synonymthe Qing dynasty(Qing Dynasty) generally refers to the Qing Dynasty (Chinese historical dynasties)
Qing Dynasty (1616[1][281]Or 1644[280]- 1911[280][281]）, YesChinese historyThe last feudal dynasty, a total of twelve emperors[3], initial nameLater Gold。[269-270]fromNurhachiIt has been 296 years since the founding of the People's Republic of China.[4-5]fromHuang TaijiThe country was renamed Qingqi in 276.[6]fromQing soldiers enter the passIt is 268 years since the establishment of national power.[7-8]
In 1616,Jianzhou Jurchens chiefNurhachiThe founding of the People's Republic of China,[9]Jianyuan Tianming, the national title of Jin, orLater Gold, the officials were honored as the wise emperor of Fuyu countries,[190]Self esteem is the emperor of destiny.[273]In 1636,Huang TaijiHe became emperor and changed the country's name to Qing Dynasty.[10-11]In 1644, Ming generalWu SanguiClearing,Dorgon leadQing soldiers enter the pass。Within 20 years after entering the GATTDashun、Daxi、Southern MingAnd other regimes.[12]Unification during the Kangxi periodTaiwanAnd complete national reunification.[13-14]The three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian reached their peak, and China's traditional society made unprecedented achievements in development.Land reclamation and abundant products,small-scale peasant economyOur social life is prosperous and stable, and our overall national strength is strong.[15-17]Opium WarLater, the Qing Dynasty was repeatedly invaded by foreign powers.To actively safeguard the countryTerritorial sovereigntyThe integrity ofWesternization MovementandReform Movement of 1898Such as the exploration and reform of modernization.[137-138]On February 12, 1912,Pu YiAbdicate, promulgateImperial edict of abdication of the Qing emperor, the Qing Dynasty perished.[18-19]
During the Qing Dynasty, a unified multi-ethnic country was consolidated and developedXinjiangandTibetIncorporate it into the territory and actively safeguard the territorial sovereignty and integrity of the country.During the reign of Qianlong, the pattern of China as a unified multinational world power was finally determined.The Qing Dynasty in its heyday arrived in the westConglingandBalkhash Lake, northwest includingTannu Uriankhai , north toNorth of the Gobi desertandSiberia, Eastthe pacific ocean(includingSakhalin Island）, NandaNansha Islands。Including more than 50 ethnic groups, the country has been unified unprecedentedly.
During this period, the absolutism in ancient China also reached its peak.[20]In the early Qing Dynasty, agriculture and commerce were developed, and there were denseCommercial city, appearing nationwideBig Business Gang。On this basis, the population has exceeded 400 million, accounting for nearly half of the world's total population.[21]
Chinese name
Qing Dynasty
Foreign name
Qing Dynasty
Alias
Qing Dynasty、Manchukuo[274]、Huangqing[277]、Shengqing[277]、The Great Qing Dynasty of China[278]
In 1605, Nurhachi was called "Jianzhou State" and "King" for the first time;The next year, it was named "Kundulun Khan" (Gong Jinghan).[22]In 1616,NurhachiJianguo is known as the wise emperor of Fuyu countries, and its name is Dajin, orLater Gold, claiming to be the "Northern Dynasty".[9][275]The Qing Dynasty considered itself Manchukuo.[274]In 1636,Huang TaijiHe became emperor and changed the country's name to "Qing Dynasty".[23]
There are various guesses about the meaning of "Qing Dynasty". First, the meaning of "Qing Dynasty" is interpreted as "clearing up and clearing up" from the perspective of text[24]。Second, Qing, Qing.Qingwei believes in the northShamanism It is advocated by all ethnic groups, and Manchuria also believes in Shaman, so it takes the name of "Qing Dynasty"[24]。There are also views based on the "Five Virtues Theory". The Ming Dynasty was the fire virtue, the Qing Dynasty was the water virtue, and the water was used to control the fire, hence the name[25]。Northeast Ethnic Minorities Research InstituteBao MingIt is believed that the national title of "Qing Dynasty" originates fromManchu languageInmongolianThe loan word "daicing".The Qing Dynasty means "Shangguo" (that is, "the supreme country") or "the country that is good at fighting".[26]Scholars of Qing DynastyDiao ShurenIt is believed that "Qing" and "Jin" are transliterations, which are actually based on the pronunciation of Chinese characters and change a Chinese character with similar pronunciation.[27]Matsumura believes that the country name is in Chinese, which is taken from《pipe·In the second chapter of Mind Skill and the second chapter of Internal Affairs, "if the mirror is clear, it looks at the Ming Dynasty", "if the mirror is clear, it looks at the Ming Dynasty", and "if the mirror is clear, it looks at the Ming Dynasty", the Qing Dynasty is the sky, the Ming Dynasty is the sun and the moon, and the sky covers the sun and the moon.The Manchu writing daicing is just a transliteration of Chinese characters.This is in contrast with the Ming Dynasty under the idea of the establishment of the national title.[276]
Signed during the reign of Kangxi《Treaty of Nerchinsk 》It is the first time in Chinese history that“China”International treaties as sovereign states.Especially after the middle of the Qing Dynasty, "China" or "Zhonghua", as another sovereign country with the same meaning and interchangeable with "the Great Qing Dynasty", was directly corresponding to words such as China, used in the sense of a seemingly equivalent sovereign treaty country with western countries, and was habitually used and "recognized" in the Chinese and foreign counterparts of various international treaties.《Qing factual record》The Qing Dynasty is also clearly described as "China", which shows that in the official context, "China", that is, the Qing Dynasty, has been recognized by the vast majority of people and has become a conscious normal.[275]
It is said that Manchuria originated fromChangbai MountainAt the foot of Bukuri Mountain in the northeast.[28-29]In the early Ming Dynasty, Jurchen was divided intoJianzhou Jurchens 、Haixi Jurchens 、Wild Jurchens Three major departments.[30]By regionstatehood , Changbai, Donghai and Hulun.[31]The rulers of the Qing Dynasty were bornJianzhou Jurchens OfAixin Jueluo。Leader of Jianzhou JurchenBrother Meng TimurMing DynastyJianzhou Left GuardCommander,[32]In the eighth year of Xuande (1433), he was killed due to tribal conflict.In the fifth year of the orthodoxy (1440), the State Department moved southward.In the seventh year of orthodoxy (1442), the Ming court added the right guard of Jianzhou, collectively known as“Jianzhou Sanwei”。[32]After moving south, Jianzhou Jurchen andthe ming dynastyThe social productivity of the prefecture was improved and the economy was prosperous.[33]
In the 38th year of Jiajing (1559), Nurhachi was born in Zuowei, Jianzhou (today'sLiaoning ProvinceXinbin CountySouthwest) A slave owner's family, whose father is Tak Shi, mother is Xitara, and Nurhachi is the eldest son.Nuerhachi's father, many of whom were canonized by the Ming court, was also trusted by the Ming court.When he was young, he picked pine nuts and ginsengFushunSold in horse market.Later, he was cast as the defending general of Liaodong in the Ming DynastyLi Chengliang"Every battle must be fought first. He has made many achievements and has been well treated by Liang." He has a deep understanding of the Han area in Liaodong, and wasChinese cultureCertain influence.At the beginning of the 11th year of Wanli (1583), the Ming army attackedGule StrongholdWhen Atai was stationed, Nuerhachi's grandfatherGiocangga And fatherTaksi All were killed by mistake.[34][182]Nurhachi's compensation from the imperial court is: 30 waysimperial edict, 30 horses and was appointed as the governor of Jianzhou and the commander of Jianzhou Left Guard.In the same year, Nurhachi started the war to unify the various departments of Jurchen in Jianzhou with 13 sets of armor left by his father and ancestor.[183]Under the banner of fighting against the rebellion for the Ming Dynasty, Nurhachi successively conquered five Jurchen tribes in Jianzhou after five years of war, starting from the attack on Nikanwailan.In May of the 11th year of Wanli (1583), Nurhachi led his troops to attackNikanwailan, capture the city of Toulon.[184]In the first month of the 12th year of Wanli (1584), NurhachiLi DaiThe garrisoned Zhaojia City launched an attack to win and capture Li Dai alive.[185]In February of the 13th year of Wanli (1585), Nurhachi made a great effort toDong E DepartmentAfter the victory, he also pointed to the left neighbor of Suke SuhuPhilosophy and Chen Department。[186]In the 14th year of Wanli (1586), Nurhachi captured Eerhun, and Nikanwailan fled to the territory of the Ming Dynasty.Nurhachi asked the Ming Dynasty officials to return Nikanwailan and put him to death.[187]In the 15th year of Wanli (1587), Nurhachi was foundedFoala CityAnd began to become the political and military center of Nuzhen.[197]In the 16th year of Wanli (1588), Nurhachi conquered Wanyan (Wangjia) City and destroyed the last tribe of Nuzhen in JianzhouPerfection DepartmentSo far, Nuzhen was unified.In June, Nurhachi officially promulgated the national policy, calling himself "Shulebelle".
In the 17th year of Wanli (1589), Nurhachi and Li Chengliang reestablished their relationship.In September of that year, under the recommendation of Li Chengliang, the Ming government officially granted Nurhachi the title of Jianzhou Left GuardGovernor and officials、General Dragon and Tiger, becoming the highest in Jianzhouexecutive。[283]In the first month of the 19th year of Wanli (1591), Nurhachi began to march eastward to capture the Yalu River Road.In February of the 20th year of Wanli (1592), Japan attacked Korea“Renchen Japanese Rebellion”Nurhachi asked the Ming court to send him to Korea to attack Japan.Although he was not approved, he won the trust of the Ming court.Since then, Nurhachi has continued to crusade and suppress the uncontrollable Jurchen tribe with the excuse of "protecting the territory and the people".In the same year, Nurhachi marriedTongjia HahanazaqingAfter his death, Nurhachi changed his original name.In the 25th year of Wanli (1597), during the six years of Japan's second invasion of Korea, the Ming government constantly transferred Liaodong's forces to Korea to fight Japan[284-285]I have no time to care about Nuzhen people in Liaodong.Nurhachi seized this development opportunity and adopted a two-sided policy to attack Haixi Jurchen in the Songhua River (Haixi River) basin.
Because the force of the Haixi Jurchen is so powerful that it is difficult to conquer it quickly, Nurhachi has adopted the strategy of making friends at a distance and attacking at a close distance, breaking up and attacking each other.In September of the 21st year of Wanli (1593), when Nurhachi led his troops eastwardChangbai MountainEvery department,Haixi Jurchens Yehe partThe leader Buzhai united Wula, Huifa, Hada and MongoliaHorqin Wait for the Ninth Ministry to launch an attack on Jianzhou Jurchen.Both sides fought in Gule Mountain.Battle of Gule MountainIn the middle of the war, Nurhachi concentrated his forces to attack his main force, defeated nine allied forces, cut the Bougainvillea, and captured the leader of the Ula tribe aliveBujantai Thus laying the foundation for its unified war.[189]At the end of the year, they successively conquered Zhusheri Road and Neuin Road, bringing Changbai Mountain into their sphere of influence.In 1597, Minan Bel of Mongolia married her daughter to Nurhachi, 35, and expressed her submission to Nurhachi.From the first month of the 26th year of Wanli (1598) to November of the 43rd year of Wanli (1615), Nurhachi marched continuouslyDonghai JurchenThey successively conquered Huye Road, Namudulu, Suifen, Ningguta, Nimacha, Yalan, Urguchen, Mulun, Xilin and other roads in Wuji, and captured East Ehekulun City in Wuji.The Kurka tribe in the East China Sea has also been attached.
In the first month of the 31st year of Wanli (1603), Nurhachi moved from Foala City toHetuala。This is the first time he returned to his hometown as a king after leaving home at the age of 11.In the 36th year of Wanli (1608), Nurhachi stoppedMing courtpay tribute.During the two years of the closed market in the Ming Dynasty, a large number of horses in Nuzhen had no place to buy, and ginseng could not be sold, which spoiled more than 300000 kilograms.In response to the blockade of the Ming Dynasty, Nurhachi painstakingly developed a drying method to preserve ginseng and double its price.In the 41st year of Wanli (1613), when Jianzhou captured Wula City, Wula was destroyed.While expanding abroad, Nurhachi also built cities, set ministers, set laws, and handled lawsuits,[188]Establish the Eight Banners system.Eight BannersAccording to the form of military organization, the Nuzhen people are organized to carry out war and production activities under the control of the nobility, which is a kind of social organization integrating the military and the people.The Eight Banners system promoted the development of Jurchen society and consolidated Nurhachi's ruling position.[33]The 43rd year of Wanli (1615) was the last year for Nurhachi to prepare for the founding of the country.He sent envoys to Beijing for the last time to pay homage, express his loyalty to the Ming court, andConfuciussucceed in inviting sb.Liaodong, constructionBuddhist temple、Taoist Temple、Confucious'TempleThe seven temples will be completed three years later.
Yellow Flag of Manchuria Eight Banners
In the first year of Tianming (1616), NurhachiHetualaJianguo, Jianyuan“Destiny”, national name "Jin", historically known asLater Gold，[9]The officials were honored as the wise emperor of Fuyu countries,[190]Self esteem is the emperor of destiny.The imperial industry was initiated by the Emperor Taizu of the Qing Dynasty, so Nurhachi was honored as the founding emperor in the history of the Qing Dynasty.[273]Post Jin State was founded by Manchu ancestorsBalhae 、Jin StateThe third local self-government regime established after that.[282]In the third year of Tianming (1618), Nurhachi released“Seven Hates”, swear by Faming.[191]In the fourth year of Tianming's reign (1619), the Ming army gathered 200000 elite troops and the Korean army, known as 470000 troops, to attack Liaodong.[192]Nurhachi is hereSarhuThe Ming Army broke through three routes in a row, annihilated about 50000 Ming soldiers, and seized a large number of military suppliesLi RubaiThe other routes were completely annihilated by Hou Jin, except the ones that survived the defeat.[193]Since then, the rule of the Ming Dynasty in the northeast has begun to collapse.And perishYeheSo far, Haixi Nuzhen was unified.[194]
When Nurhachi was founded, there were still some tribes of the "savages" in the East China Sea that had not been conquered.In the second year of Tianming (1617), Nurhachi sent four hundred troops to pacify coastal and island provinces.In the third year of Tianming (1618),Huerha DepartmentThe leader led a hundred families to come, and Nurhachi rewarded him.All departments that have not been demoted have come to attach one after another.All the troops were captured and sent to civilian households, and were incorporated into the Eight Banners.The tribes that were attached to them still lived in their original places and paid tribute to the emperor.《Old Manchu Files》According to the record of the fourth year of Tianming (1619), "From the east of the Ming Dynasty to the seaside, north of Korea, south of Mongolia, the Jurchen speaking countries (tribes) were pacified that year."（《Old Manchu Files》Volume 13 of Taizu Dynasty)Nurhachi conquered the various departments of Nuzhen and was able to attack the Ming Dynasty with all his strength.[267]
Hou Jin inThe Battle of SarhuAfterlinkKaiyuan、Tieling。[33]In the sixth year of Tianming (1621), Nurhachi was capturedShenyang、Liaoyang，[195]It has swept more than 70 cities in eastern Liaoning in recent years.[35]In the same year, Nurhachi moved his capital to Liaoyang and built Tokyo City.In the seventh year of Tianming's reign (1622), we captured the important town in western LiaoningGuangning。[36]Then the Later Jin Dynasty fell into Yizhou, Jinzhou, Dalinghe and other more than 40 castles in western Liaoning.Xiong Tingbi、Wang HuazhenHe led the remnants of the Ming army and hundreds of thousands of refugees to the Shanhaiguan Customs.[196]In the spring of 1625, Nurhachi moved his capital to Shenyang.From then on, Shenyang became the ruling center of the Later Jin Dynasty.However, NurhachiThe Battle of NingyuanHe was seriously injured by Ming army artillery and died soon.[37]
After the death of Nurhachi, the eighth sonHuang TaijiSuccession, Jianyuan“Tiancong”At the beginning of Huang Taiji's succession to the throne, the situation faced by Later Jin Dynasty was very serious.It was isolated from the outside and was affected by the Ming Dynasty, MongoliaNorth KoreaSurrounded by.Due to the internal contradictions of the aristocratic decentralization forces, the conflict is increasingly serious.Huang Taiji gradually established a state governing body to replace the state power exercised by the Eight Banners system.Huang Taiji continued to attack the Ming Dynasty and unitedMongoliaThe power of all ministries has been expanding.[33]
Internally, Huang Taiji complied with the historical development trend and promoted the feudal process of the Houjin regime.After succeeding to the throne, Huang Taiji issued the Order of Manchu and Han People to Live Separately, put forward the idea that "it is important to govern the country and not to pacify the people first", announced that "Manchu and Han people should be integrated without differences and similarities", and implemented the policy of "weaving households for the people",[198]It was ordered that most of the Han Zhuang servants should be drawn out from the fields and "separated from the villages".[208]The Han people were restored from serfs to private households, that is, the original status of feudal free people, thus easing theNational contradictionThe society gradually became relaxed and stable.He changed his father's policy of killing literati and took an exam that year.In the sixth year of Tiancong (1632), Huang Taiji abolished the old system of "sitting in the south with the three Bayleys" and co managing the government, and changed to "sitting alone in the south", highlighting the unique position of the Khan.Then he sought opportunities to eliminate the dissidents and the three Baylor forces that threatened the Khan's throne,[205-207]The Khan's power was consolidated.Imitation Ming system, setInternal Third Hospital、[202]the Six Boards, "Stop the affairs of the Royal Baylor Council", and take charge of government affairs alone.Also setProcuratorateandMinistry of Minority AffairsAnd establish a relatively complete set of national institutions.[212-213]
Outside, Huang Taiji launched an attackNorth Korea。On the eighth day of the first month of the first year of Tiancong (1627), he appointedAmin、Yuetuo、ZierharangRank sixBaylor, 30 thousand troops were unified to attack Korea.[199]The Jin army made rapid progress. It even went down to the city without a break. Within half a month, it occupied most of Korea and occupied the old capitalPyongyang, forcingKing of KoreaLi YiThe alliance under the city was signed.[38][200]Huang Taiji also continued to implement the policy of attacking the Ming Dynasty.From the third year of Tiancong (1629) to the next year, Huang Taiji was in the Ming DynastyGuan Ningjin Defense LineWhen it is difficult to conquer, he led his army to break into the mainland from Mongolia and attack Beijing“The change of oneself”。Shi Jianjian killed the Ming Jiliao SupervisorYuan Chonghuan。Lin Dan KhanIt's the unification of the Later Jin Dynastyinner mongolia Therefore, on the one hand, Hou Jin made great efforts to strive forHorqin Baylor and other ministries joined hands with the Later Jin Dynasty to deal withLin Dan KhanOn the other hand, they actively prepared for a large-scale attack.[201][204]In the eighth year of Tiancong (1634), Lin Dan Khan died in Qinghai.The next year (1635), the Jin army continued to attackchahar Yu Bu, son of Lin Dan KhanEzheOffer one's motherNational Jade SealAfter surrender, gold was paid.[203]Ordos DepartmentIt was also merged by the Later Jin Dynasty.So far, Monan Mongolia was unified in the Later Jin Dynasty.[211]
Grand Hall of Shenyang Imperial Palace
In the ninth year of Tiancong (1635), Huang Taiji abolished the old clan name“Zhu Shen”(Nvzhen), named“Manchuria”。In May of the first year of Chongde (1636), Huang Taiji became emperor and changed the country name from "Jin" to "Qing",[11]Change the year number to“Chongde”，[39]Honored as the "Emperor of Compassion, Warmness and Benevolence".[210]In the same year, troops were sent to attack Korea.King of Korea in the second year of Chongde (1637)Li YiForced to surrender and pay tribute, he promised to cut off contact with the Ming Dynasty and send the prince toShengjing(Shenyang) as a hostage, North Korea formally surrendered to the Qing Dynasty.[33]When Huang Taiji became emperor,Heilongjiang BasinThere are also some tribes engaged in fishing and hunting, such as Huerha, Walka, Soren, Daur, etc., scattered among mountains and rivers.As early as the eighth year of Tiancong (1634),Jingqili RiverRiversideDaur peopleBaldarzi led his ministry to the Later Jin Dynasty.In the fourth year of Chongde (1639), the Qing Dynasty SchoolSuohaiAnd so on.The next year, we were defeatedBomu BogorSoldier, conquerJacques City。In the sixth year of Chongde's reign (1641), Sitku and other troops were sent to pursue, and Bombogol was captured in Chilota (near Chita).Sauron was incorporated into the Eight Banners, called "New Manchuria".During this period, the Qing army successively conquered Uzara, Niman, Akuri and other ministries.The tribes formerly known as Donghai Jurchen were all under the rule of the Qing Dynasty.After Huang Taiji conquered Monan Mongolia, he immediately sent envoys to MobeiKarka MongoliaThe three major khanates of.In November of the first year of Chongde (1636),Chechen KhanSix people, including Weizheng Lama, were sent to Shengjing to meet Huang Taiji.In the third year of Chongde (1638), Tuxietu Khan, Chechen Khan and Zasaktu Khan sent envoys to pay tribute to the Qing Dynasty, and stipulated that after that, eight white horses and one white camel would be paid as tribute every year, called“Nine white tribute”。The three khans of Mobei Mongolia (Outer Mongolia) became vassals of the Qing Dynasty.[268]Since March of the fifth year of Chongde (1640)Battle of Songjin。The Ming court sent the governor of JiliaoHong ChengchouLed 130000 troops to JinzhouZu Dashou。Huang Taiji commands in person.On February 18 of the seventh year of Chongde (1642), Songshan City fell. Ming general Hong Chengchou was captured and Zu Dashou surrendered in Jinzhou.The battle of Songjin marked the complete collapse of the Ming Dynasty's defense system in eastern Liaoning, leaving onlyNingyuanA lonely city.[209]In the eighth year of Chongde (1643), Huang Taiji died of illness,FulinSuccession“Shunzhi”, by his uncleDorgon act as regent.[40]
Unify the whole country
Shanhaiguan Pass
In 1644,Li ZichengLed by Dashun ArmyBeijing，Emperor ChongzhenHanging himself in Meishan, a Ming general stationed at Shanhaiguan CustomsWu SanguiClearing,[41]Send envoys to Dourgen to fight against Li Zicheng.Dourgen CommanderEight Banner Soldier, led by Wu Sangui, entered the GATT at the same time.stayShanhaiguan BattleTo defeat Dashun Army,[218]Li Zicheng withdrew from Beijing.[219]On May 2, the Qing army occupied the capital.[220]Dourgen invited Fu Lin to move the capital.[221]On the first day of October, under the advice of the kings led by Dorgon and the ministers of Manchu and Han Dynasties, Emperor Shunzhi Fulin offered sacrifices to heaven at the Temple of Heaven in the southern suburbs, and then again, the emperor was located at Huangji Gate (today'sgate of Supreme Harmony）And announced that "Yanjing will be settled to appease China".[222]Offering sacrifices to the ancestors of heaven and earth means that he has become the monarch of China.[40][223]This marked the transformation of the Qing Dynasty into a central dynasty ruling the whole of China.After the Qing Dynasty established its capital in Beijing, it went south to wipe out the peasant army.At the same time, the descendants of the Ming Dynasty in the south successively supported the Zhu royal family to establish political power, known asSouthern Ming[42]。Besides, Li Zicheng'sDashun regime、Zhang XianzhongOfDaxi regime。[43]It became a new task for the rulers of the Qing Dynasty to flatten the heroes and unify China.
Dorgon
At the beginning of the second year of Shunzhi's reign (1645), the Qing government concentrated its forces to attack in two waysShaanxi, a route to the British PrinceAziglead,Wu SanguiIs a forward;First Route Prince Yudodo lead,Kong YoudeFor the vanguard.Li Zicheng confronts the Qing army atTongguanAfter fierce fighting, the peasant army abandoned Xi'an and went eastHuguang。[214]Li Zicheng was attacked by the local landlord's armed forces and died in TongshanJiugong Mountain。Then the Qing army immediately went south to attack NanmingHongguang regime。On April 25, the Qing army captured Yangzhou.[215]Entering Nanjing on May 16,[224]Capture Emperor Hongguang in WuhuZhu YousongThe Hongguang regime perished.[216]After the Hongguang regime was eliminated, the Qing court orderedBoloIn order to enlist the Southern General, he led his troops to attack Zhejiang and Fujian.[226]Zhu YihaiEscape to the sea, and the regime of King Lu.controlLongwu regimeOfZheng ZhilongSecret clearance.Zhu Yujian, Emperor Longwu, fled to Tingzhou, Jiangxi, and was captured and killed by the Qing armyZhu YujianLongwu's political power was destroyed and Fujian was pacified.[227]
When the Qing army occupied Beijing and began to attack the Dashun army,Zhang XianzhongIn November of that year, the Daxi regime was established in Chengdu to control Sichuan.In the third year of Shunzhi (1646), the Qing court ordered the prince to be eliminatedHaugTo defeat the Hanzhong peasant army,[225]It entered Sichuan in November.Later, Zhang Xianzhong was killed.Then, the Qing army split up and attacked, breaking more than 130 camps in the western region, killing tens of thousands of people, occupying Sichuan, and destroying the political power of the western region.[228]The rest of the troops, led by Sun Kewang and Li Dingguo, moved to Yunnan and Guizhou to continue the fight against the Qing Dynasty.At the same time, after the death of Li Zicheng, the rest of the Dashun Army and the Governor General of Huguang in the Nanming DynastyHe Tengjiao, Governor of HubeiBlocking Yin tinLianming Anti Qing。[44]In 1652,Li DingguoHe led 80000 troops out of Guangxi and down to Guilin.They also attacked Hunan and Guangdong, "two famous kings, the world shook".Liu WenxiuAlso attackSichuan, KefuSouthern Sichuan。Southeast coastalZhang HuangyanThe anti Qing army also launched an offensive, and the anti Qing struggle reached a climax again.At this timeSun KewangThe conflict with Li Dingguo broke out and undermined the good situation.Sun Kewang TouqingLater, the army of the Qing Dynasty was fully aware of the true and the false.becausesouth ChinaThe anti Qing forces were strong, and the Qing Emperor conferred Wu SanguiGeng ZhongmingAndStill gratifyingHe served as the king to guard Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangdong, Fujian and other places, known in history“San Francisco”。In 1659, Wu Sangui led the Qing army into Kunming, Yunnan,[217]In 1662,Emperor YongliAfter being killed, Nanming was completely destroyed.[43]
After the stability of the Qing Dynasty, Dourgen died in the seventh year of Shunzhi (1650),[230]Emperor Shunzhi took charge in advance.[231]In order to strengthen the imperial power, Emperor Shunzhi abolished the old practice of Beile, the king, in managing the affairs of various ministries, and took measures to stop enclosure and relaxLaw of escapeAnd a series of measures to ease ethnic conflicts.[229]
Into the heyday
Emperor Kangxi Xuanye
In 1661,Emperor KangxiXuanye ascends the throne.In the early years of Kangxi, four Manchu ministers assisted in the administration.[154]In the eighth year of Kangxi's reign (1669), Emperor Kangxi captured ministers who were unauthorizedOboi , personally manage the government.[155]Because the San Francisco separatist regime seriously affected the national unity, Emperor Kangxi withdrew his vassal state in the 12th year of Kangxi's reign (1673),Wu SanguiThe other two vassals responded to the uprising against the Qing Dynasty,[45][141-142]Finally, in the 20th year of Kangxi (1681), San Francisco was pacified.[143]PingdingSan Francisco RebellionAfterTaiwanIt was included in the layout and put on the agenda.In the 22nd year of Kangxi (1683)Shi LangbyFujian NavyThe commander sent troops to attack Taiwan and was defeated in PenghuLiu GuoxuanZheng's Navy led byMing ZhengAccept the soil and surrender.[140]In the 23rd year of Kangxi (1684), the Qing government set up a government in Taiwan（Taiwan House）Three counties, Taiwan and the mainland are unified.[139]
In the 24th year of Kangxi (1685)Tsarist RussiaInvasion, Emperor Kangxi appointed the capitalPeng ChunGoAihui, strengtheningHeilongjiangOne Belt Defense.In the autumn of the 24th year of Kangxi (1685), the Tsarist Russia came back and occupied againJacques City。The Qing army defeated the Russian army in Yaksa and containedTsarist RussiaAggressive ambition.In 1689, the Qing Dynasty signed the《Treaty of Nerchinsk 》And demarcated the eastern boundary line between China and Russia.[47]It is stipulated thatErguna River-Gerbiqi River-Stanovoy Range It is the eastern boundary between China and Russia, north of Heilongjiang,Stanovoy Range South andWusuli RiverEast, includingSakhalin IslandBoth are Chinese territory.In the 17th year of Kangxi (1678),GardanUnder the encouragement and support of the Russian government, we launched an attackKarka MongoliaTuxietu Khan Department。In order to ensure the stability of the frontier, Emperor Kangxi made three personal expeditions to Mobei.[148]1690Battle of Ulan ButongThe Qing army defeated Gardan, and Gardan was defeatedKhovd, waiting for the opportunity.[149]In the summer of the 30th year of Kangxi (1691), Kangxi, together with Khalkha andInner MongoliaThe princes ofDolon Nor , historical title“Duolun Association”。The alliance marks that the three Kalkhas were subordinate to the Qing Dynasty.[152]In the 35th year of the reign of Emperor Kangxi (1696), Emperor Kangxi went on another expedition,[150]Battle of Zhao Mo DuoThe Qing army defeated Gardan's main army, and Gardan's army was defeated and fled.[151]During the Kangxi period, the Qing Dynasty incorporated Karka Mongolia into its territory, laying the foundation for the pacification of Junggar during the Qianlong period.
The Picture of Kangxi's Southern Patrol Returning to the Imperial Court (Part)
After Emperor Kangxi came to power, he set about strengthening imperial power.On the one hand, he is diligent in government affairsImperial Gate Hearing；[144]On the other hand, he was established in the 16th year of Kangxi (1679)South study"Those who choose Ci, minister, talent and quality are excellent".[145]Weakened ManchuriaCouncil of MinistersAnd the Outer CourtcabinetAnd strengthened the imperial power.He also set about rectifying the administration of officials and restoredJingcha、Grand totalAnd other assessment systems.Emperor Kangxi also took a series of measures conducive to social and economic recovery and development.In 1669, Kangxi ordered its abolitionEnclosure order, will stop foreverEnclosureAnd stipulates that the enclosed land should be returned to farmers.[147]Since 1671, land reclamation has been gradually relaxedInitiationThe number of years, and the achievement of reclamation, according to the amount of reclamation, given different official positions, which promoted the enthusiasm of reclamation.By the end of the reign of Emperor Kangxi, the wasteland in the whole country was basically opened up.In 1685, Kangxi also stipulated that people should cultivate new land, "never allow to circle", which to some extent restricted the economic expansion of the noble flag owners, and was beneficial toOwner farmerMin.Kangxi also ordered the Ming Dynasty vassal's manor to be changed to“Renamed Tian”。[46]In the fifty first year of Kangxi (1712), the Qing government decided to take the amount of Ding tax in the fifty first year of Kangxi (1711) as the quota, and then added new people without Ding tax,[146]That is to say, "In the golden age, people will grow and never be endowed".In this way, the amount of Ding tax will be fixed and realizedDiding in one。
During the Kangxi period, Emperor Kangxi attached great importance to winning over Han people.Emperor Kangxi made it clear that he wanted to unify governance and TaoismCheng Zhu's PhilosophyIt is the foundation of governing the country.Emperor Kangxi once held erudite and great Confucianism, and went to Jiangning to worshipXiaoling Tomb of Emperor Taizu of the Ming Dynasty, in personQufupay homageConfucian Temple。[153]Emperor Kangxi also promoted cultural governance and organized editing and publishing《Kangxi Dictionary》《Integration of ancient and modern books》《Peiwenyun Mansion》《Mathematical essence》《Kangxi Imperial Map》Such as books, calendars and maps.After the middle period of Kangxi, handicraft industry, which was severely damaged by the war, gradually recovered and developed.During the reign of Qianlong,Jiangning、Suzhou、Hangzhou、Foshan、GuangzhouSilk weaving industry in other places is very developed.The cotton textile industry in the south of the Yangtze RiverJingdezhenOur porcelain has reached a historical peak.By the middle of the 18th century, the population of the Qing Dynasty had also increased greatly.
take what our forebears have left us but as a departure for new inventions
Emperor Yongzheng, Emperor Shizong of the Qing Dynasty
In 1722, Emperor Kangxi died,Emperor YongzhengAscend the throne.In the late years of Kangxi, officials were lax and corrupt, which had become a common practice.[48]For this reason, Emperor Yongzheng instructed civil and military officials at all levels to commit serious crimes and punish them severely if they failed to comply.[172]The Yongzheng Dynasty carried out a series of policies to continue to strengthen the autocratic monarchy.Only by improving the secret folding system can the officials authorized by the emperor be qualified to make secret folding.In the seventh year of Yongzheng era (1729), Emperor Yongzheng began his military campaign in the northwestLongzong GateThe military room is set up inside, and the cabinet members who are careful and confidential are selected to write in order to help the emperor deal with government affairs.They listened to the emperor directly and knelt down to play the notes.[179]Military Aircraft DivisionThe establishment of the Qing Dynasty is a major change in the central institutions, marking the peak of the centralization of monarchy in the Qing Dynasty.[180]
Emperor Yongzheng continued to implement the expansion policy of the Qing Dynasty.Nephew of GardanZewang AlapotanYu Yongzheng supported Qinghai in the first year of Yongzheng's reign (1723)Heshuo Special DepartmentchiefRobzandanjinGather 200000 people to attackXiningAnti Qing,[173-174]Order of Emperor YongzhengNew Year's Eve、Yue ZhongqiHe led his troops in a crusade and won a great victory,QinghaiIt is completely included in the territory of the Qing Dynasty.[175]For this reason, the collar of the Qing DynastyXikangRegion, andXiningAndLhasaSplit ministers andMinister in TibetTo manageQinghai Tibet region。takeKarka MongoliaMerged into the Qing Dynasty;In 1727 andTsarist RussiaThe Chaktu Treaty was signed to establish the middle boundary between China and Russia.[176]In 1729, Emperor YongzhengFriedanAndYue ZhongqiThe soldiers are divided into two waysKhovdFight against Junggar KhanGardance Zero，[177]Last onBattle with Tongbodefeat.[178]In 1732, Gardance made an eastward expedition to Karka MongoliaHang Aishan, by Prince KarkaCelengDefeat.In 1734, the Qing Dynasty approved peace talksAltai MountainsAs the boundary, the northwest is generally peaceful.[49]
Hall of "Diligence and Prosperity"
In order to ease class contradictions and promote agricultural production, Emperor Yongzheng was appointed governor of Zhili in the first year of Yongzheng (1723)Li WeijunPlease implement the principle of levying land taxes shared by Ding Yin at the same time, change the past double standards of levying land taxes on people and acres, and reduce the burden on farmers who have no land or less land.By the time of Qianlong, this policy had been extended to the whole country.[181]After that, the population grew rapidly.Emperor Yongzheng abolishedHumble nationality, the first channel was issued in April 1723“Open your heart and be good”The edict of.When Emperor Yongzheng ordered the release of the humble nationality of music households, he also ordered the provinces to inspect. If they found that there were also Dalits like music households in the local area, they were also allowed to go out of the humble to be good.
In the minority areas of Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangdong, Guangxi, Sichuan, Hunan, Hubei and other provinces, Emperor Yongzheng fully implemented“Soil improvement and return”Systemtusi system , set up government, department, state and county respectively in the above areas, and appoint non hereditary“Qing centrally-appointed nonhereditary official”Management.This kind of management system is basically the same as that in the mainland.Emperor Yongzheng's reform of the land and return to the mainstream hit the hereditary privileges and interests of the chieftain, alleviated the burden and disaster of the southwest ethnic minorities, and promoted the socio-economic and cultural progress of this region.A series of policies carried out by Emperor Yongzheng during his 13 years in office played a connecting role in the three generations of "Kangyong Qianlong".
Quansheng Jilong
In August 1735, Emperor Yongzheng died, and the fourth son Hongli succeeded to the throne, namely Emperor Qianlong.Emperor QianlongDuring his administration,political and military achievementsHe made great contributions to consolidate China's unified multi-ethnic country and develop the prosperity of the Qing Dynasty. However, during his rule, the world changed dramatically, and China gradually lagged behind the tide of the world.
Emperor Qianlong
In the 12th year of Qianlong's reign (1747), Emperor Qianlong mobilized 30000 troops to attack in two waysDajinchuan。[156-157]Fourteen years (1749), the Qing army marchedSaroponThe old nest is surrounded by Lewu, and Saluoben is forced to beg for surrender.Since the 31st year of Qianlong's reign (1766), the chieftain of Dajinchuan rebelled again, constantly harassing and invading the neighboring chieftain, and the Qing government finally pacifiedJinchuan and Xiaojinchuan。In 1757, Emperor Qianlong smashedJunggarnobleAmarsanaSeparatist forces, unificationTianshan North Road。In 1759, he also pacified the South Tianshan RoadThe Great and Small Hezhou Rebellion。[161-163]In 1762, the Qing Dynasty establishedyili general , unified management includesBalkhash LakeIncluding the whole Xinjiang region.[164-165]Since 1762, the Qing Dynasty has sent a large number of troops to garrisonXinjiang。The officers and soldiers of the permanent garrison carry their families, mainly fromnortheast、HebeiIsostericDaur nationality、ManchuEtc.These garrisons have made contributions to consolidating China's northwest border defense and developing its border areas.In 1771, it moved westwardVolga RiverDownstreamMoxi MongoliaTorgutDepartment, leaderWabashiUnder the leadership ofTsarist RussiaAnd embarked on the journey of returning to the motherland.[166-167]They broke the siege of the Tsarist Russian army, and finally returned to their homeland after a long journey of hardships and dangers.Return of TurhuteAnd made contributions to the consolidation of a unified multi-ethnic country.
In the middle of Qianlong period, agriculture, handicraft industry and commerce in all regions of the country developed significantly. The area of cultivated land expanded, the population surged, the national treasury was enriched, and the whole social economy developed unprecedentedly.withCultivated land areaIn 1766 (the 31st year of Qianlong's reign), 780 million mu of land had been reclaimed;The national population also increased from more than 140 million in the early years of Qianlong to nearly 300 million in 1795;The national treasury's bank deposit has remained between 60 million and 70 million taels for a long time, almost twice the total annual tax revenue of the country.During the Qianlong period,agricultural productionThe development of China's economy is also reflected in the general increase of grain yield and the widespread planting of high-yield crops.Because of the renovationFarmland water conservancy, and tookintensive and meticulous farmingThe output per unit area has increased significantly.The whole social economy has presented a new situation of unprecedented prosperity.[168]Emperor Qianlong attached great importance to culture, sorted out all the existing documents in the society, widely collected books, and constantly issued the edict of asking for books.Completed the compilation ordered by Kangxi《Unified Annals of the Qing Dynasty》，[170]He ordered the compilation《Continued general examination of literature》《A general study of imperial documents》《Great Qing Festival》Etc.[171]From 1772, the Qing government began to compile《Complete Library of Four Branches of Books》After ten years of compilation, it has systematically sorted out and protected China's historical and cultural heritage.However, in order to maintain his rule, Emperor Qianlong strictly controlled his thoughts. During the compilation of books, he cut and burned a large number of books that did not conform to his thoughts.[50]From the 30th to the 60th year of Qianlong's reign, the treasury of the Qing government was kept at more than 60 million taels for a long time, and the cultural cause was also very developed.At that time, they had both cultural, political and martial arts skills, unprecedented territory, social prosperity and developed culture“Kangxi Qianlong heyday”It entered its heyday.[169]
Chief Wushi Presents City Descending Map
In the late Qianlong Dynasty,AnnanRuan's rightSuzerain vassal systemLaunched a challenge,[158]A war broke out between the Qing Dynasty and Annan, and finallyRuan HuiThe Emperor Qianlong agreed to make peace and recognized Ruan Hui as the monarch of Annan.[159-160]The Qing Dynasty also fought back in 1792GurkhayesTibetOffence of.In 1793, the central government of the Qing Dynasty formulated and promulgated《Imperial Regulations on Rehabilitation in TibetArticle 29, which clearly stipulates the personnel, administration, finance, military, foreign relations and other aspects of Tibet, and determines them in legal form.The main contents include that the Qing government mastered and determined the majorLiving BuddhaincludeDalai Lama、panchen erdeni Recognized after deathReincarnated childAnd the right to approve succession. All foreign affairs in Tibet are handled by the minister in charge of Tibet.The Articles of Association isChinaImportant historical documents proving the exercise of sovereignty over Tibet.[51]
Western missionaries introduced Chinese culture to Europeans, triggering the 18th centuryChinese styleThe upsurge of.[52-53]Europeans followChinese culture, thought and art,[54]By the end of the 18th century, the prosperity of the Qing Dynasty had come to an end, and Europeans had negative comments.British envoy who broke up with Emperor QianlongMacartneyIt believes that the Qing Dynasty has declined.[55-56]
The decline of good ways
The Qing Dynasty began to decline at the end of the reign of Emperor Qianlong.After the middle of his reign, Emperor Qianlong gradually enjoyed great success. He made six trips to the south of the Yangtze River and extensively built gardens modeled on the south of the Yangtze River,[57]Increasingly corrupt politics[58]。Emperor Qianlong's favorite letter in his later yearsHo Shen, which led to Ho Shen's autocracy, corruption and perversion of the law, and seriously damaged the administration of officials.After the middle of the Qianlong period, the high concentration of land and cruel feudal exploitation forced the vast number of farmers to a desperate situation.In sharp contrast to the vast number of peasants who cried out for famine and howled for cold and had nothing to live for, the decadent life of the feudal rulers was characterized by extravagance and extravagance.The corruption and decline of feudal rule foreshadowed the declining fate of the imperial dynasty.The corruption and decline of the feudal rule intensified the domestic class contradictions and national contradictions. After the end of the Qianlong Dynasty, the flames of the peasant uprising quickly spread across the whole country.[240]TaiwanHeaven Earth SocietyleaderLin ShuangwenLaunched in 1787Lin Shuangwen Uprising。[239]In the first month of the 60th year of Qianlong's reign (1795), Hunan and GuizhouMiao People UprisingBurst,[238]By the end of the first year of Jiaqing (1796), it was flat.[236]In the first month of the first year of Jiaqing (1796)White Lotus Uprising，[235]It took nine years from the first year of Jiaqing (1796) to the ninth year of Jiaqing (1804),[237]It was the largest peasant war in the mid Qing Dynasty.
Dao Guangdi
In the first month of the first year of Jiaqing (1796), Emperor Qianlong's Zen was located in the 15th sonDiemNamely Emperor Jiaqing.[234]When Qianlong died in 1799, Emperor Jiaqing was able to govern in person.[57]In the face of the dangerous political situation at the end of Qianlong's reign, Emperor Jiaqing fought“all take part in reform”We should rectify our internal affairs and discipline.[232]Kill powerful officialsHo ShenAnd depose and imprison Ho Shen's trusted followers.[241]The imperial edict asked for outspoken words, spoke widely, dispelled evils and upheld the upright, and praised officials who had been punished by words in the restoration of the Qianlong Dynasty.The imperial edict called off contributions and dethroned extravagance and frugality.Local officials are required to be "aware of the people's privacy", report on the facts, and refrain from bullying, whitewashing, and laziness.However, its limited rectification of internal affairs failed to fundamentally reverse the decline of the political situation of the Qing Dynasty.At the end of Jiaqing Dynasty, the problem of corruption was not solved, but became more serious.In the 18th year of Jiaqing (1813), the north eruptedTianli Uprising, partialHeavenly Principle sectTu, rushed into the palace with the help of eunuchs,[242]"Something that did not happen in the Han, Tang, Song and Ming Dynasties", Emperor Jiaqing was forced to issue an imperial edict.[243]In foreign negotiations, Emperor Jiaqing strictly prohibitedopiumThey were highly alert to the harassment activities of British invaders along the coast.At the same time, it rejected the British proposal to establish diplomatic relations and open upTrading portRequirements for ceding Zhejiang coastal islands.andcut off one 's country from the outside worldThe traditional concept of "," also makes it take a blind attitude to reject foreign things.Emperor Jiaqing tried his best to maintain the stability and consolidation of the Qing Dynasty in the midst of frequent civil strife and foreign aggression. However, the irreversible trend of historical development made the decline of the Qing Dynasty in the last years of Jiaqing completely superficial and gradually declined from then on.[232]
Dao GuangdiAfter he ascended the throne, he also lost the enterprising spirit of the early monarch, and his style of governance became more conservative and rigid[59]。At the beginning of Emperor Daoguang's accession to the throne, he also wanted to work hard to eliminate the disadvantages.We will reform water transport and salt administration.Replacing river transportation with sea transportation not only solves the difficulties of water transportation, but also saves money.The ticket salt system made the salt policy of Huaihe River and Huaihe River "eliminate the disadvantages and clear the wind".The ban on the exploitation of some mineral deposits was lifted, and it was advocated that the natural benefits of heaven and earth should be returned to the world.Rectify the administration of officials and curb extravagance.[233]Especially in the seventh year of Daoguang (1827), the Qing Dynasty pacified XinjiangZhang Geler Rebellion, safeguarding national unity and national unity, and Xinjiang has maintained peace for a long time since then.At the same time, the Qing Dynasty carried out the struggle against drugs and opium.However, the wanton confrontation of the great powers and the corrupt politics of the Qing Dynasty made the ban appear as a written document. The proliferation of opium still caused serious harm to China.[233]At the same time, in the officialdom, it is common to form cliques and engage in private affairs, engage in feuds with each other, sell official positions and exchange titles, and bribe.[60]In the army, equipment is obsolete, drills are not diligent, battalion affairs are lax, and discipline is corrupted.Financially, the national treasury is increasingly in deficit and cannot make ends meet.Class contradictions have intensified, popular uprisings have sprung up, western forces have gradually deepened, and China is getting closer to foreign aggression.
External troubles and internal worries
best-known leader of the Taiping Rebellion
Due to the corruption of officials, customs smuggling is serious,Opium tradebe rampant,[61]In 1839, Emperor Daoguang sentLin ZexuTo Trade CenterGuangzhouAnnounce a ban on smoking.In order to open up the Chinese market, Britain launched theOpium WarThe Qing Dynasty was defeated and forced to seek peace.In 1842, he was forced to sign an unequal treaty with the British invaders《Treaty of Nanjing》, turned onModern Chinese History。[62]Western countries forced the Qing government to open ports for trade, and local officials and landlords annexed land, which destroyed the traditional rural economy.Various places took the opportunity to cause trouble one after another, of which north China was dominated by chaos, and central and southern China was dominated by chaosbest-known leader of the Taiping RebellionOfTaiping Heavenly KingdomAnd YunnanDu Wenxiu、Ma RulongOfYunnan retrogressionMainly.[59]
In the first month of the thirtieth year of Daoguang (1850), Emperor Daoguang died, the fourth sonYi ФSuccession, year Xianfeng.After Emperor Xianfeng ascended the throne, he faced the ruling crisis of internal and external troubles.In 1851, Hong Xiuquan was in GuangxiKaneda Uprising, built as Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, called Heavenly King.LianheHeaven Earth Society、TriadNorthern Expedition.Two years later, it was captured and the capital was establishedJiangning, renamed "Tianjing".The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom took opposing the feudal rule of the Qing Dynasty and foreign aggression as its revolutionary purpose.The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom once established an official system, granted titles to princes, issued calendars, formulated economic systems, made coins, and printed books.[246]And launched two expeditions to the west.On May 8, 1853,Lin Fengxiang、Li KaifangThey were ordered to lead more than 20000 troops to the Northern Expedition.Although the Northern Expedition Army once enteredTianjinNearby, they were besieged by the Qing army because of their lonely army.laterZeng Guofan、Zuo ZongtangAndLi HongzhangOrganize in successionHunan army led by Zeng GuofanAndmilitary force trained and commanded by Li HongzhangResist the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom.
In order to save the ruling crisis, Emperor Xianfeng wanted to eliminate disadvantages and seek solutions.He tried to rejuvenate the discipline by appointing good people and eliminating evil ones.Employ Zeng Guofan, a Han bureaucrat, and rely on his training and command of the Han landlords to suppress the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom and the Nien Uprising.To promote someone who dares to do somethingSushunAnd support the elimination of malpractices such as Sushun.[244]After Sushun came to power, he assisted Emperor Xianfeng in "applying the national law" to deal with the accumulated problems and punish them.[247]In the face of official corruption since the end of the Qianlong period, we should crack down on corruption, severely punish dereliction of duty, and rectify the official style of government.His decisive handling of the "Wu Wu Imperial Examination Case" has greatly improved the official atmosphere of the Qing Dynasty in the following decades, especially the corruption that has become increasingly fierce since the late Qianlong period.[245]It is suggested to cast large sums of money to solve the financial difficulties, reduce the salaries of the Eight Banners, and reduce the financial burden of the country.[247]At the same time, Emperor Xianfeng dismissed those who had served as military aircraft minister for more than 20 years in the Daoguang Dynasty, coveted the position, protected the honor, and obstructed the country of virtue and diseaseMujangga , executed the famous capitulatory officials who presided over the peace in the first Opium WarJain。[244]
Old Summer Palace site
In 1856, the British excuse“Yaro incident”, French excuse“Father Ma Event”Co launchThe Second Opium War。In the eighth year of Xianfeng (1858), the British and French fleets captured Dagu Fort and forced Tianjin.Xianfeng sent Guiliang and Huashana to Tianjin to negotiate peace and signed agreements with Britain, the United States, France and Russia respectively《Sino British Treaty of Tianjin》《Sino US Tianjin Treaty》《Sino French Treaty of Tianjin》And《Sino Russian Treaty of Tianjin》。The great powers were not satisfied with their rights under the Tianjin Treaty and deliberately provoked a new war.Emperor Xianfeng ordered the Qing army to strengthen the defense of Dagukou.In the ninth year of Xianfeng (1859), the British and French invaders were defeated in the Dagukou conflict deliberately provoked by Britain.In the tenth year of Xianfeng (1860), Britain and France formed a joint force to invade China again, and invaded on a large scale.Anglo French Allied ForcesWhen attacking Beitang, Emperor Xianfeng ordered the commander of the Qing army to leave the camp and retreat when the Qing army was in fierce battle with the British and French allied forces, and Dagu fell again.The British and French allied forces captured Tianjin and then attacked Beijing.Emperor Xianfeng sent Prince YiCarrierMinistry of War MinisterMu YinAs an imperial envoy, he went to Tongzhou to make peace with Britain and France.Under the cover of peace talks, the British and French allied forces continued to organize attacks on Beijing. After defeating the Qing army at Baliqiao in Tongzhou, they attacked Beijing, and the Old Summer Palace, Qingyi Garden and other places were burned and looted.Emperor Xianfeng fled from Yuanmingyuan to Rehe (today's Chengde City) in a hurry and ordered Prince Gongyixin Stay in Beijing to discuss peace.On behalf of the Qing government, Yi Xin signed the Sino British Beijing Treaty, the Sino French Beijing Treaty and the Sino Russian Beijing Treaty with Britain, France and Russia, and ratified the Sino British and Sino French Tianjin Treaty.[244]
Russia took advantage of the fire and plundered more than 1.5 million square kilometers of northern China from the 1950s to the 1980s.According to a series ofUnequal treatiesChina has lost a lot of territory, sovereignty and wealth,Semi colonial and semi feudal societyThe degree is greatly deepened.[62]
Improved ZTE
Prince Gong Yixin
In 1861, Emperor XianfengJehol After his death, the six-year-old son Zaichun succeeded to the throne, namelyTongzhi Emperor。Emperor XianfengThis appointmentSushunEight ministers praised the government affairs, and the Empress Dowager and Prince Gong Yixin launchedXinyou Coup, Two Palacessaid of an empress, finally one of the two housesEmpress Dowager Ci XiGet real power.Westernization Movement made Chinese society more stable.In the first month of 1864, the Qing army led by Zeng Guofan captured Zhongshan and encircled Tianjing.In July, the Hunan army broke through Tianjing.[279]The East Nien Army was destroyed in Wayaopu, northeast of Yangzhou, on January 5, 1868, and the West Nien Army was destroyed by Li Hongzhang Huai Army in Tuhai River, Chiping, Shandong Province, on August 16, the same year.Yuan Dakui, the last remnant of the Nien Army who left the year of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, was killed by Zuo Zongtang in northern Shaanxi in 1869.From 1862 to 1878, Zuo Zongtang successively pacified Shaanxi Gansu Hui Rebellion, Xinjiang Hui Rebellion, and recovered Ili.go by the name ofWesternization FactionYi Xin andZeng Guofan，Li Hongzhang，Zuo Zongtang，Zhang ZhidongSome Han officials recognized the strength of Western ships and artillery when they destroyed the Taiping Army, and in view of the failure of the two opium wars, they took the policy of "learning from foreigners to control foreigners" and "using Chinese style and Western style" as the guidelineSelf-improvement movement(also known asWesternization Movement）[63]。
Modern Enterprises in Westernization Movement
In the early 1860s,Westernization FactionUnder the banner of "self-improvement", military industry was started by introducing western machinery, equipment and technology.The military industries founded by the Westernization Group mainly include: those founded by Zeng GuofanAnqing Inner Ordnance InstituteIt was the first arsenal opened by the Westernization Group.Li Hongzhang founded in ShanghaiJiangnan Manufacturing Bureau, producing guns, explosives and ships.Zuo Zongtang founded in Mawei, FuzhouFuzhou Shipbuilding BureauIt produces ships and distributes them to the navy and provinces for patrolling, preventing and suppressing smuggling.The Westernization Movement has successively set up more than 20 military factories, the largest of which was founded by Zhang Zhidong in Hanyang in 1890Hubei Gun Factory。The ownership and production management power of the military industry set up by the Westernization Group were completely subordinate to the feudal government, so it had a strong feudal nature;But the military industry generally adoptsEmployment systemTherefore, it is also capitalist.After the 1970s, under the banner of "seeking wealth", the Westernization Movement continued to set up military industries while establishing some industries related to civilian use.In the Westernization Movement, civilian industry was mainly established by“Official supervision and commercial office”Form, namely, investment promotion and investment, and official management.In addition, there are "official" and“official-merchant joint management”Industry.Among them, Li Hongzhang'sShip Investment Promotion Bureau、Shang-hai Mechanical Textile Bureau 、Kaiping Mining Bureau, and Zhang Zhidong'sHanyang Iron Plant。In the 1980s, Kaiping Mining Bureau also built railways to transport coal, creating China's railway transportation industry.The capital of civil industry mainly comes from the social input. The factory adopts the wage labor system, and the production purpose is to pursue profits, so its nature is capitalist;However, because the feudal bureaucrats managed the enterprises, they brought the corrupt style of officialdom to the enterprises, so the enterprises also had a certain feudal nature.
Premier's Yamen
at that timePrime Minister's Yamen for International AffairsAnd subsequentBeiyang Minister of CommerceResponsible for the planning and implementation of foreign relations and self-improvement movement, successively introducing foreign science and technology, establishing a modern banking system, a modern postal system, laying railways, and setting up a telegraph network.In the mid-1970s, the Westernization Movement began to establish a navy.By 1885, the three navies of Beiyang, Nanyang and Fujian had begun to take shape.Later, the Westernization Movement focused on building the navyBeiyang Fleet On.In 1888, the Beiyang Navy was officially establishedBeiyang FleetThere are more than 20 warships in total, most of which are purchased from foreign countries.The Westernization Movement also built Lushun and Weihai Guard Ports as the bases of the Beiyang Fleet.To meet the needs of the Westernization Movement, the Westernization Movement set up some new schools, such asJingshi Tongwen Hall、Fuzhou Shipbuilding School、Tianjin Telegraph SchoolA number of translation, military and technical talents have been trained.At the same time, nearly 200 students were sent to study abroad in batches to study the military, science and technology of western countries.
The Westernization Movement restored and strengthened the national strength of the Qing Dynasty to a certain extent. During the Tongzhi period, when Empress Dowager Cixi and Prince Gong were jointly in power, the Qing Dynasty once had a relatively stable situation, which is known as“dynastic revival in the Tongzhi period”[64]。During this period, the Qing Dynasty, with the help of Westerners, successfully eliminated the civil commotion in the mainland and recoveredXinjiangAs a result, its position and image in the world have improved considerably.By the 1880s, the equipment of the Qing army had significantly improved compared with that before the Westernization Movement.
Imperials sway
In the 13th year of Tongzhi (1874),Tongzhi EmperorHe died at the age of 19 in Dongnuang Pavilion of Yangxin Hall.[251]Prince Chun's son is only four years oldCarry TianShe was chosen by Empress Dowager Cixi to inherit the throne, and changed the year title to "Guangxu" in the second year.[252]Empress dowager of Lianggong againsaid of an empress。In the seventh year of Guangxu (1881),Empress Dowager Ci'anViolent death.Cixigrasp at authority by oneself.Sino French WarAfter the outbreak, Cixi dismissed Prince Yixin for all his errands, deposed the five military aircraft ministers, and arranged for his cronies to join the military aircraft department and cabinet.Since then, the Qing court has become the exclusive world of Empress Dowager Cixi.[253]
Li Hongzhang
After Tongzhi, the major capitalist countries in the world have successively transitioned to the stage of imperialism.The big powers all extended the black hand of aggression into China's vast border areas, causing a serious crisis in China's border areas.The United States has long had the ambition to occupy Taiwan.In the third year of Xianfeng (1853), the US Navy fleet fled to Taiwan,Gaoshan nationalityThe people gave a head-on blow and beat away the American invading army.In the 13th year of Tongzhi (1874), Japan sent an army lieutenant generalXixiang CongdaoInvade Taiwan.The shipping minister sent by the Qing courtShen BaozhenLead troops to Taiwan to deploy defense.The Special Provisions on Taiwan Affairs was concluded with Japan to compensate 500000 taels of silver as the condition for Japan's withdrawal.During the Tongzhi period, Britain sent people to Yunnan and Tibet in China for reconnaissance.In the second year of Guangxu (1876), the Qing government sent Li Hongzhang and British representatives under British coercionWitomaSigned in Yantai, Shandong《Chefoo Convention 》And the Special Rules for Exploring the Way into Tibet.In the 16th year of Guangxu's reign (1890), the Qing government negotiated with Britain to delimit China and Zhe Mengxiong（Sikkim）The boundary of.In the 19th year of Guangxu's reign (1893), the Qing government and the United Kingdom signed the Tibetan and Indian Renewal Contract. Since then, British forces invaded Tibet.In the northwest, in the fourth year of Tongzhi (1865), Central AsiaKokand KhanateAgubaTake advantage of the chaos in Xinjiang, China, and lead the army to invade Kashgar.In the face of two crises that occurred simultaneously in the northwest and southeast, the Qing government“The Controversy between Coastal Defense and Frontier Defense”。Li Hongzhang stressed the importance of coastal defense and believed that it should be strengthened. However, he advocated abandoning Xinjiang on the ground that "coastal defense and the Western Expedition are difficult to balance".Governor of Shaanxi GansuZuo ZongtangThe Qing government accepted the idea of recovering Xinjiang and appointed Zuo Zongtang as the imperial envoy in the first year of Guangxu (1875) to supervise the military affairs in Xinjiang.The next year, the Qing army entered Xinjiang and recovered most of the territory of northern Xinjiang.In January 1878, the fourth year of Guangxu's reign, the Qing army finally recovered Hetian.So far, only the Ili region is still in the hands of the Russian invaders.[258]
In 1883, the Qing Dynasty and FranceVietnam?（Annan）Sovereignty outbreakSino French War。From January to April 1884, France sent eight fully armed warships to the Fujian and Taiwan coasts, cruising and demonstrating in Fuzhou, Xiamen and Keelung ports.In 1885, in the face of severe situation, he was a veteran of Guangxi GovernorFeng ZicaiHe was ordered to go to Zhennan Pass in the name of assisting Guangxi in military affairs,Battle of Zhennan PassAfter winning, the French army fled hurriedly.Later, Feng Zicai pursued the victory, and Langshan and other places occupied by the French army were successively recaptured. More than 1000 French troops were wiped out.The news of the failure spread back to France, causing disputes within the bourgeois ruling group and provoking a war of aggression against ChinaRuffiriThe cabinet collapsed as a result.[254]The government of the Qing Dynasty decided to "take advantage of the victory and receive it"《Sino French Association Concludes Vietnam Treaty》(Sino French New Treaty) was officially signed in Tianjin. China recognized France's right to protect Vietnam, opened Mengzi and Longzhou to trade with France, withdrew French troops from Keelung and Penghu, and lifted the blockade of China's sea.Under the heroic resistance of the Chinese military and civilian, the war of France's occupation of Taiwan ended in failure.[255]The Qing Dynasty lostvassal stateVietnam, Vietnam becameFrancecolony,TaiwanIt also announced the establishment of the province.In the eleventh year of Guangxu (1885), the Qing government appointedLiu MingchuanHe was the first governor of Taiwan Province.During his tenure in Taiwan, Liu Mingchuan built railways, opened coal mines, founded telecommunications, reformed postal services, developed shipping, promoted Taiwan's trade, developed education, promoted the development of Taiwan's modern industry and commerce, and Taiwan's defense was also increasingly consolidated.[255]After the war, the Qing Dynasty establishedNaval Yamen。In 1885,britainintrusionMyanmar, Minister in Britain of the Qing DynastyZeng JizeThe protest against the British was invalid, and the next year, the Chinese British Treaty on Myanmar was signed, recognizing Myanmar as British property.[256-257]
Sino Japanese War
At this point,JapanstayMeiji RestorationIn 1872, Japan forced the vassal state of the Qing DynastyRyukyuIt was changed to Japan, and the Qing Dynasty refused to recognize it.On July 25, 1894, Japanese ships attacked Chinese ships, and the Sino Japanese War broke out.On August 1, 1894, China and Japan declared war,Sino Japanese WarFull blown.The Sino Japanese War lasted for nine months and was divided into two battlefields: land and sea. The Japanese captured Pyongyang in KoreaYellow Sea Naval BattleChina defeated the Beiyang Navy, and then captured Lushun and Weihai of China.On January 20, 1895, Japanese troops landed at Rongcheng Longxu Island and occupied Rongcheng.Then they plagiarized from the Nanbang Fort in Weihai.On the 30th, Nanbang Fort fell.On February 1, the Japanese occupied Weihai Acropolis.After that, the Japanese army cooperated on land and water to attack Liugong Island and the Beiyang fleet in the harbor.Beiyang Fleet CommanderDing RuchangHe committed suicide and died in his own country.On the 17th, the Weihaiwei Naval Base fell and the Beiyang Fleet was destroyed.Finally, the Qing army was defeated[65]。
The Qing government signed an agreement with Japan in 1895《Treaty of Shimonoseki》, cedeTaiwanandPenghu IslandsAnd its affiliated islands, losing their vassal statesNorth Korea。Established by Li Hongzhang, Westernization SchoolBeiyang FleetThe whole army was wiped out and the self-improvement movement was finally defeated.[65]
Renovation map storage
Emperor Guangxu
With the signing of the Treaty of Shimonoseki, China once again suffered from the misfortune of ceding land, paying reparations, and further losing a large number of sovereignty.The disastrous defeat of the Sino Japanese War accelerated the process of semi colonization of Chinese society.The critical situation of national subjugation forced some advanced Chinese people to start looking for new ways to save the country and the people.Emperor Guangxu learned from the bitter experience, and he strongly supportedreformersReform is to be strong.[248]
In 1898,Emperor GuangxuAndLiang Qichao、Kang Youweietc.Bourgeois reformistsLeading the political reform movement——Reform Movement of 1898。Promulgated《It is clear that the country is》The imperial edict declared reform.[248]In terms of politics, the New Deal is open, allowing newspapers to "point out the advantages and disadvantages", "both Chinese and foreign current events can be based on facts, and there is no need to keep taboos";He also issued an imperial edict that all the court and department officials who want to express their opinions can submit a letter and pass the“magistrates and superior officials”It's handed down from generation to generation. Ordinary people can go thereProcuratoratePresentation;Downsizing institutionZhanshi Mansion、General Administration Department(In charge of internal and external chapters) and other six yamen, each province should also make corresponding reduction;New appointees, reformersYang Rui、Liu Guangdi、Tan SitongBoth of them were appointed by Guangxu as "Military Yamen Zhang Walking in Beijing" to participate in the New Deal;Follow the old system of Kangxi and Qianlong, and open in the Forbidden City“Maoqin Hall”So that it actually became an organization for the emperor to discuss system reform with the reformists (failed to implement).In the military aspect, the use of Western military training;Dismiss the old, the weak and the disabled, reduce the military payGroup exercise, downsizingGreen camp, organizing militia;To issue regulations on special rewards for guns and artillery;Prepare for the establishment of the Military Academy;The martial arts department stopped trying to ride swords with bows and arrows, and tried guns instead.Economic aspect: establish the General Administration of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce;Reclaiming wasteland, advocating private enterprises, and rewarding inventions and creations;The railway and mining administrations are set up to build roads and mine;Postal offices are established throughout the country;Reform finance and preparenational budget。Culture and education: reformImperial examination systemNew schools, translation bureaus, newspaper offices, etc.[250]But the Reform Movement of 1898 was led by Empress Dowager CixiPost partyThey planned to hold a coup to depose Emperor Guangxu when Empress Dowager Cixi and Emperor Guangxu went to Tianjin for a military parade.Imperialist partyAfter learning this, he tried to win over the new army leaderhigh Qing officialHe rescued Emperor Guangxu but was betrayed by Yuan Shikai.On the sixth day of August, Empress Dowager Cixi was confined to Emperor GuangxuZhongnanhai YingtaiAnd then killed Tan Sitong, the "Six Gentlemen" who planned the reformLin Xu, Yang RuiYang Shenxiu, Liu GuangdiKang GuangrenKang Youwei and Liang Qichao were wanted, and the reform officials were dismissed. The Reform Movement of 1898 was a complete failure.[249]It lasted only 103 days before and after the reform, so it is also called“Hundred Day Reform”[65]。
Empress Dowager Ci Xi
In 1896, the Qing government signed the《Sino Russian secret treaty》。After China's defeat in the Sino Japanese War, the great powersDivide up the frenzy of China。At this time, it broke out in the Hebei Shandong region of North China“Fuqing Destroys the Ocean”SloganBoxer Movement。Empress Dowager Cixi wanted to take this opportunity to exclude foreigners, acquiesced in the Boxer Rebellion and declared war on the eleven countries.In order to protect central and southern China, the governors and governors of provinces in the southeast disobeyed the imperial order of the Qing Dynasty to declare war against foreign countries and launched southeast self preservation. The Boxer Rebellion incident triggered retaliation from western powers.
In 1900,Eight-Nation AllianceInvade Beijing.After the Qing government declared war on the Eight Power Allied Army in late June, the Qing army was defeated again and again.BeijingOccupied by coalition forces, looted, killed and looted.Empress Dowager Cixi led Emperor Guangxu to flee to Xi'an. Cixi believed that this disaster was caused byBoxersThen he issued an order to wipe out the Boxers.In the end, the Boxer movement failed under the joint suppression of the Qing army and the Eight Power Allied Army.In 1901, the Qing Dynasty signed《Boxer Protocol》。In 1904, the conflict of interests between Japan and Russia broke out in Northeast ChinaRusso Japanese WarAnd further deepen China's semi colonialism.
Revolutionary agitation
Liang Qichao
In the Qing Dynasty, after the invasion of the Eight Power Allied Forces, the national power fell. Intellectuals put forward various ways to save China, mainly divided intoConstitutionalismAndrevolutionariesTwo reform lines.In 1901, the constitutionalist Kang YouweiLiang QichaopromoteConstitutional movement，Liang QichaoPublication《Constitutional Law》, hoping that Emperor Guangxu would becomeConstitutional Monarch 。The Empress Dowager Cixi, in order to avert the decline of the Qing Dynasty, intended to follow the reform of Europe and JapanNew Deal in the Late Qing Dynasty。The new policy mainly implemented constitutional monarchy, established a new army of the Qing Dynasty, and abolishedimperial examination, RectificationfinanceAnd a series of reforms.The revolutionaries were disappointed with the reform of the Qing Dynasty. They advocated overthrowing the Qing Dynasty and establishing a republic.
At that time, there was a dispute between the constitutionalists and revolutionaries over the way of reform. At first, the constitutionalists prevailed, and the Qing government also promised to implement constitutionalism.In 1907, the Qing government establishedState Council, preparing to establish a constitution, and preparing to open advisory bureaus in all provinces.In July 1908, the Constitution of the Provincial Consultative Bureaus and the Constitution of the Election of Members were promulgated, ordering the provinces to establish consultative bureaus within one year.Promulgated the same year《An outline of the constitution》To establishConstitutional monarchyForm of government, set up a representative parliament.At the petition of the members of the constitutionalists, the Qing government announced that the National Assembly was scheduled to be held in 1913.In November 1908, Emperor Guangxu and Empress Dowager Cixi died one after another, and Puyi succeeded to the throne, namelyEmperor Xuantong, his fatherZaifengServe as supervisorprince regent。
In May 1911, the Qing court was composed of Prince QingYi KuangIt is the first constitutional monarchy in Chinese history.However, many members of the cabinet are royal, so they are called“Royal Cabinet”, which caused dissatisfaction and disappointment of the constitutionalists, and many turned to the cooperation of the revolutionaries.
In May of the same year, Sichuan and other places broke outRoad protection campaignThe Qing government sent new troops into Sichuan to suppress.In October, the revolutionaries launched in HubeiWuchang UprisingThe southern provinces subsequently declared their independence.The Qing court appointed the commander of the new Beiyang armyhigh Qing officialbyPrime Minister, set up a cabinet and lead the army.On the one hand, Yuan ShikaiYang Xia WarChina exerts pressure on the revolutionary army, but on the other hand, it secretly negotiates with the revolutionaries to formthe Peace Talk between South and NorthSituation.
On January 1, 1912,Republic of ChinaSun Yat sen was inaugurated in NanjingInterim President of the Republic of China。On February 12, Yuan Shikai forced Puyi, the Xuantong Emperor, to issue the abdication edict, handing over power to the Yuan Shikai government, and the Qing Dynasty ended.
Dynastic follow-up
Puyi, Emperor Xuantong at the Restoration of Ding Si
After the fall of the Qing Dynasty《Room cleaning preferential conditions》The members of the Qing Dynasty were able to continue living in the Forbidden City. The title, treatment and year of the palace remained unchanged. Eunuchs, bodyguards and palace maids were retainedHome Affairs Office、Zongren Mansion、Department of Cautious PunishmentAnd other institutions, which were still called lonely, were granted posthumous titles, maintained the imperial style, and stood up to the government of the Republic of China as a country within the country, known in history as“Small Imperial Court in the Xunqing Dynasty”。[67]
In June 1917, Qing Dynasty generals occupying XuzhouZhang Xunutilizetwice president of the republican government at PekingAndDuan QiruiLed 5000 "pigtail soldiers" to enter Beijing on June 14 in the name of "mediation".Urgent messages sent to Beijing by Qing Dynasty veterans everywhere, "to praise the great cause of restoration", and to support the restoration of the abdicated Emperor Puyi of the late Qing Dynasty, known in history asDing Si Restoration, but only lasted for 12 days.[68]On November 5, 1924, Pu Yi wasfeng yu-hsiangExpelled from the Forbidden City, but still respected as the emperor by some old Qing Dynasty ministersShichahai, Tianjin Zhangyuan, Jingyuan and other residences still maintain a small micro court, which is known as“Small Imperial Court of the Later Xunqing Dynasty”。[69]
Administrative divisions in the interior of the Qing Dynasty
Administrative divisions in the interior of the Qing Dynasty
Zhili Province, Jiangsu Province, Anhui Province, Shanxi Province, Shandong Province, Henan Province, Shaanxi Province, Gansu Province, Zhejiang Province, Jiangxi Province, Hubei Province, Hunan Province, Sichuan Province, Fujian Province, Guangdong Province, Guangxi Province, Yunnan Province, Guizhou Province, established in 1884 (the 10th year of Guangxu's reign)Xinjiang Province，
In 1887 (the 13th year of Guangxu's reign), it was set up in Taiwan Province, Fujian Province, and in 1905 (the 31st year of Guangxu's reign)Jianghuai ProvinceThe arbitration shall be withdrawn immediately afterwards.
Chieftain
Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi, Sichuan, Hunan, Hubei, Gansu and other provinces haveChieftain, divided intoXuanweisi、Xuanfusi、Department of Investigation、Pacification departmentandChief Secretary(The officer is a military officer), and the Tufu, Tuzhou and Tuxian (the officer is a civilian).The chief of the chieftain is the head of the local ethnic group, who can be hereditary. The imperial court or local government will issue a seal to the governorMinister of residencehave jurisdiction over.The officers of Xuanwei and other departments are subordinate toMinistry of War, local magistrate, local magistrate and other officialsMinistry of Officials。During the reign of Emperor Yongzheng, the chieftain of Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi and other provinces began to change into a bureaucratic system, which was known asSoil improvement and return。At the time of Guangxu and Xuantong,Zhao ErfengAs the minister of Sichuan Yunnan border affairs, the Tibetan chieftain in western Sichuan and the patriarch in eastern Tibet also began to reform the soil and return to the mainstream[73]。
northeast
The Northeast is the Qing DynastyLand of Longxing。After entering the Shanhaiguan Pass, stay in Shengjing with the Eight BannersShenyangThe Han people in the mainland are strictly prohibited from farming outside the customs.During the period from Kangxi to Qianlong, three general districts equivalent to provinces were gradually formed:Shengjing、Jilin、Heilongjiang。Under the general's command, special cities and deputy cities were stationed in each city and managed the adjacent areas of each city.Vice PresidentmainTake command of all flags.In places where Han people live together, they set up government offices, prefectures, counties and halls, just like the mainland.Balhudaur 、Sauron(Ewenki)Oroqen, Xibo and other ethnic groups were incorporated into the Eight Banners under the jurisdiction of Butha and Hulunbeier.Heilongjiang, the lower reaches of Lijiang River and Sakhalin IslandHezhen、Feyaka, Kuye, Qileng and other fishing and hunting tribes have their own surnames, which are headed byThree Surnames Deputy Dutonghave jurisdiction over[74]。Changed in 1907Fengtian, Jilin and Heilongjiang are provinces.
In the middle of the 18th century, the political situation in western Central Asia was reconstructed in the fierce turbulence, which affected the Pamirs.In the 24th year of Qianlong's reign (1759), after unifying Xinjiang, the Qing Dynasty once again expanded the territory of the Central Plains Dynasty tothe pamirs。When the Qing Dynasty intervened in the Pamirs, its policy orientation in dealing with Central Asian affairs directly affected the future destiny of Central Asian countries and the political situation of the region.At that time, it was obvious that the strength of the Central Asian countries could not compete with the Qing Dynasty, and the Qing Dynasty had to face a strong neighbor Russia in the northwest frontier and strengthen Mongolia's vassal status.How to deal with the issue of Hezhou descendants, eliminate internal hidden dangers, isolate the Kazakh and Burut ministries, and build a security barrier became the primary goal of the Central Asian policy of the Qing Dynasty.During the Pingzhun War and after the war, Kazak, Burut, Kokand Khanate, Tashkent, Badak Mountain and other regimes and tribes surrendered to the Qing Dynasty, hoping that the Central Asia policy of the Qing Dynasty would benefit them.After the collapse of the ruling concept of constructing prefecture and county system and enfeoffment system to the west of Pamirs, the Qing Dynasty finally decided to incorporate Central Asia into the vassal system, not interfere with each other with the tribes in Central Asia, "keep the border forever", and maintain good neighborliness and friendship.
Politics
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Central organ
Council of Ministers
Council of Ministers, Yes“The king of politics”And“Minister of Parliament”In the early Qing Dynasty, it was the highest authority to discuss military affairs under the command of the emperor.Yes andEight BannersAnd VIIIHeshuo BaylorThe political system of co governance is closely linked.In the early Qing Dynasty, the power was so great that even the emperor could not change his affairs once he decided, so it was gradually weakened with the concentration of imperial power.On October 24, 1791, Emperor Qianlong issued an order to revoke it.[76]
In 1631,Huang TaijiImitating Ming systemInternal Third Hospital。On the third day of May 1644,Dorgon After entering Beijing, he ordered the government officials in the cabinet, the six ministries, the procuratorate and other government offices in Beijing to act as one of the original officials and the Manchu officials.In this way, at the very beginning of the Qing Dynasty's decision to settle Yanjing, all the central organs such as the Ming cabinet were inherited, and the original Ming officials also remained in office, working together with the Manchu officials, and the central government institutions were rapidly operating.After the establishment of the Military Aircraft Division, the status of the cabinet began to decline.
South study
In 1677, Emperor Kangxi establishedSouth study, originally to communicate withImperial AcademyCi ministers studied knowledge, recited poems and painted pictures.Due to the fact that the south study "cannot be entered by anyone who is not a member of Chongban Guipurn or a close follower of the school"[77]Therefore, it is completely a core confidential organization under the strict control of the emperor, and issues edicts at any time, which makes the Southern Study "increasingly powerful"[78]。The improvement of the status of South Study isEmperor KangxiThe power of the Council of Ministers of the House of Representatives was weakened, and some functions of the foreign cabinet were transferred to the internal court to implement an important step of high centralization of power.
Military Aircraft Division
In 1729, Emperor Yongzheng set up a military computer room to deal with the northwest military newspaper in a timely manner, which was renamed in 1732Military Aircraft Division[79]。After Emperor Qianlong ascended the throne, he arranged several "Prime Minister Ministers" to enter the Military Aircraft Office, so it was renamed the Prime Minister Affairs Office.In 1737, when Qianlong was in charge of his own affairs, the Prime Minister Wang and other ministers asked to resign from their posts and restored the name of the Military Aircraft Office. Since then, the Military Aircraft Office has become the core authority directly responsible to the emperor. The status of the Manchu Council of Ministers was further weakened to almost negligible, and all political power was in the hands of the emperor, becoming the Qing DynastyCentralized systemThe peak of.Till the 10th day of April 1911, the Qing government announced its establishment“cabinet which is responsible to the parliament for its administrative measures”, abolished by Military Aircraft Department.
Interior view of military aircraft department
Responsible Cabinet of the Qing Dynasty
On May 18, 1911, the Qing government announced the abolition of the Military Aircraft Department, the implementation of the cabinet system, and the appointment ofPrime MinisterAnd ministerscabinet。Consisting of Prince Qing Aixin Jueluo YikuangChinese historyThe first cabinet in modern sense.However, because more than half of the cabinet members are royal or Manchu, it is also called“Royal Cabinet”。The cabinetRevolution of 1911After the fall, the new cabinet composed of Yuan Shikai was replaced.
Executive organ
the Six Boards(Official, household, ritual, military, criminal and labor) was the highest executive organ of the Qing Dynasty, and the official titles of the ministers wereShangshu, official name of the deputy chiefWaiterBefore entering the Shanhaiguan Pass, Manchu people served as ministers.In 1644, it was stipulated that there was one minister and one minister in Manchu and one minister in Han.
The highest supervisory authority of the Qing Dynasty was namedProcuratorate。The Metropolitan Procuratorate is responsible for rectifying and impeaching the evil deeds of the government offices and officials at all levels, outlining the advantages and disadvantages of politics and the people's livelihood, participating in the Jiuqing Conference, jointly with the Ministry of Criminal Justice and the Dali Temple Trial Office to hand in major cases, court trials and autumn trials, inspecting the cancellation of documents and the closure of disputes, and inspecting the local governance and security of the capital.[80]The supervision institutions under which they belong are: Fifteen Roads, Six Divisions, Imperial Historian Office of the Imperial Clan, Imperial Historian Office of the Internal Affairs Office, and Five City Procuratorate.Six of them were modeled after the Ming system in the early Qing Dynasty, with officials, households, rites, soldiers, criminals and workers in charge of investigating official affairs.It was an independent institution at the beginning, and was subordinate to the Metropolitan Procuratorate in 1723.[81]
Official grade of the Qing Dynasty“Grade 18, Grade 9”Each class has its own right and subordinate. Those who are not within the 18th level are called unincorporated. They are attached to the ninth level.
Criminal law system
In 1647《Laws and Regulations of the Qing Dynasty》Compilation is completed.The Laws of the Qing Dynasty are basically inherited《Ming Law》Content of.Posterior menstruationKangxi、YongzhengThe two dynasties added and deleted several times, and announced it in 1727.However, in the Qing Dynasty, examples, rather than laws, were the most frequently used.The Qing government also had various special laws for ethnic minority areas, such asMongolianYes“Mongolian Laws”，Uygur ethnic groupThere is "back law",the zang or tibetan people"Fan Law" and so on to strengthen the rule of the people of all ethnic minorities[82]。
In 1907, the Law Office revised the draft of the new criminal law of the Qing Dynasty with the purpose of "being a model power".The draft is divided into two parts: general provisions and specific provisions. The types of punishment include principal punishment and subordinate punishment;In addition, it has formulated criminal provisions related to diplomatic relations, elections, transportation, communications, etc., and established the system of probation and parole.Before the promulgation of the new criminal law, the Law Office revised the laws of the Qing Dynasty to《Current Criminal Law of the Qing Dynasty》As a transition, it was promulgated in 1910.
At first, the Qing Dynasty had no legal national flag and national anthem.After modern times, with the exchanges with western countries, some concepts of western countries were gradually introduced, including the national flag and national anthem.In 1888, the Qing government recognized that "blue dragons on a yellow background playing with red beads" (commonly known as the Qing Dynasty“Huanglong Banner”）It is the national flag of the Qing Dynasty.
From the late 19th century to the early 20th century, the Qing Dynasty used《Putianle》《Li Zhongtang Music》《Songlong Banner》As semi official national anthem or substitute national anthem[83]。Until 1911, the Qing government decided《Gong Jinou》As the official national anthem, Gong Jinou did not become popular later because of the outbreak of the Revolution of 1911.
Triangle Huanglong Banner and Huanglong Banner
Triangle Yellow Dragon Flag
Huanglong Banner
Triangle Yellow Dragon Flag
Huanglong Banner
military
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Eight Banners
The early Qing army was mainly divided intoEight BannersandGreen campTwo.The Eight Banners System is a system of military and civilian unity founded by Nurhachi on the basis of Nvzhen Niu's recording.The Eight Banners are divided intoManchuria Eight Banners、Eight Banners of Mongolia、Eight Banners of the Han Army。The flag was set up as Dutong (Gushan Ezhen), which was set up by the central governmentEight Banners Dutong YamenMastery, placeGovernorNo right to solicit.[84]In 1650, Emperor Shunzhi reformed the system of the Eight Banners. He personally mastered the three banners of yellow, yellow and white, forming“Go up three flags”And the "five banners" changed the situation that the eight banners were controlled by different princes before, and at the same time strengthened the strength of the three banners, which weakened the power of the Manchu Council of Ministers.[84]
It is composed of Manchu and Mongolian people with yellow, white and yellow flagsPro military camp, responsible for guarding the emperor and the courtThe minister in charge of bodyguardGoverning.The soldiers and guards are responsible for defending the capital, and the main forces are fierce cavalry, vanguardsEscort, infantry and other battalions, as well as well equipped soldiers from all battalionsJianruiying、Firearms Camp、Tiger Gun Camp、Shenji CampEtc.
Green camp and group practice
Green battalion soldiersIt is mainly the troops of the Ming Dynasty and the troops adapted from various provinces after the Qing soldiers entered the Shanhaiguan Pass. They use green flags, so they are called green flag soldiers or green battalion soldiers.The arms include cavalry, infantry and navy.In the provincesgovernor、Governor、Commander in chief、CommanderEtc.[85]
After the middle period of the Qing Dynasty, there were also Han landlords who raised and trained their own regiments to practice village bravery.AftereffectTaiping Heavenly Kingdom MovementThe rise of local landlords' regimental training and armed forces developed rapidly, and Zeng Guofan'sHunan army led by Zeng GuofanThen came into being.Also organized by Li Hongzhangmilitary force trained and commanded by Li Hongzhang, Zuo Zongtang's Chu army, etc. These landlords were reorganized intoMilitary trainingAnd the defense forces.[86]
navy
In 1651, Emperor Shunzhi ordered all provinces along the river and coast to follow the Ming system and set up their own navy, which was the beginning of the Qing Dynasty navy.Inland river defenseYangtze RiverAs the main body, sailors are set up along the coast.[87]During the Westernization Movement, the Qing Dynasty began to build a new navy.In 1866, in order to build the self production ability of ships, the Qing governmentFuzhouPonytailThe Premier's Yamen of Shipping Affairs was established toShen BaozhenMinister of Shipping.In the same year, Li Hongzhang asked him toJiangnan Manufacturing BureauBuild gunboats.In August 1868, the first Chinese made steam warship, "Tianji", was launched.SubsequentSino French WarAndSino Japanese WarDestroy the Nanyang Fleet and the Beiyang Fleet respectively, which also marksSelf-improvement movementFailed for.[88]
Western-style army at the end of Qing dynasty
New Deal in the Late Qing DynastyYuan Shikai was established in North ChinaNew Army(i.e., the Beiyang Army),Zhang ZhidongEstablished in the SouthSelf strengthening army。[89]On the eve of the demise of the Qing Dynasty, its army could be called 1 million, but only about 600000 fighters, of which only 175000 were modern regular troops.Not all the new armies were loyal to the Qing Dynasty, and some secretly supported the revolutionary army.[90]
The national strength of the "Kangxi Qianlong Prosperity" in the early Qing Dynasty was strong, which was mainly reflected in the considerable development of agriculture, handicraft industry and commerce, especially the expansion of cultivated land, the increase of population and the abundance of national treasury.[91]It became the peak of economic development of feudal society in China.[92]
Agriculture
The Qing Dynasty adopted reclamation of wasteland, immigration to border areas and promotion of new crops to increase production.Due to the increase of domestic and foreign trade, economic agriculture is also relatively developed.In the early Qing Dynasty, in order to ease class contradictions, the policy of rewarding reclamation and reducing taxes was implemented during the reign of Emperor Yongzheng“Divide into mu”The early Qing Dynasty also exempted the world's money and food for many times.Both the inland and the border areas have seen social and economic development.By the middle of the 18th century, the feudal economy of the Qing Dynasty had reached a new peak[20]。Therefore, the centralized autocratic system is more rigorous, the national strength is strong, and the order is stable.
handicraft industry
In handicraft industry, the corvee system of craftsmen was changed into the tax service system.The industry focuses on the textile and porcelain industry. The cotton textile industry surpasses the silk textile industry. Porcelain is painted on the porcelain body with enamel. JiangxiJingdezhenIt is the center of porcelain.
business
In the Qing Dynasty, commerce was developed, and market trade was the most common form of trade.Cities and towns are the distribution centers of commodities, the ups and downs of transshipment trade, and the connection points of various fairs.Cities and towns are closely related to commodity economy, and complement and depend on each other with commerce.There were two kinds of urban markets in the Qing Dynasty: one was the town fairs, which were set up in the town fairs;The other is the commercial stores in towns, which are the regular and main commodity markets in towns.During this period, the prosperity of the urban market was first manifested in the remarkable development of the market.The difference between town fairs and rural fairs is that, in addition to the farmers around the town, they are mainly small traders, and the buyers of their goods are mainly urban residents.During this period, town fairs and rural fairs also developed rapidly.Secondly, the prosperity of the urban market during this period was also reflected in the increase in the number of businesses and shops.The shops in different cities and towns have different industries. Some have as many as 60 or 70 industries, some have only a dozen, and most of them are more than 20.But in general, the increasing number of industries and stores is its development trend.For example, there were five or six hundred stores in Linqing, Shandong in the Ming Dynasty, and more than one thousand stores in the Qing Dynasty.During this period, there were also some professional streets and alleys in some large commercial prosperous cities and towns, even one street at a time.The continuous emergence of new commercial towns and the continuous expansion of the business districts of the original towns are an important aspect of the prosperity of the urban market.During this period, the urban market was generally the commodity market center at the county level. It was the connection point and trade center of the various fairs in the county, and had the function of adjusting the surplus and shortage of the county's products.Some urban markets are not only the commodity market center of the county, but also the commodity market center of a region because of their large scale, relatively developed commodity production, or location in the transportation hub.Some become regional markets, that is, commodity market centers of a province or an economic zone.[262]With the development of commerce, the city has become more prosperous, and regional commercial centers have formed in several major cities.[93]
At this time, regional markets gradually formed.Such as Qilu market in the north, Zhongyuan (Yuzhang) market, Yanbei (Beijing Tianjin) market, Luze market, Guanzhong market, Liaodong market, Lingnan market in the south, Jiangnan market, Huguang market, Zhangquan market, Jiangxi market, etc.Each regional market has formed one or several regional market centers.For example, the central cities of Qilu market include Jinan, Linqing and Qingdao;The central cities of Guanzhong market are Xi'an, Xianyang and Nanzheng;The central cities of the Central Plains market are Kaifeng Luoyang, Nanyang, etc.Linqing, one of the central cities of Qilu market, has a commodity market that serves not only local handicraftsmen and farmers in nearby states and counties, but also some states and counties in western Shandong and eastern Zhili. It is a transit oriented commodity market.Linqing is the largest grain trading center in the north, with annual sales of 5 to 10 million stones.Linqing is also a transit station for the north sale of cotton and silk fabrics in the south. Cloth merchants in the west, Shaanxi and Liaodong buy goods from here and sell them to the north. Cloth merchants in Shandong and Henan provinces and counties also buy goods from here and return to the local market. It is the largest textile market in the north.[262]
The national market also took shape in the Qing Dynasty.National unity and basic social stability provide the necessary environmental conditions for the emergence of the national market.It also provides reliable conditions for the implementation of a unified commercial policy, a unified tax system, a unified currency system, and a unified system of weights and measures.The national market has been formed, which is also marked by the fact that some products of the Qing Dynasty not only formed a central place of origin, but also the products of these central places of origin have their markets all over the country, or some goods have a national market.For example, Suzhou and Hangzhou in the Ming Dynasty had become the production centers of silk and silk fabrics. By the Qing Dynasty, two new silk weaving centers had emerged, namely Nanjing and Guangzhou, whose products spread all over the country.At that time, it was known as "Jiang silk and satin are the best in the world". Its products "trace back to Huaisi in the north, reach Ruluo, and follow the capital; go to Jin Jiang in the northwest, beyond the big river, and go to Qin and Long; go to Bashu in the southwest, and reach Yunnan and Guizhou; go to Hunan in the south, cross the five mountains, and reach everywhere by boat, and know where the trade is moving.".However, the silk fabrics in Guangzhou are "inferior to those in Jinling, Suzhou and Hangzhou", and are known as "the best silk armour in the world".Others, such as cloth in Suzhou and Songjiang, ironware in Foshan, porcelain in Jingdezhen, sugar in Taiwan, tea in Anhui and Fujian, have a national market.Third, due to the development of regional markets, the regional markets have been further linked, and several national central markets have been formed. The so-called "four major gatherings" of the real people are: "there are four gatherings in the world, Beijing in the north, Foshan in the south, Suzhou in the east, Hankou in the west".In addition to the "four major gatherings", there are also Guangzhou, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Yangzhou, Tianjin and other cities where "businessmen from all over the world gather".During the three dynasties of Kang, Yong and Qian, commodity production developed, commerce flourished, and trade routes were broad. A commercial network consisting of rural fairs, urban markets, regional markets and national markets had been formed.[262]
The development of usury and pawnbroking: During the Kang, Yong and Qian dynasties, with the development of monetary economy, the usury industry was very active.The interest is calculated by year, by day and by month.The interest is mostly three or five cents per month, that is, borrow one or two silver coins, and the monthly interest is three or five cents.Although there are less than three points, there are few, some as high as nine points, and others plus one (10%) plus two (20%) plus three (30%).According to incomplete statistics, in the 24th year of Kangxi (1685), there were 7355 pawnshops nationwide, which soared to 18308 in the 18th year of Qianlong's reign (1753), an increase of nearly one and a half times.[263]Its growth rate is very fast, reflecting the rapid development of the usury pawnbroking industry during this period.There is also a special kind of usury, that is, the interest bearing silver of the Qing Dynasty. The treasury allocates a certain amount of silver to the internal affairs government or towns and provinces for operation, so as to solve the economic difficulties of low-level officials with the interest obtained.This interest bearing silver started in the Kangxi Dynasty, and gradually contracted in the Qianlong Dynasty. It became active again during the Jiaqing period, and still existed after the Opium War.In the 42nd year of Emperor Kangxi's reign, the Emperor himself approved to lend 1 million silver taels to salt merchants in Huaihe and Huaihe at an annual interest rate of 10%.[264]In the first year of Yongzheng's reign (1723), 900000 silver liang was allocated to bear interest, and the monthly interest was "one cent".[265]This interest bearing silver is not fundamentally different from the folk usury, but the interest is slightly lower.The monthly interest rate varies from one cent to three cents, with one cent and two cents being the majority.The Qing government put the interest bearing silver on the market, expanded the usury funds and the usury market, and promoted the development of the usury industry.
Voucher issued by Rishengchang Ticket No
India Bureau、bankandAccount bureauThe emergence of: With the development of the usury industry, a credit organization specializing in usury - India Bureau appeared.About the beginning of tomorrow, there were records about the seal bureau in Beijing.In the 20th year of the reign of Emperor Kangxi (1681), there was an organizational seal bureau in Liangjiang area that exclusively granted usury.After the mid Qing Dynasty, printing bureaus appeared in all major commercial cities.Its interest rate is higher than that of ordinary usurious loans, mostly at the monthly interest rate of three to six cents.In the late Ming Dynasty, silver and copper coins were used together, so there were credit organizations operating the exchange business. At first, they set up stalls, called money tables or money stalls. Later, they operated in front of others, called banks and money shops.In the Qing Dynasty, the function of the bank gradually expanded. In addition to the exchange business, the bank also operated the loan and deposit bank, which prevailed in the south of the Yangtze River. Centered on Hankou and Shanghai, the Shaoxing Gang was the most powerful.The credit organization similar to the function of the bank is called "account bureau" in the north.The first account bureau was the "Xiangfayong" set up in Zhangjiakou by Shanxi businessman Wang Tingrong with a capital contribution of ten million taels.Shanxi merchants had the most accounts bureaus in Beijing and Zhangjiakou. Before the Opium War in Beijing alone, there were more than 100 accounts bureaus, and the local bank was more than 10 million taels.The borrowers of the account bureau are industrial and commercial shops, seal bureaus, pawnshops and money shops, and officials and Mongolian nobles.It provides capital for industry and commerce and is conducive to the development of industry and commerce.[266]
The emergence of bill numbers: Although there was a kind of circulation of "meeting tickets", i.e. bills of exchange, among the people in the Ming Dynasty, the bill numbers of credit organizations operating the exchange business appeared in the Qing Dynasty.Since most of the ticket banks are in the hands of Shanxi businessmen, they are also called“Shanxi Ticket No”。The sub branches of Shanxi's draft shops were distributed in more than 90 cities and towns across the country, with more than 400 villages. At that time, they were called "Huitong Tianxia".Before the emergence of banks, "it was all about exchange".The interest rate of the bill shop is generally 3 to 4% per month for deposits and 7 to 8% per month for loans. The lower interest rate is 5% and the higher interest rate is 1 point.Its clients were banks, pawnshops and ordinary businessmen, and it provided credit to the Qing government, which eased the national financial crisis.From the perspective of the capital source, service objects and functions of the bill shop, it is basically still the interest bearing capital of feudalism, but it is conducive to the development of the commodity economy, promotes long-distance trafficking and economic exchanges between large regions, promotes the emergence of the national market, and also provides conditions for the emergence of modern banks from the accumulation of talents, management systems and experience.[266]
currency
The currency of the Qing Dynasty was generally adoptedSilverAndcopperThe dual standard system of silver and copper is used in combination. Silver is used in large numbers and money is used in small numbers, but silver is more important.Due to the developed overseas trade, a large amount of silver is imported from abroad,Kangyong Qianlong heydayForeign countries in circulationSilver dollarIn addition to Spanish silver dollars, there are Portuguese silver dollars, Venetian silver dollars, Dutch silver dollars, French silver dollars, etc.Opium WarBefore and after, fixed forms of silver coins were needed, and the official use of machines to cast silver coins was after the Opium War.Before the Opium War, Britain sold a large amount of opium into China, which led to a large outflow of silver from China. More copper money was needed to exchange for silver.Since silver is the fixed currency for people to pay taxesinflation, seriously worsening the economy.It made it possible toEmperor ShunzhiIssuance of banknotes, by 1853Emperor XianfengIssued againQing Dynasty Treasure Bank NoteAndHousehold official ticketTo stabilize the economy of the Qing Dynasty.[96]
Until the fiftieth year of Kangxi (1711), the tax and corvee system of the Qing Dynasty, despite repeated adjustments, was still very complicated and chaotic due to long-standing shortcomings.In the 51st year of Kangxi (1712), it was decided to "nourish the people in the prosperous times and never add taxes"[97]That is to say, the national population in the fifty years of Kangxi was more than 24.62 million Ding, and Ding Yin was more than 3.35 million liang. The Ding Kou added later will not be levied any more Ding Yin.In the first year of Yongzheng's reign (1723), Li Weijun, governor of Zhili, requested that Ding Yin be spread into the grain and collected, which was approved by the imperial court.It was gradually implemented in the first year of Yongzheng“Divide into mu”The policy, to a certain extent, has changed the long-term unequal tax situation, which is conducive to mobilizing the enthusiasm of the working people for production and promoting the development of social economy.
The Emperor Qianlong repeatedly and massively exempted the land tax and grain, as well as the arrears of provinces, and ordered five times in the 10th, 35th (1770), 45th, 55th and first year of Jiaqing (1777) of the reign of Emperor Qianlong to exempt the amount of tax and grain in each province in three years.Kangxi、Yongzheng、QianlongAlthough the policy of tax reduction and exemption in the period was a measure taken to ease the contradiction in order to maintain the feudal rule, compared with the policy of levying taxes and levies extravagantly and taking advantage of power, it reduced some of the burdens of farmers to a certain extent, so that they could be reassured in production and avoid being displaced.
finance
After the pacification of San Francisco, the annual revenue of local banks was 26 million to more than 28 million taels. In addition to the local expenditure of about 8.3 million taels, plus other revenues, the annual financial revenue was nearly 30 million taels.Due to the establishment of the fiscal revenue tax system and the gradual improvement of various tax laws, the fiscal revenue of the Qing Dynasty exceeded the expenditure, and the household inventory was also increasingly abundantKangxiIn 61 years, the household inventory was more than 8 million,YongzhengAnd gradually accumulated to more than 60 million.ArriveQianlongIn the forty sixth year (1781), the fiscal revenue of the Qing Dynasty increased to 78 million taels, which meant that the fiscal revenue of the Qing Dynasty reached its peak.[98](It is also said that nearly 82 million taels in 1777 was the highest record in the Qing Dynasty.) The White Lotus Uprising in the early years of Jiaqing became the turning point of the Qing Dynasty's finance.After the pacification of the White Lotus Sect in 1804, the Qing Dynasty ushered in a peaceful period.In the next 16 years, there was no large-scale war in the mainland and border areas.Surprisingly, the surplus of the household did not rebound. In most years of this cycle, the surplus has remained between 20 million and 30 million taels.
However, once the imperial court used troops in the border areas or calmed down civil unrest, the military expenditure increased sharply, and its cash reserves would decline significantly.However, the previous use of troops in the border areas did not lead the Qing government to raise the tax rate of land taxes or set new taxes to increase the national treasury income.
Wu Jingzi (1701-1754) was a novelist and thinker in the Qing Dynasty.The whole book takes the whole feudal society as the object of criticism, and different types of intellectuals as the center. Through the description and analysis of their lives and hearts, it outlines all kinds of "Confucian scholars".[259]
Qing poetry is another important period after the Tang and Song dynasties, with various schools and poetic ideas, which has its artistic value that cannot be ignored.The mainstream of poetry in the early Qing Dynasty is“Adherent poems”Is full of rebellious spirit.[103]The most famous isQian Qianyi、Wu Weiye、Gong Dingji, said“Jiangzuo Three Masters”。The famous poets who lived in the late Qianlong period and Jiaqing period areZhang WentaoHis seven character rule is unique, and there are many good sentences.Zhang WentaoIt is also easy to talk about "spirit" and agree with Yuan Mei's view on poetry. It can be regarded as a poet of "spirit school". Zhang Wentao andYuan Mei、Zhao YiAlso known as Qianjia“Three Masters of Xingling Sect”。[104]
The poetry of the Qing Dynasty is known as "Zhongxing". In the Shunkang and Kangxi dynasties alone, there were more than 2500 poets and more than 60000 poems, far surpassing any previous dynasties, especially the Yuan and Ming dynasties, when compared with the decline of ci poetry.In the Kangxi period, the Qing Dynasty Ci poetry showed its proud achievements for the first time and formed its own style characteristics.[260]appearWang Shizhen、Chen Weisong、Zhu Yizun、Gu Zhenguan、Li E、NalanxingdeAnd other important poets.Zhu Yizun, Chen Weisong and Nalan Xingde, though their positions in the whole history of ci poetry are different in evaluation and praise, few people have shaken their position as "great masters in the Kangxi ci poetry world", especially Zhu Yizun, the leader of the western Zhejiang ci school, whose theory of "learning from the Southern Song Dynasty and advocating elegance" led the creation of the ci poetry world in the Qing Dynasty.[260]Qing Ci entered its heyday.Poets in the Late Qing DynastyWang Pengyun、Zheng Wenzhuo、Zhu Xiaozang、Kuang ZhouyiIt is also called "Four Ci Poets of the Late Qing Dynasty".OverallQing Dynasty CiThe remarkable achievements of;Second, the argument is high;Third, fine skills.
From the development of Chinese opera to the reign of Emperor Qianlong in the Qing Dynasty, local operas have sprung up and flourished.Kunqiang OperaWei Liangfu，Li YuWith the improvement of playwrights, the outstanding performers in the drama world have obviously been attributed to the bulk of Kunqu Opera.Through“The dispute between Hua and Ya”Yabu Kunqu eventually declined.
The name of Peking Opera first appeared in 1876《declare》, once in historyPihuang、Erhuang, Huangqiang, JingdiaoBeijing Opera、Peking opera, national opera, etcAnhui Troupe Goes to BeijingKunqu OperaHanju opera, Yiyang, Luantan and other operas have evolved after 50 or 60 years of integration.It has the richest repertoire, the largest number of performing artists, the largest number of troupes, the largest number of audiences, and the deepest influence in the country.[106]
The painting world in the Qing Dynasty was dominated by literati painting. Landscape painting and ink freehand brushwork were popular. More painters pursued the interest of pen and ink, renovated the art form, and emerged many schools of different styles.Early Qing DynastyVermilion droop、Shi TaoLandscape, flower and bird painting of“Yangzhou Eight Eccentrics”, late Qing DynastyRen Bonian，Wu ChangshuoThe paintings of beautiful ladies, flowers and birds, Yangliuqing, Taohuawu and folk New Year pictures all have great influence on later generations.
the Qing dynastyEpigraphyWith the prevalence and the large number of unearthed gold and stone cultural relics in past dynasties, many scholars have devoted themselves to the collection, research, writing and dissemination of these cultural relics and ancient characters, thus expanding the vision of seal carvers.The number of seal cutting schools in the Qing Dynasty is unprecedented, and the representative figures are:Zhao Zhiqian、Wu Changshuo、Li Liangyu、Qi BaishiEtc.[271]
Academically, textual criticism was the most prosperous in the Qing Dynasty.The representative figures in the heyday of textual criticism areHuidong、Dai Zhen、Duan Yucai、Wang Yinzhi、Wang Nianshun, and so on. The textual research method is much the same with little difference.[107]here we areZhang Xuecheng, and proposed“History of Six Classics”This is another step forward.[108]
Under the influence of textual research style, the textual research and supplement of ancient history as well as the collection of gold and stone historical materials have become a common practice, and various historical works have emerged.Hui Dong has 24 volumes of Supplement Notes to the History of the Later Han Dynasty;Qian Daxin has 40 volumes of Identification of Doubts in the Two Han Dynasties, 3 volumes of Identification of Doubts in the Three Kingdoms, 8 volumes of Supplement to the History of the Later Han Dynasty, 2 volumes of Supplement to the History of Art and Literature in the Han Dynasty, and 4 volumes of Jiading Jinshi Literatures;Liang Yusheng has 36 volumes of Records of the Historian;Cui Shu has a book called "Textual Record";Hang Shijun has "Textual Research on Historical Records", "Supplement to the Three Kingdoms Annals", "Supplement to the Biography of the Book of Jin", "Commentary on the Book of Northern Qi", "Query on the History" and so on;Xie Qikun has 24 volumes of The Book of the Western Wei Dynasty;Shen Qinhan has 12 volumes of Zuo Zhuan Supplementary Notes, 12 volumes of Zuo Shi Geography Supplementary Notes, 74 volumes of Shuzheng of Two Han Books, etc;Lei Xueqi has 14 volumes of "Kaoding Bamboo Chronicle";Hong Liangji has 12 volumes of Four Histories, 2 volumes of Three Kingdoms Territory, 4 volumes of Eastern Jin Territory, 16 volumes of Sixteen Kingdoms Territory, 16 volumes of Western Xia Territory, etc;Bi Yuan organized the compilation of "Continuation of Zizhi Tongjian", etc.The work of textual criticism and supplement of historiography is a comprehensive review and summary of the historical books of China's past dynasties, which has opened up the way for future generations to study historyWang Mingsheng、Qian Daxin、Zhao YiThree people.In addition to the Discussion on the Seventeen Histories, Wang Mingsheng has another book, The Book of Moths, which is an academic work mainly based on textual research. It mainly discusses the meaning of scriptures, history and geography, and primary schools, as well as systems, names, characters, characters, poems, inscriptions, and so on. The content is very rich. Among them, 38 volumes of the four categories of Shuodi, Shuozhi, Shuoren, and Shuowu are particularly incisive;Qian Daxin also participated in the General Examination of the Continued Literature in addition to the Twenty second Historical Examination《Xu Tongzhi》Compilation of official books such as Yi Tong Zhi.Another contribution to historiography is in Yuan historiography. There are three volumes of "Yuan Shi Clan Table" and four volumes of "Yuan Shi Yi Wen Zhi". He is determined to rebuild a history of the Yuan Dynasty, which has become 100 volumes of "Yuan Shi Chu", but unfortunately lost it;In addition to Notes on the Twenty second History, Zhao Yi also has 4 volumes of Imperial Martial Arts, 43 volumes of Xinyu Congkao, and 6 volumes of Zhan Pu's Miscellaneous Notes.[261]
Under the influence of the official revision of the history of the dynasty and the border region, there appeared a group of scholars who studied and wrote the history of the dynasty and the border region. Their academic achievements had an important impact on the academic atmosphere of the late Qing Dynasty.Zhao Yi's "Emperor's Martial Arts and Prosperity", that is, in the form of chronicles, records the great historical events of the two dynasties of Emperor Shengzu and Emperor Gaozong, such as the pacification of San Francisco, Shuo Desert, Junggar, Myanmar, Taiwan and Gurkha, which are of great historical value;Jiang Liangqi compiled 32 volumes of the East China Record to record the historical events of the five emperors and the six dynasties in the early Qing Dynasty, mainly based on factual records and title books. Since the book was written before the Qing court revised the factual records, many important original materials were preserved;Lu Yaoji has written 18 volumes of the Outline of the Imperial Clan, 1 volume of the Western Regions, 4 volumes of the Outline of the Western Frontier, and Xinjiang Knowledge, etc;Xu Songbo wrote a group of books and defended Yili for his affairs. "Since he left the pass, he has traveled extensively on both the north and south roads. Whenever he felt comfortable, he took a small volume with him, set up a compass, recorded the twists and turns of the mountains and rivers, and dismounted to record it. He wrote five volumes of" A Record of Western Regions Waterways ". The above is not only the contemporary history of the Qing Dynasty, but also related to the consolidation and development of the border areas, thus forming the characteristics of historical research focusing on contemporary history and border history.[261]
Zhang Xuecheng
In terms of historical theory, Zhang Xuecheng's contribution to historical theory.Zhang Xuecheng, whose name is Shizhai, is Shaoyan.The main points of his theory are as follows: First, the historical records are divided into two parts: "writing" and "analogy".He said: "The ancients must have several schools of learning, writing and comparison, the main points of which are also important." The so-called writing refers to the dogmatic learning of one's own family;Comparisons refer to the recording, sorting and compilation of materials.Based on this view, he is in favor of writing a family and advocates writing a general history.The so-called meaning of history refers to the intention and purpose of historians, and the so-called virtue of history refers toLiu ZhijiOn the basis of the theory of "three virtues" of historiography (talent, learning and knowledge), the theory of "historiography virtue" is advocated.The third is the general concept of historiography.He said: "There is a history of the world, a history of a country, a history of a family, and a history of one person. According to the biographical records, there is a history of one person; family genealogy, there is a history of one family; local government and county annals, there is a history of a country; a comprehensive discipline, there is a history of the world; compared with people, there is a family, there is a country, there is a world, but the division is extremely detailed, and then the combination can choose good without regret."This is to treat different historical records as a whole of mutual connection, collectively referred to as "history".It was under the guidance of this overall view that he paid special attention to the compilation of local chronicles of prefectures and counties, so he guided the establishment of local chronicles in prefectures and counties to accumulate materials for the revision of national history.The second is the practice of compiling records.Zhang XuechengHe has never been to the National History Museum, and his practice of compiling history is mainly in the compilation of local chronicles. He has compiled Tianmen County Annals, Hezhou Annals, Yongqing County Annals, Bozhou Annals, and Hubei General Annals.In the activity of compiling chronicles, Zhang Xuecheng put forward some important points, such as that chronicles are a historical style, which should be based on the materials of national history, pay attention to the role of historical tables, historical books should have maps, and local chronicles should have a style of "three books" (namely, chronicles, anecdotes, and literature signs should each be a book) to solve the contradiction between academic and material nature, and so on.This is the theory he summed up in the practice of compiling chronicles, which has important guiding significance.In addition, he also advocated the theory of "Six Classics are all history", did not follow the style of textual research, and dared to put forward his own independent opinions.[261]
In the early and middle Qing Dynasty, rulers thrivedLiterary inquisition。Liu YizhengIt said: "Scholars of the previous generation were almost as badly affected as those of the Qing Dynasty. Therefore, since Yongqian, there have been no people with lofty ideals. A little carelessness will bring disaster."[109]。In various cases of the Qing Dynasty, the most famous ones were those in the Kangxi periodNanshan case, Yongzheng periodInquisition CourtTest paper andLv Liuliang CaseEtc.[110]
science and technology
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Medical Science
The 90 volumes of the "Medical School Golden Mirror", which was officially revised during the reign of Qianlong, collected many new secret scripts and experience prescriptions, and《Synopsis of the Golden Chamber》、《Typhoid theory》It is an important book to introduce the clinical experience of traditional Chinese medicine.Famous doctors in the Qing DynastyWang QingrenOutstanding achievements in medicine《Medical forest correction》One book.He emphasized the importance of anatomical knowledge for medical treatment, and questioned the records of viscera in ancient books.Through the anatomical study of the internal organs of the corpse, he drew twenty-five kinds of "Picture of Correcting Viscera by Seeing", which corrected some mistakes of the predecessors and made a useful contribution to the development of Chinese anatomy.[111]
Geography
KangxiAt that time, he organized human resources to carry out geodetic survey across the country. After more than 30 years of planning and mapping《Huangyu Overview Map》。This map "is not only the best map of Asia at that time, but also better and more accurate than all European maps at that time"[112]。Finally, on the basis of the "Complete Map of Huangyu" and according to the new surveying and mapping data, the "Complete Map of Huangyu in Qianlong's Inner Mansion" was made.In this map, the Xinjiang region of China is depicted in detail for the first time.[113]
agronomy
There were more than 100 agricultural books in the Qing Dynasty, especiallyKangxi、YongzhengThe two dynasties were prosperous.Yes《Imperial Timing Examination》《A broad spectrum of fragrance》《Supplementary agricultural book》And other works.[113]Among them, the large-scale comprehensive agricultural book Imperial Timing General Examination was compiled by a group of scholars convened by Emperor Qianlong Hongli in 1737.Scale ratio of the whole book《Complete Book of Agricultural Administration》Slightly small.Because it is an official book written by the emperor, most provinces have reprints, which are widely spread.
The Qing emperor loved to build gardensThree mountains and five gardensMost famous.Western suburb of BeijingOld Summer PalaceIt is also very luxurious. The Old Summer Palace has more than 150 beautiful palaces, terraces, pagodas and other buildings.After more than 150 years, it cost about 200 million taels of silver.In addition to the reconstruction, new buildings are built in the immediate eastChangchun Garden, incorporated in the southeastWanchun Garden。The pattern of Yuanming Three Parks has basically taken shape.JiaqingThe Qichun Garden was renovated and expanded to become one of the main gardens.In 1860,Anglo French Allied ForcesWhen the Old Summer Palace was ransacked, cultural relics were looted.
Railway
At the end of the Qing Dynasty, the transportation industry developed.Zhan TianyouPresiding over the constructionBeijing Zhangjiakou RailwayThe difficulty of the project was rare in the world railway history at that time.Zhan Tianyou overcame many difficulties, creatively designed the "herringbone" track, slowed down the slope, reduced the cost, and completed the project two years earlier than the original plan.Beijing Zhangjiakou RailwayIt was built by the Chinese with their own technical strength.
nation
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Discrimination between Chinese and Foreign
Via《Mystery of Great Justice》And《Imperial edict of abdication of the Qing emperor》It can be seen that the Qing Dynasty made great efforts to achieve the integration of political identity and cultural identity.This process not only enabled the Manchu people to complete the transformation of their identity from "Yi" to "Xia", but also further evolved the "Great Chinese Justice" centered on "Hua Yi Family" intoMongolia、Xinjiang、TibetAnd the recognition of the "non Han world" by the ethnic groups in the southwest“Greater China”The common basis of value has contributed to the maximization of "China" in the sense of culture and territory.China in the Modern West“nation-state”Under the impact of ideas, they were not dismembered, but instead led to“Chinese nation”Such facts as the integrated response of the Qing Dynasty not only demonstrate the internal cohesion of the Qing Dynasty.These two historical documents, echoing from the beginning to the end, constituted the main legal basis for the Chinese government to express its national sovereignty and territorial claims.[114]
First Chong Manchuria
As the main part of the ruling ethnic group and the Eight Banner Army, the Manchu people are especially regarded as the foundation of the country and the pillar of the imperial court.Manchu officers and men made great contributions to the Qing Dynasty's efforts to settle the Central Plains, and later to pacify San Francisco and defeat the Huibu.So in the late Qing Dynasty“First Chong Manchuria”(also known as "Manchuria root")[115]）It was the established national policy of the Qing Dynasty.[20][82]During the Qing Dynasty, Manchu children mainly enjoyed the following privileges in the political or life fields:
privilege
aspect
content
education
The Qing court set up special schools for the descendants of the imperial clan;The children of Jueluo have Jueluo learning;The children of ordinary Eight Banners have official schools of the Eight Banners such as Xian'an Palace;Children of the House of Internal Affairs include Jingshan Official School, etc[115-116]；
law
Manchu and Han (flag people) were punished differently in the Qing Dynasty.For example, those who commit the crime of conscription and exile under the official flag have the privilege of not being sent out with a flail instead.In addition, the judicial power of the flag people is also independent of the people.If the flag men in the garrison violate the law, they will not be under the control of the local governor, but will be in the charge of the garrison generals and prefects in the area.The children of Beijing Banner were dealt with by the Infantry Metropolitan Yamen, and the imperial clan was ruled by the Zongren Mansion.
treatment
The Qing government allocated Manchu children to flag land, which was tax free.Flag and land are protected by the state and cannot be bought or sold privately[117]。In addition to the flag land, the Qing government was also responsible for distributing houses for living.In addition, Manchu minors have a policy of raising soldiers and can get a certain monthly salary[118]。
live
The Qing Dynasty set up "Manchu City" in all the garrisons of the Eight Banners throughout the country for soldiers to live in. Han people are not allowed to enter or leave Manchu City at will.
First respect Manchuria policy and giveBannermanThe privilege of foster care changed the customs of Manchu people from the diligence and frugality of the riding and shooting nation to luxury and waste[119-120]。In 1911, when the Revolution of 1911 broke out, the Qing Emperor abdicated and the Republic of China was established, the national policy of "worshiping Manchuria first" also came to an end.
Han nationality policy
Preferential treatment in imperial examinations
Qing government respectedConfucianism, by historyHan DynastyThe imperial examination was traditionally set up to select scholars to win the support of Han intellectuals.In addition, in the imperial examinationFull dot yuan、The flag men are not ranked topAnd other preferential policies to prevent the flag men from taking part in the imperial examination and competing with the Han people. Under this policy, in the end of the Qing Dynasty, except for the two Manchu top scholars during the Korean Manchu Han ranking period, the highest honor of top scholars was given to the Han people.
In order to seize and consolidate the rule of the whole China, the Qing DynastyFan WenchengIn addition to others, in the process of entering the pass, important officials of the Han nationality in the former Ming Dynasty were recruited and surrenderedHong Chengchou, GeneralWu Sangui、Li Chengdong、Still gratifying、Geng ZhongmingAnd the Han army under its command.Later, because of his rebellion, Kangxi cut off three of the main vassals, known as PingSan Francisco。To lead troops to recover TaiwanShi LangHe is also an officer of the Han nationality in the Qianming Dynasty.
Manchu has already carried out outside the Shanhaiguan Pass“Shaving is easy to wear”Policy.To the conqueredthe han peopleAll the generals and soldiers of the Ming Dynasty who surrendered must also shave their hair and change their clothes as a sign of submission.
Issued by Qing soldiers when they entered the customs“Shaving order”Because of the dissatisfaction and resistance of the Han people, the order was publicly repealed.In 1645,Manchu troopsRegent after entering JiangnanDorgon Propose to re issue the "Shaving Order".Most of the Han people have shaved their hair and braided their hair, and changed to wear Manchu clothes;Those who insist on not changing their clothes either flee to overseas or retreat into seclusion and practice with their hair[121-122]。It was not until the fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1912 that the braids were cut.
Mongolian policy
The Qing Dynasty exercised special management over Inner Mongolia.On the one hand, they used marriage to win over the leaders of various Mongolian ministries, and married the leaders of various Mongolian ministries and their nephews with royal daughters.On the other hand, the "Zaza restraint" of divide and rule in politics, that isLeague flag system。
According to this system, the original Mongolian ministries are called leaguesInner MongoliaThe most basic administrative unit in the region, the flag has a leader, that is“Zasak”, a hereditary position.Under the banner, there are commissaries and tithes, which are under the control of the flag leader.Several neighboring banners form a league, which hasthe chief of a Mongol league composed of several tribes, appointed directly by the central government of the Qing Dynasty.The League is a monitoring area, not an administrative unit.At that time, there were mainly Zhelimu, ZhaowudaXilin GolAnd so on.All leagues and banners were directly responsible to the central government of the Qing DynastyMinistry of Minority AffairsManagement of.In addition, in Inner MongoliaRehe du series、chahar Dutong and the Deputy General of Suiyuan led the troops to garrison important places to strengthen military control.
After the Qing Dynasty unified all the Mongolian tribes, the ruling strategy for Mongolia was not only to make it no longer a force of border trouble in Shuofang, but also to win over its slave owners to rule the Mongolian people, making Mongolia an important military force for the Qing Dynasty to rule the country and an undefended barrier in the northern part of the empire.Including vigorous support and promotion in MongoliaLamaism, which effectively won the hearts of the people and maintained the stability of Mongolia.
Tibet policy
The measures taken by the Qing Dynasty to govern Tibet were the system of conferring titles, ministers stationed in Tibet and the system of drawing lots from golden jars.
The Fifth Dalai Lama Meets Emperor Shunzhi
In the early Qing Dynasty,Fifth Dalai LamaCome to Beijing to make a pilgrimage,Emperor ShunzhiHe was solemnly received and officially canonized as the "Dalai Lama";Later,Emperor KangxiThe Fifth Panchen Lama was also conferred the title of“panchen erdeni ”And give it a book seal;Since then, the titles of "Dalai Lama" and "Panchen Erdeni" have been officially fixed, and all previous Dalai Lamas and Panchen Lamas must be canonized by the central government to be customized.
In 1727,Emperor YongzhengSet up ministers stationed in Tibet to handle Tibetan affairs;Ministers stationed in Tibet, on behalf of the central government, jointly manage Tibet with the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama;The establishment of ministers stationed in Tibet marks the strengthening of the central government's jurisdiction over Tibet.QianlongYears.Promulgated by the Qing Dynasty《Tibet Rehabilitation Charter》And the Twenty Nine Articles of the Regulations on the Aftermath in Tibet, which established the equal status of the ministers in Tibet and the Dalai Lama in jointly handling government affairs, and consolidated the central government's rule over Tibet.The Qing government reformed the system of Wula, rent and tax, money law and trade in Tibet;Active national trade;Create newspapers, set up schools, develop agriculture, animal husbandry, industry and mining, and strengthen the development of transportation, posts and telecommunications.
The Qing Dynasty also setGolden Urn System.The central government has strengthened its supervision and delegation of power to the reincarnation of the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama.This was an important part of the Qing Dynasty's reform of Tibet's administrative system and the establishment of systematic laws and regulations governing Tibet.This system has continued to this day.
Golden Pemba Bottle
Southwest Chieftain
tusi system It was developed on the basis of the Jimi prefecture and county system in the Tang and Song dynasties. Its essence was to "govern the local people with local officials", recognize the hereditary leader status of all ethnic minorities, give them official titles and assume taxes and corvees to govern indirectly. In fact, the imperial edict of the central government was not really implemented.However, some local officials, based on their hereditary tradition, abused and killed people wantonly in order to invade the border. "The Han people were tortured by them, and the barbarians were poisoned by them."[123]。
During the Kang, Yong and Qian dynasties, the national strength was strong, and the central government had enough strength to strengthen its rule over ethnic minority areas.YongzhengFour years (1726),ErtaiVigorously promoteSoil improvement and returnThe policy is that the central government appoints officials with a certain term of office to directly manage the government affairs in ethnic minority areas. "The best policy is to change the flow of officials. Seizure is the best policy, military suppression is the worst policy, so that their contributions are the best policy, and imperial edicts are the worst policy." "The method of seedling production should be combined with kindness and authority.".
Hui policy
In history, the Qing DynastyHui nationalityIn one of the most frequent dynasties against the rulers, the Hui uprising "stopped from the beginning of the Qing Dynasty to the day of its collapse"[124]。The Hui people rebelled against the Qing Dynasty for many reasons, but the Qing Dynasty implemented laws and regulations that discriminated against the Hui people, which was an important reason for the Hui people to rise up and resist[125]"Since 1762, the Emperor of the Qing Dynasty has issued severe laws that discriminate against them (the Hui nationality), making the Hui people in some cases more severely punished than the Han people in similar cases."[126]。
On the one hand, the court of the Qing Dynasty "Hui people have been compiled for a long time, that is, they are different from the common people"[127]"Hui is not the people"[128]The laws against ordinary people can be applied to the Hui nationality. On the other hand, they falsely said that "the Hui people are tough and become bandits, and it is not enough to punish them if they only deal with them as usual"[129]。In real life, it is not uncommon for the government to bully the Hui people, and some Han literati and officials also have regrets. Local officials have always been partial to the Han people, and as long as there are disputes and fights, whether straight or crooked, they suppress the Hui people[130]。
There were many festivals and customs in the Qing Dynasty, which reflected the important aspects of the social life of the Qing people.FirstNew Year's DayCustoms.The first day of the first lunar month is New Year's Day, also known as New Year's Day and New Year's Day.The celebration of New Year's Day usually lasts for several days, and the Qing people recorded such words as "three days to celebrate", "three or five days to stop", and "from New Year's Day to Shangyuan's Day".Generally speaking, the first day to the fifth day is the climax of New Year's Day.New Year's Day is a large-scale comprehensive festival with rich customs.the Lantern FestivalIt usually lasts for several days. In the north, most areas celebrate for three days from the 14th to the 16th. In the south, it lasts longer, usually four or five days, or even longer.Of course, there are also some barren areas, only for a day or two.Qingming Festival and the Dragon Boat Festival in the Qing DynastyQingming FestivalIt is a big festival, which is held all over the country.[131]In addition, there were also important festivals in the Qing Dynasty, such as Silang Filling, Dragon Head, Spring Festival Club, Wenchang Festival, Flower Festival, "Shangsi" in March, Bathing Buddha, Tianmu, Chongyang, etc.[132]
patriarchal clan
Clan laws and regulations to maintain social order were welcomed by the imperial court.In order to better exercise their power and manage their people, the clans often ask the government for support, while the court approves the ancestral temple rules, recognizing the judicial power of the ancestral temple head and the legitimacy and validity of the clan law.However, the Qing Dynasty did not give full support to the clan laws and regulations. On the issue of the ancestral hall head executing the clan people according to the family law,Emperor QianlongIt is considered as "the tiredness of local music",[133]Take an opposing attitude.The clans in the Qing Dynasty have many genealogies, which are also called genealogies, genealogies, genealogies, etc.After the Yongzheng Dynasty, the Qing Dynasty carried out the system of ethnic orthodoxy on a large scale in Fujian, Guangdong, Jiangxi and other provinces where the ethnic groups lived together.[134]
school
Schools and imperial examinations in the Qing Dynasty generally followed the system of the Ming Dynasty, with gains and losses in content and more thorough measures.In the Qing Dynasty, there were two levels of schools administered by the government, namely, the central government schools andLocal Official Studies。Central Government SchoolIt mainly refers to the Imperial College of the capital, including the calculation school attached to the Imperial College and the Eight Banners official school.In addition, there are also religious schools and Jueluo schools set up by the central government for the royal nobility.Local official schools mainly refer to government, state and county schools. These schools are only differentiated in size, but not in degree and grade.In addition, there are academies of classical learning, social studies, private schools, etc., which are not included in the formal school system, but also play a very important role in cultivating talents and spreading culture.[135]
Clothes & Accessories
In the Qing Dynasty, the costumes were mainly Manchu flag clothes. The outer contour of the flag clothes was rectangular, and clothes were added to the clothes. The waistcoat or mandarin jacket was added. Its shape was complete and rigorous, and its image was solemn and solemn.
population
The population of the Qing Dynasty was also the highest in all dynasties. By the end of the 18th century, the population of the Qing Dynasty had reached more than 300 million, and it had exceeded 400 million at Daoguang.[136]
