish a normal diplomatic relations There is no official communication between the two countries. Moreover, in the early Qing Dynasty, the rulers of the Qing Dynasty were busy consolidating their own political power and had no time to take into account the southwest frontier. In Pingding Wu Sangui After the rebellion, the Qing Dynasty adopted the national policy of stabilizing the southwest frontier.^[6]

While the Qing Dynasty adopted the policy of securing the border and guarding the border in the southwest region, it still wanted to include Myanmar peacefully in politics Tributary system I just have a cautious attitude. With the increasing national strength of the Qing Dynasty Laos , Annan Siam And other countries have been accepted as vassal state 。 But for Myanmar, from the imperial court to the local government, they are very cautious. Although the Qing Dynasty also hoped that Myanmar would be able to pay tribute to vassal families to reflect the prosperity of China's Weijia Siyi in the Qing Dynasty, it hoped that Myanmar would take the initiative to sincerely pay tribute instead of making a big fight.^[6]

In the seventh year of Yongzheng era (1729), Chieftain Chiang Mai under the control of Myanmar requested Tribute , was Governor of Yungui Ertai Rejected. Cheng Mai was refused to pay tribute. It must be Qing government Don't want to cause conflicts with Myanmar. In the 13th year of Qianlong's reign (1748), under the pressure of the domestic situation, Myanmar sent people to ask for tribute, which was rejected by local officials in Yunnan.^[7] In the 14th year of Qianlong's reign (1749), Mubang, the chieftain in the north of Myanmar, also requested tribute, but the local officials on the southwest border of the Qing Dynasty refused to accept the request, saying that this barbarian had been under the control of Myanmar for a long time in the late Ming Dynasty.^[6]

In the 15th year of Qianlong's reign (1750) Maolong Silver Factory Wu Shangxian Under the lead of, things turned around. Maolong Silver Factory is located in Yongshun Frontier Wa nationality The settlement is also called Kava. Wu Shangxian, a mainlander, set up a factory to open a mine, and his business is booming. Local chiefs "are willing to draw lessons as tribute according to the example of inland factories",^[8] It was officially under the management of the Qing government. Wu Shangxian Gathers People to Mine at the Border Silver ore And also had contacts with the Burmese court. In July of the 15th year of Qianlong's reign (1750), "Burma was presented as a vassal for the first time", and Emperor Qianlong, Emperor Gaozong of the Qing Dynasty, agreed to see him in Beijing.^[9] After this incident Suzerain vassal relationship Formally established, the two countries have achieved political normalization of relations.

Gongbang Rise

While the relations between the two countries were normalized, the domestic political situation of Myanmar had undergone earth shaking changes. Myanmar Gongbang Dynasty Once established military strength And quickly overcome many problems on the border between China and Myanmar Chieftain 。 In respect of the former Burmese shan After the chieftain established his rule, he began to send a small group of troops to cooperate with the Shan chieftain's troops Military threats The traditional "flower horse gift" (i.e Tribute fu Qian Liang, the Shan Chieftains on the border between China and Myanmar On In pursuit of their own security, they paid tribute to both countries. Gongbang Dynasty It is a powerful emerging empire, sweeping Southeast Asia , annexation of the Ahom Kingdom and Manipur Kingdom (now northeast India), take over northward shan Chieftain, annexation to the east Nanzhang (Today Laos ）And annihilate the four hundred year old Siam (Today Thailand ） Dacheng Dynasty 。^[4]^[10]

In the 20th year of Qianlong's reign (1755), Seyunruidong, the prince of Myanmar's Dongyu Dynasty, led more than 80 defeated subordinates to cross the river Mong-ma 。 Aibida, Governor of Yunnan and Guizhou Governor of Yunnan Guo Yiyu The meeting called for Mengmao Chieftain to send his envoy. Two days later, Sechong Ruidong led his people to leave the country. The attitude of the Qing government towards the fugitive prince of the Dongyu Dynasty fully demonstrated that the Qing Dynasty was unwilling to be involved in Myanmar's domestic affairs. In the following period of time, the Governor of Yunnan and Guizhou, the Governor of Yunnan and Guizhou, and other local officials wrote Memorial It fully shows that the Qing Dynasty strictly adhered to the policy of neutrality and was unwilling to cause more trouble.^[11]

Some of the mainland chieftains succumbed to the military power of Myanmar, and some did not succumb. These unyielding chieftains sent people to Yunnan The local government requested military support. But Emperor Qianlong was busy Dzun gar pa , have no time to visit the south, do not want to happen with neighboring countries military conflict Therefore, the local government of Yunnan has always followed a bias towards this matter Appeasement policy 。 When Emperor Qianlong got away from pacifying Xinjiang, he began to oppress the border areas of Myanmar ethnic minority And the provocation of the national prestige of the Qing Dynasty, and the Sino Myanmar border situation became tense.^[12]

At this time, the Qing Dynasty went through Kangyong Qianlong heyday The national treasury has accumulated huge wealth Qianlong In the medium term, the national treasury has more than 50 million taels of silver. In this way, the Qing Dynasty had the material conditions for expediting to the southwest.^[13]

Causes of war

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In the 27th year of Qianlong's reign (1762), Myanmar once again failed to collect tribute from these mainland chieftains, so it sent troops to invade China. Officially ignited China and Myanmar border conflict Of Fuse 。

In the winter of the 27th year of Qianlong's reign (1762), the chieftain of Mubang, Myanmar, led his own troops and about 2000 troops of the Gongbang Dynasty to invade China Meng Ding The two mainland chieftains, Gengma and Mengding, seized the chieftain of Mengding and burned the chieftain of Gengma Government office And some local houses. At that time, there were three kinds of military garrison forces of the Qing Dynasty in the local area: one was sent by the local government of Yunnan Green camp The second is the local practice controlled by local chieftains, and the third is the practice set up by some border mines for self-protection. After escaping, Chieftain Gengma immediately led Tulian and Changlian to fight back and kill the Burmese soldiers. He defeated the Burmese soldiers by the Kunlong River and killed about 200 people successively. However, in order to appease people, Gengma Chieftain paid the "flower horse gift" to Gongbang Dynasty through Mubang Chieftain. Although the local government of Yunnan deployed defense along the Kunlong River at that time, it still preferred Appeasement I don't want to be too busy. So in the next year, the head of a border mine led troops across the river sack Burmese soldiers, however, are considered to be executed for "killing good people and taking credit".

However, Myanmar has no intention of restraining itself. When the chieftains in Mengding and Gengma were calmer, the chieftains in the car (today Xishuangbanna ）The jurisdiction area is still not calm. From the 27th year to the 29th year of Qianlong's reign (1762-1764), the Burmese Mongen Chieftain led his own troops and the troops of the Gongbang Dynasty to harass the border for years. Especially in the 30th year of Qianlong's reign (1765), the scale of harassment suddenly escalated, and Burmese soldiers went into many places of the chieftain in the car to extort money and plunder people. The reason is that Myanmar was at war with its historical enemy Siam, and formulated the Chiang Mai 、 Vientiane The policy of attacking Siam on the front line, and the car is on the side of its march route, which requires a lot of money, food and labor for the army's march logistic service 。

The course of the war

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The first war

Emperor Qianlong always thought that it was the bandits outside the border who invaded the border. He did not realize that his opponent was the organized army of the new dynasty of Myanmar. This miscarriage of justice was also due to the intelligence of border officials inaccurate Caused by. The intelligence of border officials mainly comes from reports of the harassed chieftain, but these reports are not necessarily reliable. The main purpose of the Burmese army to invade the chieftains along the border and inland is to pursue the "Huama Rite" to restore the control of these chieftains during the heyday of the Dongyu Dynasty, which has clear political requirements. Gengma Meng Lian , Cheli and other chieftains were mostly of two genera in the heyday of the Dongyu Dynasty, "with the Qing Dynasty as the father and Myanmar as the mother". After the decline of the Dongyu Dynasty, these chieftains broke away from the control of Myanmar and became the inland chieftains of the Qing Dynasty. Therefore, when the new dynasty of Myanmar asked for the payment of Huama Rite again, most of the harassed chieftains described it as a robbery incident by foreign bandits in their reports, and deliberately concealed information related to political requirements, such as "Huama Rite", in order to avoid the Qing Dynasty's investigation of their two families. The border officials reported the information processed by the chieftain to the Emperor Qianlong, which affected the judgment of the highest decision-maker.^[14]

New Governor of Yunnan and Guizhou Liu Algae After taking office, on the one hand, he knew that the border situation was critical, and on the other hand, he knew that Emperor Qianlong was unwilling to appease the border affairs in Yunnan, so he sent troops to pursue them urgently, but there was no result except for the capture of five people. Liu Zao is a scholar and doesn't know the soldiers, which also reflects the Emperor Qianlong's misjudgment of the situation from one side. He didn't regard it as a war, but as an ordinary bandit suppression, so he dares to let the scholar soldiers go.^[15] In July, the Burmese soldiers retreated automatically after they were fully plundered. Liu Zaojing played with "Burmese people fleeing from the wind and the Qing army triumphing". However, the Burmese soldiers did not give Liu Zao any face. In October of the 30th year of Qianlong's reign (1765), they invaded the car again with thousands of troops and occupied the chieftain in the car Government office Where Olive Dam , which Bing Feng Even went deep into Simao in the mainland, sent a message to China, and announced that（ Xishuangbanna ）It is the territory of Myanmar. The local local local trainer was on the verge of collapse. Liu Zao rushed to 3000 Green camp During the campaign of encirclement and suppression, the Burmese soldiers fought in a wandering way. Although the Qing troops successively recovered many places, such as Olive Dam, these places were generally retreated by the Burmese soldiers on their own initiative, and the Qing troops did not have much success. On the contrary, about 600 Qing soldiers were trapped in an ambush by Burmese soldiers on the way to rescue Meng Ah, and were defeated, killing and injuring more than 10 people. Emperor Qianlong was furious when he heard the music and dismissed Liu Zao. On December 21, the 30th year of Qianlong's reign (1765), He Qiongzhao, a general of the Qing army, led 600 green camp soldiers by Guerrilla Minghao to cross the river and control the river, and met the Burmese army. At that time, the report was He Qiongzhao, a general, Xue Shihou Outsourcing Tao Guoxing was killed in battle, and guerrilla Minghao was wounded by darts. There were more than 600 soldiers, but only more than 100 people returned to camp.^[15]

Liu Zao, once a member of the Imperial Academy, was promoted several times because he was good at figuring out what was meant by him. He failed to achieve the goal of "chasing down and attacking his lair with all his strength", which was demanded by the Emperor Qianlong before the war, which made him angry. He also lied about the military situation and sent the governor of Hubei to make up for it. He committed suicide on the night of March 3, the 31st year of Qianlong's reign (1766).^[16-17]^[22]

The Second War

The Qing troops attacked

After the first attack of the Qing army failed, in February of the 31st year of Qianlong's reign (1766), Emperor Qianlong sent the frontier officials he valued Yang Yingju （ Eight Banners of the Han Army Birth, current position Bachelor , by Governor of Shaanxi Gansu Transferred to Yunnan Guizhou Governor) arrived in Yunnan. At this time, the Qing troops took advantage of the retreat of the Burmese troops to attack Myanmar.^[23] By April of the 31st year of Qianlong's reign (1766), the areas under the jurisdiction of two chieftains, namely, Burma Chieftain Zhiqian and Menggen, were occupied by the Qing army. However, as the Burmese soldiers have been firm and clear all the way, they have not achieved much.^[24] Finally, Qingbing appointed some shan The local officials managed these places, leaving about 800 people stationed and returning.

In the Qing Dynasty, many local officials in Yunnan were blinded by the apparent military victory, and their enthusiasm for the main battle was high, encouraging Yang Yingju to continue fighting against Myanmar.^[25] Although there are a lot of internal opposition voices, they believe that Myanmar is so powerful that it is not appropriate to engage in border provocations. However, Yang Yingju was totally ignorant of the situation in Myanmar. He thought that Myanmar was just composed of two parts, the Mang bandits and the wooden bandits. The internal division and laxity were not enough for fear. With the support of Yang Yingju, the main battle group released Denunciation It is said that "500 thousand troops and a thousand cannons" have marched into Myanmar on a large scale to frighten Myanmar, and at the same time, it has tried to appease Burmese chieftains in many ways. The Qing Dynasty knew nothing about the internal situation and military strength of Myanmar and the war with Siam at that time, and only imagined that Myanmar could be conquered with the help of more than 10000 green battalions in Yunnan. The local civil and military officials in Yunnan, who were enthusiastic about military exploits, did not wait for the imperial edict of Emperor Qianlong to start at once. In July, Burmese Chieftain Mamu went to Dawa, Myanmar (today's Myanmar Mandalay ）When he did not return, his mother, wife and brother, under the shock of the Qing Dynasty, presented their territory to surrender. Tengyue Deputy General Zhao Hongbang leads about 500 soldiers Tiebi Pass , easily take the important town under the jurisdiction of Chieftain Manmo New Street (Today Myanmar Ba Mo ）。 and Manmo Chieftain After Awa returned, he also surrendered to the Qing army. Mubang Chieftain soon announced the attachment. In September, Yang Yingju began to mobilize about 14000 troops to attack Myanmar, and first sent 3300 troops to the mainland near Mubang Chieftain Obscuration Chieftain, I also went to Yongchang to check the military situation.

Battle in New Street

Although the main force of the Burmese army was bogged down in Siam, the number of the remaining troops and the local chieftain troops was still large. After the Qing army launched the offensive, the King of Myanmar stayed in Awa Meng barge Without panic, he ordered the Siamese and Burmese troops to continue besieging the city, and sent the general Mang Niemiao to lead 10000 Burmese troops (30000 according to the official records of the Qing Dynasty, but only about 10000 according to various sources), tracing along Awa Irrawaddy River He fought with the Qing army and ordered the chieftain Luozhuo to attack the chieftain Mubang. At the beginning of September, Mubang Chieftain could not resist and retreated to the area where the Qing troops stationed. At this time, Xinjie became an important town on the border between China and Myanmar. It was the key point of land and water. The waterway flowed down the river, and you could reach Awa, the capital of Myanmar, on the fourth or fifth day. At this time, the surrounding situation of the place was very critical, but Yang Yingju still sent Yongshun Town Dusi Liu Tianyouhe Tengyue Town Dusima Gongyuan led more than 400 troops to support Zhao Hongbang. The reinforcements arrived in Xinjie on September 7, the 31st year of Qianlong's reign (1766). The total number of Qing troops was still less than 1000. On September 24, 3000 Burmese soldiers arrived in Xinjie by boat, and then launched an attack on the Qing soldiers. There was a huge gap between the two sides in military strength. The Qing army insisted on two days and one night, and announced that it would not support. Liu Tianyou died in battle. Zhao Hongbang led the remaining troops to break through the path and retreat into the Tiebi Pass. Manmo Chieftain also led his troops to retreat into Yunnan.

Yang Yingju urgently mobilized green battalions from all towns to help, and ordered Wuerdenge, the chief soldier of Yongshun Town on the east road, to lead the troops to Wanding (today's Yunnan Wanding City ）, intended to attack the area under the jurisdiction of Mubang Chieftain. West Rd Yongbei Town Zhu Lun, the commander in chief, led troops to garrison Tiebi Pass, intending to attack the area under the jurisdiction of Manmu Chieftain to recover Xinjie. The deployment of Burmese troops was unexpected New Street Divide the troops in two ways, and the main force enters China along the northeast, and is stationed in Lengmu outside the Tiebi Pass. More than 2000 people continued to go north along the Irrawaddy River, arrived at the Jiajiu, attacked China in the east, and then went south to cut off the Qingbing rear road of Tiebi Pass. The soldiers of the Qing Dynasty didn't know anything about it, Yunnan Governor Li Shisheng He arrived at Tiebi Pass on November 15, the 31st year of Qianlong's reign (1766), and ordered Zhu Lun to lead more than 3000 soldiers out of the pass to attack the next day. On the 17th, Zhu Lun arrived at Lengmu and camped at a high place. On the 18th, the Burmese soldiers took the initiative to launch an offensive. Some equipment of the Burma Army is Flint gun (From Britain and France in India East India Company , or by purchase, or by capture), Rate of fire , firepower, and adaptation to the environment are far better than the Qing army. As a result, the two sides fought for four days, killing and injuring each other. However, the Qing soldiers suffered heavy casualties. First of all, they felt unable to stand up and rushed for help. Li Shisheng, the commander in chief, dispatched 700 troops from Wan to the rescue. However, the battle situation of the Qing army was still not good. The Burmese soldiers set up camp fences and gradually approached the Qing army camp. From the 23rd, the troops of the Qing Dynasty could not emerge from the wall. There is a temporary truce between the two sides. The total number of Lingmu Burmese troops was less than 6000, but Zhu Lun reported the victory of Lingmu by killing 6000 enemies.

The Qing army was defeated

On November 20, the 31st year of Qianlong's reign (1766), the Burmese soldiers made a detour through Jiajiu North Road More than 2000 soldiers Wanren Pass 、 Jushi Pass In only ten days, they successively attacked and occupied Zhanda and Tongbi Pass. The Qing soldiers were killed and wounded in dozens of battles, and the guerrilla squad was killed. The war spread to Husa and Lasa areas, posing a serious threat to the rear of Tiebi Pass. After learning that the Burmese soldiers had attacked from the Wanren Pass, the Qing soldiers began to rush. Li Shisheng, the commander in chief, ordered Ma Chenglong, a guerrilla, to lead 900 soldiers to advance from Husa, and ordered them to garrison Nandian Liu Decheng, the general of Linyuan Town, led his 2100 troops to attack from behind. But after Liu Decheng arrived at Muya, he didn't move forward. When Ma Chenglong led his troops across the river on foot, the water was waist deep and the gunpowder was wet. The Burmese soldiers ambushed and rushed to kill. Ma Chenglong was killed. In addition to more than 70 people in the future and crossing the river, more than 800 soldiers were killed and injured.

In December of the 31st year of Qianlong's reign (1766), the Burmese soldiers crossed the river in the north and entered the Husa area, Li Shisheng 2800 troops were dispatched to Husa to resist, and the two sides did not fight much. Because more and more Burmese soldiers are looking at the clean army disengage , retreat to the copper wall. Green camp And reported it with great success.

Longchuan War

Although the Burmese army has won many battles, it is also clear that the main force of its own army is far away from Siam and cannot compete with the Qing Dynasty for a long time. The pressure is quite heavy. Therefore, its combat objective is very clear, that is, to force peace through war. So, at the front line of Lengmu, Myanmar General Mang Nie Miaozhe asked for peace, but the Qing army asked Myanmar to submit a surrender, The negotiation broke down 。 Soon, the Qing soldiers in Lengmu and Tiebi Pass were seriously threatened by the Burmese soldiers in the north, and the Qing soldiers withdrew to Longchuan 。 The main force of the Burmese army, more than 4000 people, attacked Tiebi Pass and marched into Longchuan.

In Longchuan, the two armies fought again. On December 16, the 31st year of Qianlong's reign (1766), when the pioneers of the Burmese army marched, they were besieged by a large group of Qing soldiers. On the second day, the main force of the Burmese army reinforced. After the war between the two sides, the Burmese cavalry suddenly rushed out of the jungle, and the encircled pioneers of the Burmese army also took the opportunity to break through. The battle line of the Qing army collapsed and fled all the way back. Although there were few soldiers lost, many weapons and guns were discarded. Governor Yang Yingju still heard about it. The Yunnan Commander wanted to deploy troops to encircle on three sides, but he was too weak to organize the counter attack effectively. Yang Yingju also changed from his ambition to fear, and quickly sent people to Longchuan to order Zhu Lun to make peace with the Burmese soldiers. When the Burmese soldiers proposed negotiations on December 26, Zhu Lun sent generals Ha Guoxing Accept the terms of the other party, the two sides cease fighting, and Manmu, Xinjie and other places still belong to Myanmar. On the 28th, the main force of Myanmar troops began to withdraw and planned to return to Mubang by way of Mengmao. The Burmese soldiers in the north pass through the Tiebi Pass from Tongbi Pass to Xinjie Street

Mengmao and Mubang are defeated

Mong-ma As a chieftain in the mainland, Kazakhstan, who had been promoted to deputy general by Zhu Lun, led more than 2000 troops to settle in Mengmao on the 4th day of the first month of the 32nd year of Qianlong's reign (1767). The Burmese soldiers were crossing the river by rafting near Mengmao when they saw Qing soldiers coming in, thinking that the Qing Dynasty had torn up the agreement. So on the seventh day of the first lunar month, he began to besiege Mengmao City, and Kazakhstan Guoxing was injured and killed. On the 11th, two thousand Qing soldiers came to help. When the Burmese troops retreated and the Qing troops pursued, they were counterattacked and suffered considerable losses. Each had a guerrilla Dusi . Defensive soldiers were killed. Although the Burmese soldiers also suffered casualties, the Qing soldiers reported to kill 4000 enemies, which was too absurd. Yang Yingju continued to mobilize more than ten thousand troops to confront the Burmese army in the Mubang Chieftain area.

Yang Yingju blindly reported to the Emperor Qianlong according to the report of the Qing army on the front line. The Qing army won many victories and killed tens of thousands of enemies before and after. Fulingan, the bodyguard sent by Emperor Qianlong to Yunnan, will be true Situation report After returning, Emperor Qianlong was so angry that he arrested Li Shisheng and Zhu Lun in February and executed them in Beijing. In March, Yang Yingju was arrested again and sent to Beijing to die. Yang Ning, the general of Guangdong Province, took over as the commander of Yunnan Province and arrived at the front line of Mubang Chieftain Region in March. At this time, the Burmese Chieftain Menggen had recaptured Menggen, Zhengqian and other places respectively, and invaded the inland Menglian area, threatening Mubang's rear road of the Qing Dynasty. The Burmese soldiers in Mubang did not fight with the Qing soldiers in the front, but moved around behind the Qing soldiers to attack the logistics grain corps, basically breaking the Qing army Grain road 。 In April, Mubang's military forces were cut off in logistics, and their fighting strength collapsed, and they returned to the mainland. Qianlong Sect Manchuria General Mingrui took over as Governor of Yungui and continued to preside over the war against Myanmar. By this time, the Burmese army had captured Siam and was ready to withdraw its troops to return home.

In the Qing Dynasty, the local green battalions in Yunnan had hardly ever been on the battlefield, and their equipment was not sophisticated, and their combat power was weak; The general who leads the army is not strong in many abilities, has no sympathy for the soldiers, does not know the terrain, and does not know the tactics; aspect Marshal The Governor of Yungui is also a scholar who knows nothing about military affairs. Therefore, in the second war between China and Myanmar, although there were more Qing soldiers than Burmese soldiers in the total number, they were still defeated repeatedly.

The Third War

Mingrui goes to the cloud

Fucha Mingrui

There are more than 30000 green battalions in Yunnan, and only 20000 can be used. Yang Yingju, Governor of Yunnan and Guizhou, reported the second war between China and Myanmar Ministry of War 14000 troops were deployed, and 15000 troops were actually deployed. In the war, there were no less than 3000 dead, wounded and sick officers and soldiers (1100 died in the war and 1500 died of illness), and more than 200 people below the guerrilla level were captured in the defeat of Mubang. After the defeat in Mubang, more than 400 soldiers from Myanmar and 2000 chieftain troops from all over the country July Attack In the car, although the Qing soldiers had two commanders in charge, they just resisted a little and fled in disorder. The Burmese soldiers quickly returned to Menggen after looting. So far, it was announced that the task of the war against Myanmar could not be completed by Yunnan Green Battalion alone.

But Emperor Qianlong Military Aircraft Division And Ming Rui, the new Governor of Yunnan and Guizhou, still hold a very contemptuous attitude towards Myanmar. They always look down on Myanmar Green camp He believes that the defeat of the Green Battalion does not mean that the Burma Army is powerful. He also analyzes that the main force of the Burma Army is not more than 10000 people, and only 20000 or 30000 people need to be mobilized Main force Myanmar can be conquered. Emperor Qianlong also early considered how to rule after the conquest of Myanmar, and ordered Governor of Guangdong and Guangxi Write in Siam. If the King of Myanmar is defeated and flees to Siam, he must try his best to catch him. In fact, Siam had already perished at that time. In April 1767, Myanmar occupied the Siam city. At that time, the news had not yet reached the ears of Beijing Qianlong. Someone in the imperial court also asked Siam to send troops to attack. Emperor Qianlong rejected it and said that I Qing Dynasty At the time of its heyday, killing Myanmar was a breeze. If you ask your vassal to send troops for help, even if you win, you will be Dependent country despise.

Mingrui is a foreign relative and has made many military contributions in pacifying Xinjiang yili general , is a strong player. After Mingrui took office in April of the 32nd year of Qianlong's reign (1767), under the control of blind optimism, he made preparations for various battles against Myanmar. Qianlong transferred 3000 Manchu soldiers to Sichuan Green flag soldier Eight thousand, ten thousand green flag soldiers in Guizhou (one thousand of them stationed in Pu'er and did not participate in the expedition), plus Yunnan Green Five thousand flag soldiers, twenty-five thousand in total, marched in two ways. Ming Rui personally led 17000 soldiers (including more than 2000 Manchu soldiers) as the South Route Army, leaving Wanding by Mubang Jing Tinfoil Tamping Awa directly; Counsellor Erjing'e led 8000 soldiers (including more than 900 Manchu soldiers) as the northern soldiers. They went out of the Tiebi Pass and through the New Street to forge ahead, and then went south to turn with Mingrui Awa. Each soldier carried enough food for two months, and collected more than 80000 horses, donkeys and cattle for combat and logistics. Mingrui believes that if we attack Awa directly, Myanmar will be too busy. In addition, we are eager to make contributions and bring almost all the elite soldiers and powerful generals with us.

Mingrui attacks

September On the 24th, the Qing troops set out from Yongchang. On November 2, Mingrui led Nanlu soldiers out of Wanding to enter Myanmar, and on November 10, they occupied Mubang City (now Xingwei, Myanmar). From Wanding to Mubang City, it is more than 600 miles away. Because of repeated wars, the population has been cut off. The Burmese soldiers also stood firm and cleared the country all the way, and did not fight with the Qing soldiers. Mingruiliu Counsellor Zhulune Led 5000 troops to stay in Mubang City, and led 12000 troops to move forward.

Northern soldiers arrived on November 16 Laoguantun (near Xinjie Street) Jiajiang Thousands of Burmese troops defended by tree palisades faced off. The Qing army attacked for several days, causing heavy casualties. In December, Erjing'e fell ill and died. Qianlong ordered his younger brother Erdeng'e to take over the command of North Road.

After leaving Mubang, Mingrui overcame the old and small, crossed the Dadie River, passed through tin foil, Dashan and other chieftain areas, killed dozens of enemies at Puka, captured several Burmese soldiers, and found that there were nine thousand Burmese soldiers stationed in Manjie (today's Burma Nandu River To the east), so that on November 29, he could lead his troops to force Manjie. The Manjie Burmese soldiers stationed 16 battalions at each dangerous place. The next day, Mingrui divided his troops into three routes and led the middle route, Leader Minister Zalafona Li Quan, Chief Soldier, led his troops to occupy the eastern ridge of the mountain, counselor minister Guanyinbao The commander Changqing led his troops to occupy the western ridge and approached the Burmese barracks. In the afternoon, the Burmese soldiers sent troops from the western camp to attack the Kwan Yin Pao Department. Kwan Yin Pao led his troops to kill them, and the Mingrui Middle Road also sent troops to take over. The Burmese soldiers retreated and were killed more than 200 people. The weapons of the Burmese army are mainly firearms and darts an armor , bow and arrow, and the decisive battle on the flat ground is not the strong opponent of the cavalry. The Burmese also said that when fighting, they were most afraid of the colorful cavalry (i.e Manchurian Eight Banner Soldier ）。 The Burmese army was defeated and could not hold out.

Battle of Barbarian Knot

After repeated unsuccessful challenges, Mingrui decided to attack the battalion directly, and judged that the western Myanmar soldiers who took the initiative were strong soldiers. The strong soldiers were broken, and other camps were not difficult to break, so he decided gather force Attack here. In the early morning of December 2, in addition to leaving 2000 troops to stay in the camp, ten thousand troops were divided into 12 teams to attack the Burmese army camp. Burmese soldiers are good at guarding and inside the camp Wooden grating It is a wet wood buried deep underground. It is still two feet high above the ground. There are deep ditches inside and outside. Sharp bamboo and wood are buried beside the ditches. The Burmese soldiers are protected by wooden fences. Guns and guns are hard to hurt Musket When shooting, the hit is extremely high. The Qing soldiers rushed down from the ridge near the Burmese camp, and the first camp was near the ridge, which was soon defeated by the Qing soldiers. When attacking the second tower, it was difficult. One of the Guizhou Tengpai soldiers, Wang Lian, saw that there was some wood near the wooden fence, which was easy to climb. After climbing the fence, one man rushed to kill hundreds of Burmese soldiers. Later, more than ten Qing soldiers followed the climb. Under the cover of this, Wang Lian killed more than ten enemies and then pulled out the wooden fence. The Qing soldiers swarmed in and captured a camp again. The terrain of the two battalions obtained is relatively high, and Mingrui divides his troops to cooperate with other routes to capture the two battalions. The Burmese troops fought back until the second watch at night. Seeing that the counter attack was hopeless, they retreated one after another. The Qing troops pursued them with all their strength until dawn the next day. This battle was the battle of Manjie. The Qing soldiers killed more than 2000 enemies, captured 34 people, and captured many guns, guns, and food. Emperor Qianlong was overjoyed when he heard the news, and granted Mingrui the title of First Class Duke, and Guizhou Bingwang Company was directly promoted to guerrilla status.

After the war of Manjie, Mingrui underestimated the enemy even more, continued to lead his troops deep, bypassed the natural danger Tiansheng Bridge, arrived at Songsai on December 13 (today's Myanmar delivery speed), arrived at Banghai on December 17, and reached Xiangkong (today's Singu, Myanmar) on the 18th, only 70 miles from Awa. However, in Myanmar, the army was exhausted, the horses were tired and the people were tired, so they were unable to attack the city. On the 19th, Mingrui had no choice but to order his troops to retreat to Menglong (now Menglong, Myanmar) for food. When the Burmese soldiers found out that the Qing army had withdrawn, they fought back on a large scale. They only sent troops to the Ming and Rui armies ten times away Li Lu Follow from afar and harass from time to time, but do not fight head-on. The main force was mainly used in the direction of Mubang. By the second day of the first month of the 33rd year of Qianlong's reign (1768), the Burmese soldiers had successively captured the Qingbing stations at Tianshengqiao, Manjie, Puka, and Tin Foil. The Qingbing soldiers lost more than 800, and only more than 100 people returned to Mubang. The logistics and military information lines of the Ming Swiss Army were cut off. On the eighth day of the first month, Myanmar troops surrounded Mubang, Zhulune After holding on for ten days, he did not stop, committed suicide, and the army collapsed. General Hu Dayou Hu Bangyou Wait for death in battle, Taoist title Yang Chongying The following people were captured, but most of the Qing soldiers fled back to Yunnan. Myanmar soldiers are not good at fighting War of annihilation The retreat of the Qing troops was also well organized. meanwhile Governor of Yunnan The 900 reinforcements sent out also returned in defeat.

Mingrui is defeated

By this time, the Northern Army had retreated. In December of the 32nd year of Qianlong's reign (1767), the Qing troops from the north attacked Laoguantun, causing more than 500 casualties. Wang Yuzhu, the chief soldier, was killed in battle. At the same time, there are many officers and soldiers who are sick. The Burmese troops increased one by one, and the Qing troops were forced to retreat to the drought tower 40 miles away. Around the tenth day of the first lunar month, because the tin foil station was broken, the governor of Yunnan and the Emperor Qianlong ordered Erdenge to transfer his troops to Mubang several times to meet Mingrui. Erdeng heard about it halfway Mong-ma When there were Burmese soldiers coming and going, they retreated into Tiebi Pass, turned from Longchuan to Mubang, and Erdene was afraid of the enemy's delay and stopped walking. It took several days and more than 20 days to reach Wanding on the border until February 4. At this time, Mubang had already fallen, and Mingrui had also been surrounded by Burmese soldiers, but Erdener knew that his combat power was weak, and still did not dare to go out to rescue.

On December 21, the 32nd year of Qianlong's reign (1767), Mingrui's army arrived at Menglong and received more than 20000 stones of grain, which temporarily eased the food shortage dilemma. Mingrui rested here for more than ten days. After the Spring Festival, Mingrui set out again to return to Mubang via the mountains. On the way, he heard that Mubang was encircled, and retreated to Wanding on the tenth day of the first month. On the 14th of the first month, the Mingrui Army suddenly counterattacked the Myanmar soldiers who were chasing after them in barbarism, and annihilated more than a thousand enemies. Finally, it hurt the enemy who was chasing after them, and did not chase them so closely. Although the casualties of the Qing soldiers were small, Li Quan, the chief soldier, was shot dead. After the Burmese army captured Mubang and repelled the northern Qing army, almost all the main forces rushed to the Mingrui army. On the seventh day of February, tens of thousands of Burmese soldiers besieged more than ten thousand Qing soldiers at Xiao Mengyu, 200 miles away from Wanding. The Ming Rui Army rested here for three days and broke through along the proven path on ten days and nights Leader Minister , bodyguards and hundreds of Manchu soldiers, the leader minister Zalafona Shot and killed, Guanyinbao With the last An arrow He stabbed himself in the throat. Mingrui was seriously injured and ran for more than 20 miles with all his strength Braid hair Give his servant a reward, and hang him under a tree, and his servant will cover his body with leaves. More than 1000 officers and soldiers died in battle when the Qing army broke through the siege. 13、 On the 14th, Commander Ha Guoxing More than ten thousand officers and soldiers under Evergreen broke through the siege and returned to Wanding, many of them were injured, sick and weak civilian officials survived.

When Emperor Qianlong heard the news of Mingrui's defeat and death, he was very angry and indignant. He arrested Erdeng and sentenced him to a punishment of "Zhe". At the same time, the Northern Army Yunnan Governor Tan Sange was also executed. After Mingrui's coffin returned to Beijing, Emperor Qianlong came to mourn in person and granted the posthumous title of Guo Lie.

In the third war between China and Myanmar, the strategic and tactical opponents of Myanmar, the northern route stuck to the pass, the southern route stuck to the wall and cleared the field, lured the enemy in, and finally defeated the clean troops Deportation However, it also exposed the weakness of the Burmese soldiers who are not good at decisive battle on the flat ground and fighting annihilation war. From the supreme ruler to the front line, the soldiers of the Qing Dynasty were ignorant of the enemy's situation, blindly belittled the enemy, and simply defeated themselves. However, the Qing army also dealt a heavy blow to the Burmese army in the battle, forcing Myanmar not to dare to fight in the field in the future, but to choose the defensive as the offensive.

The Fourth War

Fu Heng

The Ming Rui Army was defeated. In addition, it gradually became known that Myanmar was not broken up, but a new power, Siam It is also destroyed by it and so on. Emperor Qianlong began to have a considerable understanding of Myanmar's national and military strength, but he will never lose his teacher and humiliate the country. Emperor Qianlong then angrily ignored the peace petition sent by Myanmar, and began to mobilize strong troops and generals to prepare for a larger attack. Ren Zhongchen, Fu Heng Agui As the vice general, Schuchter by Counsellor ， E Ning He is the Governor of Yunnan and Guizhou. Originally, the Manchu soldiers who followed Mingrui's expedition were transferred back, and 1500 Manchu soldiers and 3000 Guizhou soldiers were added to Yunnan. Later, 3000 Manchu soldiers and 2000 Fujian sailors were added. At the same time, he put down the face of China and began to consider contacting Siam and other countries to send troops together. Siam gave up after the news came.^[18]

Emperor Qianlong was also full of fighting spirit, but some people began to mutter that Myanmar was difficult. In April of the 33rd year of Qianlong's reign (1768), Shu Hede and E Ning, who had come to Yunnan in advance, said that there were five difficulties in invading Myanmar. First, it is difficult to deal with the problem of horses. According to the scale of 10000 soldiers and 30000 Han soldiers, 100000 horses are needed to fight and control the horses. Second, it is difficult to provide grain. If we count 40000 soldiers and 100000 horses, we will need 420000 stones of grain in 10 months alone, and the grain in the warehouse of the whole province is only 350000 stones, so there is a big gap. Third, it is difficult to march. It is difficult to walk from Yongchang in the mainland to the border, and the terrain outside the border is even worse. Fourth, it is difficult to transport food from Yongchang to the border. It will take more than one million people to transport food from Yongchang to the border. If it is beyond the border, the inland people are unwilling to go out. There are few people, so it is almost impossible to hire a husband. Fifthly, the climate is difficult, the water and soil are not suitable, and more people have died or lost their combat effectiveness due to illness in previous wars than in the battlefield. The two men finally concluded that there was little chance of success in the war in Myanmar, so it would be better to try to lead Myanmar to surrender. It should be said that the two men summed up their lessons well, but unfortunately not to the taste of Emperor Qianlong. Although he was defeated in the war in Burma, Emperor Qianlong still felt good. He thought that "it is not easy for me to beat the crap out of Burma when the Qing Dynasty is in full swing." After hearing this, he became furious, scolded the two people for their absurdity and shamelessness, and soon demoted them to their posts.

Logistics has always been a big problem in large military expeditions, especially overseas expeditions. More than 80000 horses, donkeys and cattle were requisitioned by the whole army of Mingrui, of which more than 10000 were horses. Most of the animals were cattle, and the cattle were slaughtered as food on the way. Even so, half of the food still had to be obtained from Myanmar. Twenty years later, Emperor Qianlong sent troops Vietnam? Only ten thousand soldiers Hanoi It took 70000-80000 people to maintain supply. Therefore, the preparation time for Emperor Qianlong's large-scale expedition to Myanmar was relatively short Horses and mules For example, from Guizhou, Sichuan Huguang , Henan and other places only collected more than 20000 horses and 6000 mules, which can only be stipulated that Manchu soldiers have horses, and the green camp soldiers do not give horses.

In February of the 34th year of Qianlong's reign (1769), Fu Heng led his troops to fight. Before leaving, Emperor Qianlong personally granted the imperial seal to the Taihe Hall and used an armor Give it to Fu Heng to show his trust and expectation. In April, I arrived at Yongchang after a brief visit to Fu Heng. The generals of the Qing Dynasty also learned the lesson of being cut off by Myanmar many times in the past. After many discussions, they decided to Direction of attack selected China Myanmar border The northern section, that is, all the way from the upper reaches of the Irrawaddy River (known as the Great Jinsha River in the Qing Dynasty) to the Jiajiu River mogaung (Today Myanmar Myitkyina West) Meng Yang (Myitkyina, Myanmar today), the other route is Manmo area, Laoguantun to get Mengmi, and then with the help of navy, the whole army goes into land and water, and down the Jinsha River to get wooden comb , Awa. Southern section Only a small number of troops are reserved at Wanding and Pu'er, which border Myanmar. Because the Great Jinsha River is a tributary in Yunnan Dayingjiang You can't travel by boat. You can only sail near the Mamo area. So in May, the Qing army sent thousands of soldiers and hundreds of craftsmen to the Yeniuba upstream of Mamo to build warships.

Burmese warships on the Irrawaddy River

July On the 20th, the Qing Army swore to go to war. On the second day of August, Fu Heng led more than 8000 troops to cross the Great Jinsha River from Jiajiu to the regions of Monggong and Mongyang Chieftain of Myanmar. Thousands of Burmese troops were stationed near Xinjie Laoguantun Fu Heng did not set up a defense here, so he traveled more than 2000 miles and did not kill his soldiers. The only result was that he recruited the chieftain Meng Gong. However, because of the weather and road problems, Fu Heng did not arrive near Mamo for a long time. At this time, Ali Gun Agui The Qing army had already led more than 15000 people to build warships and march on both land and water. In September, Manmo came out of Yeniuba. On September 18, a fierce battle took place in Ganli Village, where the two rivers meet. The Qing army sank 13 warships of the Burmese army with artillery and defeated the intercepted Burmese navy Dayingjiang Out extremely large On the Jinsha River, land troops also arrived near the New Street, and sent thousands of troops across the river to camp in Hakan on the west bank to open the waterway and control both sides. Then Hakan sent 2000 troops to take Fu Heng south. On September 29, Fu Hengcai arrived in Hakam. At this time, Fu Heng had known that the West Bank was difficult to travel, and was forced to change his previous command of the West Road Army to attack and occupy Mushu (now Gambulu, Myanmar) along the West Bank land route The plan of taking Awa directly is to command the East Route Army to fight with the main force of the new street and the old Burmese army. On the second day of October, Fu Heng led the battle at the main camp of the Qing army in Jiangdong.

It has been a year since the news of the Qing army's massive attack was spread. At this time, the Burmese army also inquired about the direction of the Qing army's attack, and almost mobilized all the main forces in the New Street Jiajiang in Laoguantun was confronted by Qing troops. The Qing troops used 50000 Manchu and Han troops in the name of this expedition, but due to logistical constraints, there were only 28300 troops in the actual front line. After deducting 1500 troops from Wanding and 3500 troops from Puer, there were only 23300 troops leaving the customs, and after deducting 4400 troops from the stations along the road, there were only 18900 soldiers in the front line of Xinjie and Laoguantun (including 2000 sailors). Aggravating Miasma The Qing army was reduced in large numbers. There is no accurate figure for the whole Burmese army, but it should be no less than 30000. Hundreds of French soldiers captured in previous wars with France also serve in the Burmese army. Therefore, the main force of the confrontation between the Qing Dynasty and Myanmar is still the dominant force of Myanmar, but because there is a certain gap between the field capabilities of the two sides, the Qing army kept the offensive for a long time throughout the campaign, while the Myanmar army basically kept the offensive defensive 。

On the tenth day of October, there was a fierce battle between the two sides in Xinjie. First, the naval divisions of the two sides fought. The Burmese soldiers were at a disadvantage and retreated to a sandbar slightly south to defend. The Shimizu division and some of the army attacked by land and water together, defeated the Burmese naval division, killed more than 2000 enemies, and captured six warships. Ali gun rate on the west bank Zhengbai Banner Manchuria's nine hundred waistcoats broke three camps of Burmese soldiers and killed more than 1500 enemies. After the war, the Burmese soldiers retreated to the old Guantun, dozens of miles away, and the Qing army occupied the new street.

On October 20, the Qing army entered Laoguantun 。 The Burmese army has already set up two strong camps in Laoguantun. The main force is in Jiangdong Dazhai. Thousands of Burmese army have set up camps on the west bank. The barracks stretch into the river. The navy of the Burmese army is parked on the river between the two camps and coordinates from side to side. When the east coast Burmese soldiers saw that the Qing soldiers had just arrived, they went out to attack. They were repulsed by the Qing soldiers. Neither side had much success. The two sides just bombarded each other with artillery from time to time. At the end of the battle, the Qing soldiers camped on both sides of the strait to confront the Burmese soldiers. However, the water surface between the two battalions of the Burmese army is turbulent, and there are sandbanks, so the Qingbing Navy cannot move forward for the time being. The next day, the Qing army on the east bank sent a partial division to the south of the Burmese army to camp, ready to cut off its waterway.^[19]

Burmese soldiers dug a lot up to three feet deep in the camp Soil pit Soldiers can not only avoid artillery fire, but also hide targets. On October 22, the Qing scouts observed at the height of the tree and mistakenly judged that there were few enemy soldiers in the camp. The Qing army then launched a large-scale attack, and Fu Heng, Ali Gun and others also arrived at the gate to command dozens of steps away. There are deep trenches outside the camp of the Burmese soldiers. The wooden fence is extremely strong, and the guns and artillery are extremely powerful. The Qing troops have been defeated many times in a day TestDaf He was also shot and killed. The general of the Qing army wanted to fight by night, but was stopped later. On the same day, the naval divisions of the two armies also clashed on the river, and the Qing soldiers sank 20 warships of the Burmese army. For three days in a row, the Qing army's offensive momentum was not so strong. They tried to destroy the wooden fence by means of fire attack and artillery, but failed. On the 26th, the Qing navy made great efforts to capture the sandbar near the west bank between the two battalions by night, captured the second warship and captured 11 people. The Myanmar navy retreated to the east bank, and the waterway transportation of the Myanmar soldiers on the east bank was cut off. The morale of the Qing army was greatly improved, but the fire attack on the Myanmar army on land failed again. On the 29th, the Qing soldiers broke the fence by means of tunnel blasting and pulling down hundreds of long vines, but they still failed. On the first day of November, a large number of Burmese soldiers came to the West Bank to help them. They stormed the West Bank attacking battalions and shelled the Ching Army navy with artillery. Fortunately, three hundred Manchu soldiers covered the enemy to death, allowing the Ching Army and the navy to retreat in time. The Burma Army waterway continues to be unblocked, and supplies from the west bank to the east bank continue to flow. At that time, Fu Hengruo continued to besiege the old Guantun with a small force, while it was possible to reverse the unfavorable situation by attacking Awa directly from the Jiangxi coast with a large force. However, Fu Heng insisted on attacking the old Guantun, which led the Qing army into a stalemate.

So far, both sides have been exhausted, and both have war weariness. During this period, in addition to sporadic skirmishes, the two sides actually ended the war. On the ninth day of the first lunar month, the Burmese soldiers wrote to request a truce. Fu Heng wanted to fight, but most of the generals under Deputy General A Gui did not want to fight. So on the tenth day of the first lunar month, Fu Heng wrote back to the Burmese army and agreed to stop the war. And Qianlong was quoted as saying, "Because of the excessive malaria this year, Cross winters Not reduced. ", There are only more than 13000 soldiers on the front line, mainly because of illness. In fact, the number of troops on the front line was less than 17 million. In order to make the situation more serious, we deliberately exaggerated the number of troops on the front line. Although the losses of Qing soldiers were small, more people died and fell ill than on the battlefield, such as Wu Shisheng, the general in chief, Ali Gun Navy commander Ye Xiangde Fu Heng himself also fell ill and was bedridden. Although the losses of the Burmese army are slightly large, the battlefield situation is slightly better. The commander of the Burmese army, Norta (i.e. Mahathi Hatura, the conqueror of the big city), understands that Myanmar is unable to support the long-term war with China. Therefore, the front-line generals of both sides decided to negotiate a peace truce without the consent of the supreme ruler. After several negotiations, the two sides formally made peace on November 16, with 14 generals of the Myanmar army and 12 generals of the Qing army as representatives of both sides Monogram , exchange gifts and officially cease the war. On the 18th, the Qing soldiers sank guns and burned the boat. Burmese probably thought it was too bad that the boat was burned. They asked the Qing soldiers for it, but they didn't get it. On the 21st, all the old officers and soldiers were evacuated. The war that lasted for many years and cost 911 thousand taels of silver in the Qing Dynasty finally ended.

War outcome

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Eighteen years later, in April of the 53rd year of Qianlong's reign (1788), Myanmar king Bodawpaya In order to cope with the pressure from neighboring Siam and other countries, actively improve relations with China, and send envoys to pay tribute, the matter ended.

The official text of the temporary peace treaty between the Qing Dynasty and Myanmar has not been preserved, and Bi directional The contents reported by the respective monarchs were different, and the post-war negotiations between the two sides were delayed for 20 years.

Chinese records:

1、 Myanmar pays tribute according to the ancient ritual table;

2、 Myanmar will never violate the Chinese border;

3、 Myanmar will Release of prisoners of war 。^[20]

Records of Myanmar:

1、 All Burmese chieftains who fled to Yunnan were returned to Myanmar by the Qing Dynasty, and Myanmar's sovereignty over its chieftains was recognized;

2、 All prisoners of war will be released;

3、 Trade routes reopened, allowing traders from both countries free trade ；

4、 Every ten years, the monarchs of the two countries exchange envoys, exchange friendly letters and send gifts.^[21]

War evaluation

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Qianlong In his later years, he wrote the Complete Martial Arts Record to record the ten wars. Among them, the leveler, the sweep Jinchuan and Xiaojinchuan Nine wars, such as pacifying Taiwan and lowering Annan, should be counted as his achievements, only "peace" Myanmar ”This is far from the truth.

From 1765 to 1769, the border between the Qing Dynasty and Myanmar ignited war again. The cause of the war was still the border Chieftain Our Tribute And attribution. The Qing army fought four battles with the Burmese army, and the first three were all defeated by the Qing army.

For the first time, the Qing army marched blindly and was ambushed, Governor of Yungui Liu Algae Dismissal by Qianlong, depressed and suicidal. For the second time, the Qing army did not know the inland geography of Myanmar, and failed repeatedly in the poor mountains and rivers Yang Yingju They also fabricated false "victory" war reports. In fact, Myanmar Gongbang Dynasty Of Main force All in Siam The irregular troops who were attacking the big city and staying at the border of Yunnan were unable to win. Emperor Qianlong was so angry that he arrested Yang Yingju and sent him to Beijing to die. In the third battle, Emperor Qianlong sent Mingrui to lead Manchuria The trump cavalry entered Myanmar, but the Myanmar army insisted on the tactics of sticking to the wall and clearing the wilderness, luring the enemy in, and defeated the Qing army again. In the Qing Dynasty, soldiers were killed and wounded badly, and Mingrui hanged himself.^[4]

In the Qing Burma War, Qianlong simply failed to know himself and his enemy. He thought that "the southern barbarians" were not the opponents of the imperial court of China. Qianlong didn't know that the Gongbang Dynasty in Myanmar was a new and powerful empire that had swept away Southeast Asia , annihilated Siam, annexed Laos The army is strong and the morale is high. Someone in the imperial court even suggested sending envoys to Siam to ask the vassal to send troops to help with the siege. In addition, the generals of the Qing army did not make adequate preparations, and could not solve the dangers of mountains and roads outside of Huahua, baggage It's hard to do. The military's logistics supply can't keep up. Also, the most important thing is that Myanmar is a place of miasma. Most of the soldiers in the north are not acclimatized to the local conditions. Disease has taken more lives than the number of people killed in battle.

In the fourth battle, the Qing army marched again in the rainy season. After several months of formation, neither side made progress. In terms of the Qing army, the soldiers were exhausted and the generals were tired of war Fu Heng can't afford to fall ill. Both sides are not interested in war. Without making clear their respective masters, the former enemy generals on both sides privately decided to negotiate a truce.^[4]

War Impact

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Later, the Qing Dynasty and Myanmar Both monarchs were dissatisfied with the peace agreement. King of Myanmar Meng barge Tear up the peace treaty text sent back from the front line, punish the family members of the commander of the Burmese army and other generals to kneel outside the palace for three days and three nights with gifts from the Qing army. At this time, there was a rebellion in Manipo, Myanmar, Laoguantun Without waiting for Meng Bark's order, the Burmese soldiers directly marched into Manipo to pacify the rebellion, which calmed the anger of the Burmese king. China did not send tribute watches to Myanmar, while Myanmar only released them in the Qing Dynasty mogaung Chieftains, Mubang and Manmu have not been resettled back to Myanmar and continue to be banned bilateral trade Not to mention the tribute table, even the envoys of the Qing Dynasty were detained, and a letter of disrespect was issued. The two sides fought a long diplomatic war. Although Emperor Qianlong held his breath, he also knew that it would be difficult to start the army again. The problem of climate, water and soil alone was a headache. For example, in July of the 35th year of Emperor Qianlong's reign (1770), Fu Heng died of illness after returning to Beijing. In addition, Xiaojinchuan rebelled again, so he temporarily put aside.

Caused by the Qing Burma War Indochina Peninsula A major political change in China: When the Qing Myanmar War broke out, Myanmar was at war with its historical enemy Siam. Just after Siam was eliminated, it was attacked by the Qing army. Empty Myanmar was forced to leave only 3000 troops stationed in Siam, and the whole army returned to resist the attack of the Qing Dynasty. Siamese taksin As a result, it was able to defeat other separatist forces in China, repel Burmese troops and rebuild Siam. The war between the Qing Dynasty and Myanmar caused a great change on the Indochina Peninsula. Myanmar was weakened by the war and Siam was restored. Myanmar took the initiative to seek tribute in the ten years after the war and was reintegrated into the tribute system in East Asia.

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