The general name of the Chinese phonetic system and its development law, not only includesChinese Pinyin。 Chinese pronunciation is characterized by simple syllable structurelimitClearly,toneIt is an important component of syllables.[1]Chinese syllablesstructureThere are very strongRegularity。
Vowels are indispensable components in general syllables. There can be up to three consecutive vowels in a syllable.Consonants are mainly in front of vowels, that is, the beginning of syllables. Only a few consonants can be behind vowels, that is, the end of syllables.There can only be one consonant before and after a vowel.Chinese tradition divides a syllable into three parts: initial, final and tone.Initial refers to the consonant at the beginning of a syllable.If there is no initial at the beginning of a syllable, it is a zero vowel.The vowel refers to the component behind the initial in a syllable, which can be just a vowel, or a combination of vowels or vowels and consonants.Chinese is a tonal language with the function of meaning discrimination.The number of Chinese tones is much less than that of initials and vowels (the Chinese phonetic scheme lists 21 initials and 35 vowels of Mandarin). Mandarin has only four tones, which are called Yinping (-), Yangping (?), Shangsheng (,) and Qusheng (?) according to traditional names.Many Chinese dialects also have so-called neutral syllables, which are short and light and have no obvious changes.When two or more syllables are connected together, the syllables often change. This phenomenon is called tone sandhi.The phenomenon of tone sandhi in Chinese dialects is quite complex, and each has its own characteristics. The tone sandhi in Suzhou dialect is much more complex than that in Mandarin. Almost every tone has a tone sandhi phenomenon, and the tone sandhi occurs in the next syllable.Erhua rhyme is also a common phenomenon in Chinese pronunciation.When the "er" syllable is behind other syllables, it is often combined with the vowel of the preceding syllable to form the "er" rhyme.After the vowel is changed into a child, the voice sometimes changes greatly. Some vowels become homophones after the vowel is changed into a child.Many Chinese dialects have the phenomenon of "Er", but the situation and degree of "Er" are different.
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Although the pronunciation of Chinese dialects is quite different, the basic structure of initials, finals and tones is the same.The phonetic differences among dialects are mainly reflected in the number and content of these three parts.For example, Suzhou dialect has 26 initials (excluding zero initials, the same below), 45 vowels and 7 tones;Fuzhou dialect has 15 initials, 43 finals and 7 tones;Guangzhou dialect has 20 initials, 53 finals and 9 tones;Nanchang dialect has 19 initials, 65 finals and 6 tones;Yantai dialect has 21 initials, 37 finals and 3 tones.The number is different, the content is naturally different;The number is the same, but the content is not necessarily the same.The number of tones in each dialect is generally between 3 and 9. The actual pronunciation difference of the same tone in different dialects is often very obvious, which becomes an important symbol when distinguishing dialects.Although the initials, finals and tones of Chinese dialects have their own characteristics, there is a quite systematic correspondence between them.Some correspondences are very simple.However, most of the corresponding relationships are complex, and the three aspects of initial consonants, vowels and tones often restrict each other.Due to the mutual restriction of initials, vowels and tones, some corresponding relationships form a rather complex situation. It is necessary to have a more comprehensive understanding of the phonetic systems of the two dialects in order to compare and clarify the various corresponding relationships between them.The complicated correspondence mainly exists between dialects with different pronunciation.For most Chinese dialects, there is considerable phonetic consistency.Generally speaking, except for the coastal provinces of Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Fujian, Guangdong, Hainan and Taiwan to the south of the Yangtze River and the areas of Hunan and Jiangxi, the pronunciation of Chinese dialects spoken in other regions are relatively close and belong to the so-called Mandarin area.From the north to the north of the Yangtze River to the northern border of China, and to the southwest to Sichuan, Guizhou, Yunnan and Guangxi, it covers an area of more than 7 million square kilometers. In this vast area, more than 700 million Chinese speakers speak this kind of Mandarin.Such a large population can understand or roughly understand each other's dialects, which is unique in the world.In this vast area of Mandarin, Beijing dialect has a special and important position.
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Chinese tradition divides a syllable into three parts: initial, final and tone.The initial consonant refers to the consonant at the beginning of a syllable. For example, d á (answer), k ǒ u (mouth), b ╣ n (class), li à o (material), su à n (calculation), d -, k -, b -, l -, s - are all initial consonants;If there is no initial at the beginning of a syllable, it is a zero vowel, such as à n (dark), ō u (Ou).The vowel refers to the component behind the initial in a syllable, which can be just a vowel, such as - u in Gulu, or a combination of vowels or vowels and consonants, such as - ua in Gulu (melon) or - uan in Gulu (guan).The finals can be further divided into three parts: the beginning, the belly and the end.Both the beginning and the bottom of the rhyme are vowels, and the end of the rhyme can also be consonants.The belly is an indispensable component of a vowel, such as t ╣ (he), hu ╣ (flower), di ╣ o (carving), ku ╣ n (width), all have a belly, but the beginning u, i and the end o, n are not necessary for each syllable.Tone refers to the whole syllable. Chinese is a language with tones, and syllables play a role in distinguishing meanings, such as f ╣ n (translation), f á n (annoyance), f ╣ n (anti), f à n (meal), and the polysyllabic words t ó ng zh ì (comrade), t ō ng zh ī (notice), all of which distinguish meanings according to different tones.
The three parts of Chinese syllables can well reflect the characteristics of Chinese pronunciation, which is convenient to explain the historical development of Chinese pronunciation and the relationship between the phonetic structures of modern Chinese dialects.This analysis method has been recognized as the most convenient and effective method for analyzing Chinese speech.
The Chinese initials and vowels are highly systematic.For example, the "Initials Table" and "Finals Table" of the Chinese Phonetic Alphabet Scheme list 21 initials and 35 finals of Mandarin, which are quite neat and systematic.The 21 initials can be arranged as follows (in the square brackets is the broad phonetic notation of the International Phonetic Alphabet, the same below): the pronunciation parts of the horizontal initials are the same or similar, the pronunciation methods of the vertical initials are the same or similar, and the 21 initials form a fairly orderly and systematic situation.The 35 vowels can be arranged as follows: from the vertical line, there is no rhyme in the "qi" line, the rhyme or belly of the [i] line is [i], the rhyme or belly of the [u] line is [u], and the rhyme or belly of the [y] line is [y].Traditionally, the chi line vowel is called "Kaikou Shou", the [i] line vowel is called "Qichi Shou", the [u] line vowel is called "Hekou Shou", and the [y] line vowel is called "Cunkou Shou".The 35 vowels in the table are neatly distributed in the four calls of "open, neat, close and summary" ([u? Amp; # 91; 嬜 嬜] cannot have an initial, and [u 嬜] must have an initial.For the sake of clear and convenient writing, [u 嬜] is written as ong and [y 嬜] is written as iong. The positions of these two vowels in the vowel table of the Chinese Pinyin scheme are also changed accordingly).From the horizontal line, the upper four lines of vowels have no ending, the middle four lines of vowels have vowel ending [- i] or [- u], and the lower four lines of vowels have nasal ending [- n] or [- 嬜嬜], which is also quite orderly and systematic.
In addition to the internal systematicness of initials and vowels, there are quite strict rules of cooperation between initials and vowels in Chinese.For example, the initials g, k, h of Mandarin can only be matched with the vowels of opening and closing calls to form g ╣ i (this), k è (ke), hu á n (ring), etc., and cannot be matched with the vowels of Qiqihu and Shuaikou;j. On the contrary, q and x can only be combined with the vowels of Qiqihu and Cuoguyu to form j ī (chicken), qi á n (front), xu ě (snow), etc., but not with the vowels of Kaikou and Hekou.
The number of Chinese tones is much less than that of initials and finals. There are only four tones in Putonghua, which are respectively called:
Yin Ping: such as "Mom, Grey, Wife"
Yangping: like "Ma, Hui, Qi"
Voice: such as "Horse, Regret, Rise"
Qusheng: such as "scolding, meeting and playing"
Many Chinese dialects also have so-called neutral syllables, which are short and light and have no obvious changes.For example, in Mandarin, f á ngzi (house), d ō ngxi (things), z ǒ ule (left), the second syllable should be pronounced softly.
Chinese phonetics
When two or more syllables are connected together, the syllables often change. This phenomenon is called "tone sandhi".For example, when the two upper voice festivals of Mandarin are read together, the first one should be changed into Yangping, and y ǒǐǐǐǐǐǐǐ ng (well) and y ó uj ǐǐǐǐ ng (well) become homophones.The phenomenon of tone sandhi in Chinese dialects is quite complex, and each has its own characteristics. The tone sandhi in Suzhou dialect is much more complex than that in Putonghua. Almost every tone has the phenomenon of tone sandhi, and the tone sandhi occurs in the latter syllable. For example, when two syllables in Suzhou dialect are connected, the value of the latter tone will change from the original [喰 44] to [嬜 44fo 嬜 44], "Dongfeng" [to 嬜 44fo 嬜 44]Change it to [to 嬜 44fo 嬜 21].Erhua rhyme is also a common phenomenon in Chinese pronunciation.When the "er" syllable is behind other syllables, it is often combined with the vowel of the preceding syllable to form the "er" rhyme. For example, the "hua er" in Putonghua is combined from hu ╣ er to hu ╣ r.After the vowel is changed into a child, the voice sometimes changes greatly. Some vowels become homophones. After the mandarin "(small) Guaner"'s gu à n'er is merged into gu à nr, the final - n is no longer pronounced and becomes the same as the "(small) Guaner"'s gu à r voice.Many Chinese dialects have the phenomenon of "Er", but the situation and degree of "Er" are different.In some Zhejiang dialects, the "er" syllable is pronounced [n] or [嬜嬜], and the "er" rhyme is to add [n] or [嬜嬜] after the original vowel. For example, the "ji" [慯慯慯慯慯 i] in Yiwu, Zhejiang is changed into "(small) jier", which is pronounced as [慯慯弄 i: n].Although the pronunciation of Chinese dialects is quite different, the basic structure of initials, finals and tones is the same.The phonetic differences between dialects are mainly manifested in the number and content of initials, vowels and tones.For example, Suzhou dialect has 26 initials (excluding zero initials, the same below), 45 vowels and 7 tones;Fuzhou dialect has 15 initials, 43 finals and 7 tones;Guangzhou dialect has 20 initials, 53 finals and 9 tones;Nanchang dialect has 19 initials, 65 finals and 6 tones;Yantai dialect has 21 initials, 37 finals and 3 tones.The number is different, the content is naturally different;The number is the same, but the content is not necessarily the same.For example, there are 21 initials in Yantai dialect, which are the same as Mandarin, but Yantai dialect does not have the four initials zh, ch, sh, r in Mandarin, but there are four other initials that Mandarin does not have.The number of tones in each dialect is generally between 3 and 9. The actual pronunciation difference of the same tone in different dialects is often very obvious, which becomes a very important symbol when distinguishing dialects.Although the initials, finals and tones of Chinese dialects have their own characteristics, there is a quite systematic correspondence between them.Some correspondences are very simple. For example, Guangzhou dialect has three sets of nasal rhymes: [- m], [- n], and [- 嬜嬜]. Mandarin and many dialects have only two sets of [- n] and [- 嬜嬜]. The two sets of rhymes of [- m] and [- n] of Guangzhou dialect correspond to one set of rhymes of [- n] of these dialects, that is, [- m] of Guangzhou dialect is also pronounced [- n] in these dialects ("greedy" [t 嬜 am] and "tan" of Guangzhou dialect[t wan] Mandarin can read tan).Most of the corresponding relationships are complex, and the three aspects of initial consonant, vowel and tone often restrict each other.For example, most dialects have two sets of clear stop initials: [p], [p '] and [t], [t]. Suzhou dialect also has two sets of voiced stop initials: [b] and [d] to match these two sets of clear stop initials.These two initials are not found in many dialects. The syllables of Suzhou dialect that are pronounced as [b] and [d] are restricted by the tone of voice.The initial consonants of "Ping" and "Sick" in Suzhou dialect are both [b], and the initial consonants of "Tu" and "Du" are both [d]. The initial consonants of "Ping" and "Tu" in these dialects are both positive and flat, while the initial consonants of "Sick" and "Du" are both voiceless, and their corresponding relations are different due to different tones.Due to the mutual restriction of initials, vowels and tones, some corresponding relationships form a rather complex situation. It is necessary to have a more comprehensive understanding of the phonetic systems of the two dialects in order to compare and clarify the various corresponding relationships between them.The complicated correspondence mainly exists between dialects with different pronunciation.As far as most Chinese dialects are concerned, there is considerable phonetic consistency.Generally speaking, except for the coastal provinces of Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Fujian, Guangdong and Taiwan south of the Yangtze River and the areas of Hunan and Jiangxi, the pronunciation of Chinese dialects spoken in other regions are relatively similar, and all belong to the so-called "Mandarin" area.From the north of the Yangtze River to the northern border of China, and to the southwest of Sichuan, Guizhou, Yunnan, and Guangxi, it covers an area of more than 7 million square kilometers. In this vast area, more than 700 million Chinese speakers speak such "Mandarin".There are many people, but they can understand or roughly understand each other's dialects, which is unique in the world.
Historical development
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The voice of the ancients cannot be preserved today. The study of the historical development of pronunciation can only rely on ancient written materials.The Chinese characters themselves retain a large amount of ancient phonetic information. The rhymes used in ancient poetry and various rhyme books appearing after the Middle Ages provide extremely rich phonetic information. From the comparative study of modern dialects, we can see more clues about the evolution of Chinese pronunciation.In addition, the ancient transliteration words and the comparison between Chinese and other Sino Tibetan languages can also help people understand the historical development of Chinese pronunciation, but the research work in this area has not really started.
The study of the history of Chinese phonetics is traditionally called "phonology", which has a long history.Generally, the development of Chinese phonetics can be divided into four periods: ① the ancient phonetics period - from the Pre Qin Dynasty to the Wei Jin Dynasty (about 10 BC to the 5th century AD); ②Middle ancient sound period - from the Southern and Northern Dynasties to the Tang and Song Dynasties (5th to 13th century); ③Near ancient sound period - Yuan Dynasty and Ming Dynasty (13th~17th century); ④Modern sound period - from Qing Dynasty to modern times (17-20th century).At present, there are still some different views on the beginning and end of each period, but there is not much difference between them.Each period lasts for hundreds of years or even thousands of years. Naturally, there are changes in different stages within a period. At present, little is known about the differences of dialects in different periods. Therefore, when studying the pronunciation in ancient times, we can only choose representative phonetic materials as the representatives of the phonetic system in different periods, and then turn to other materials.
In the more than 2000 years from the ancient to the modern, the basic structure of Chinese pronunciation has not changed, that is, the syllable is divided into initial, final and tone, and the final is divided into rhymeMetrical abdomenandRhyme tail。For more than 2000 years, the evolution of Chinese pronunciation is mainly the internal changes of initials, finals and tones, which can sometimes be reflected in modern dialects. For example, both the upper and middle ancient sounds have nasal endings [- m], and they still remain in Guangzhou dialect and other dialects in modern times.
Archaic sound
Generally, the phonetic system reflected by the rhymes and harmonious words in the Book of Songs is taken as a representative.The Book of Songs is not a work of one time and one place. The homophonic words arephonetic element in a Chinese characterThe source of phonetic characters (such as "tu, chu, xu, xu, xu, xie") is more complicated, but the phonetic systems reflected by these two materials are quite consistent.The ancient sound has been more than 1000 years ago, and the voice data is also scattered. At present, only the basic outline of the ancient sound system can be inferred, and the details of which need further study.
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There are about 30 initials in ancient times.Among them, [p], [p '], [m], [t], [t], [n], [l], [k], [k'], [嬜], [x], [堭], [堭 '], [s] are the initials that exist in most dialects from ancient times to modern times, representing the historical inheritance of Chinese initials.The ancient voiced stop initials [b], [d], [g] and voiced affricate [扷] also remain in some modern dialects, while the nature of the other dozen initials is very different from each other.In ancient times, there probably existed [kl] and [pl]consonant clusterInitials, such as in homophonic words,g k hThe initials [k] and [k '] are often the same aslateralThe initial consonant [l] harmonizes with each other. "Ge" can be used as "Ge, Ge, Ke"phonetic element of a Chinese pictophonetic characterIt can also be used as the phonetic symbols of "Luo, Lu, Lue". It is likely that these words were originally derived from complex consonants such as [kl].At present, there are different views on whether there are multiple consonants and how many.
According to the use of rhymes and harmonious words in the Book of Songs, the ancient vowels are traditionally divided into severalcategory of words sharing the same final, represented by a Chinese character, such as "Zhibu, Youbu", etc,Ancient rhyme partThere are about 30 in total.The words in the same rhyme part are justMetrical abdomenandRhyme tailThe same rhyme can be different, so each rhyme part actually contains more than one vowel.According to the different rhymes, the upper ancient rhymes can be divided into three categories: yin, yang and yin: those with nasal rhymes [- m], [- n] and [- 嬜]Masculine rhyme, YouqingStopeThe ending [- p], [- t] and [- k] areEntering rhyme, the rest belong toYin rhyme。If the rhyme is the same, yin and yang can often rhyme or homophony with each other in the three categories, such as《The Book of Songs·Zheng Feng·The rhyme of "coming" and "giving" in "knowing the coming of the son and giving it with a miscellaneous pendant" in the Three Chapters of Women Saying Jiming "is because these two words were used in ancient timesMetrical abdomenSame, they are all [? Amp; # 91;], except that "come" belongs to yin rhyme, and "give" belongs to nasal rhymeRhyme tailThe masculine rhyme of [- 嬜嬜嬜], which is traditionally called“alternation between yin and yang”。
The pronunciation of most ancient vowels is far from that of modern times, and is also very different from that of medieval times.For example, the modern vowel of "Gu" is [u], which is the same or similar in medieval times, while in ancient times, the vowel may be [a];The modern vowel of "Tai" is [ai], which is similar in the Middle AgesdiphthongIn ancient times, the vowel may be [? Amp; # 91;]. There are also some vowels such as [an], [? Amp; # 91; n], [a 嬜], [? Amp; # 91; 嬜] and so on, which have not changed significantly from the middle ancient times to modern times in the ancient classics. The pronunciation of characters such as "Ban" [pan] and "Deng" [t? Amp; # 91; 嬜] has not changed significantly for more than 2000 years, but such characters are actually a minority.At present, the number of ancient rhymescategory of words sharing the same finalAndYin rhymeWhether there are consonantsRhyme tailThere are different views on such issues, and there is still far from consensus.
The existing voice data of ancient Chinese can not systematically reflect the situation of ancient tones, and the opinions on ancient tones have always been the most divergent.At present, there are three influential opinions: ① The ancient times and the middle ages are the same, divided into "flat, up, down, into"Four tones;②In ancient times, there was no sound; ③In ancient times, there were only flat voice and entering voice, but they were divided into two types: long and short.In recent years, a new opinion has emerged from the comparative study of Chinese and Tibetan languages, that is, Chinese may not have different tones in ancient times, and that tones were gradually produced by the shedding or preservation of different final consonants in ancient times.
Mediaeval sound
Generally, the rhyme script popular in the Sui and Tang dynastiesQieyunAs a representative of the voice system.Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern DynastiesIt is a period of transition from ancient sounds to middle ancient sounds. During the Southern and Northern Dynasties, there were many rhyme books for poetry rhyme, and the speech system at that time was analyzed and summarizedLu FayanIt was compiled in 601 by integrating the achievements of various schools《rhyme classification of characters》One book.The original version of Qieyun and its previous rhyme books have been lost. The existing Qieyun is an updated version of later generations, and most of them are fragments.The most widely circulated complete edition is the Song DynastyChen PengnianIsosteric《The Song Dynasty rebuilt Guangyun》，GuangyunThe revision of Qieyun mainly focuses on the number of words and definitions. There is no significant change in the phonetic system of Qieyun. Now, the study of Qieyun's phonetic system is generally based on《Song rhyming dictionary》Is the main basis.Guangyun summarized the analysis of the phonetic system at that time asFour tones, 206 rhymes, each rhyme is divided into several small rhymes according to the different initial consonants. Whether this phonetic system represents the voice of one time and one place at that time has not been determined yet, but it can list the initial consonants, vowels and tones of the Sui and Tang dynasties in detail, which is the most important phonetic data for the study of medieval sounds.
《rhyme classification of characters》The initial consonant system is not listed systematically. According to the analysis and induction of later generations, it is generally similar to the traditional systemThirty-six lettersQuite.The thirty-six letters may have originated in the late Tang Dynasty, but after continuous supplementation and revision in the Song Dynasty, they can basically represent the initial consonant system at that time.Each letter is represented by a Chinese character. As for their actual pronunciation, after years of research, we have generally reached an agreement.However, in order to facilitate the description of the medieval initials system, the 36 letter names are still generally used, for example, "bang, pang, bing, ming" represents the medieval initials [p], [p '], [b], [m], and "duan, tou, ding, ni" represents the medieval initials [t], [t yi], [d], [n], etc.A considerable part of the ancient initials are still preserved in the mediaeval sounds, but most of them have gone through a more complicated process of differentiation or merger, and are not completely one-to-one.
《rhyme classification of characters》The finals of different tones are counted as different rhymes, and each rhyme is represented by a Chinese character, such as "East rhyme", "River rhyme", "Fish rhyme", "True rhyme", etc.When calculating ancient vowels, if only the tone is different, it can only be regarded as a vowel. For example, "Zhiyun", "Zhiyun" and "Zhiyun" are only in tone, but actually only a vowel.Qieyun lists 193 rhymes《Song rhyming dictionary》It was added as 206 rhymes, except for tones, there are only more than 90 rhymes.At that time, the classification did not attach much importance to the role of rhymes. Sometimes, the vowels of different rhymes were combined into one rhyme. For example, "deleting rhymes" includedOpening callThere are two types of finals: hehekou, but "cold rhyme" and "huan rhyme" are divided into two types according to the difference between hekou and kaikou.If you list all the vowels that should be separated, there are actually more than 150 different vowels《rhyme classification of characters》The recorded vowel system is quite complex.
There are only [i -] and [u -] rhymes in the medieval Chinese, but in the Sui and Tang Dynasties, the rhymes [i -] may also be divided into two categories, so there are three different rhymes.MediaeonicMetrical abdomenThere are many vowels, which is the main reason why there are more than 150 vowels in the Middle Ages.In recent decades, quite detailed research and speculation have been made on the actual pronunciation of mid ancient ventral vowels, most of which have reached a consensus.MediaeonicRhyme tailInherited the ancient timesYin rhyme、Masculine rhymeandEntering rhymeOf the.In addition to the vowel without ending (such as "song rhyme"), the vowel ending [- i] (such as "grey rhyme") and [- u] (such as "bold rhyme") are also included in the vowel ending of yin rhyme.ZhongguyangsoundThe Nasal Ending and the Purity of EnteringStopeThe rhyme is the same as that in ancient times.On《rhyme classification of characters》In the vowel system, the entering tone rhyme matches the positive tone rhyme, that is, [- m] matches with [- p], [- n] matches with [- t], [- 嬜嬜] matches with [- k], for example, the eastern rhyme "[- u 嬜嬜] matches with" house rhyme "[- uk]," deleting rhyme "[- an] matches with" governing rhyme "[- at], and" title rhyme "[- am] matches with" dou rhyme "[- ap], forming a fairly neat situation.
The tones of mediaeval sounds can be divided into four categories: flat tone, rising tone, falling tone and entering tone.Qieyun takes tone as the key linkFour tonesThe rhymes are listed below, and later rhyme books generally follow this arrangement method.The flat tone, the rising tone and the falling tone are mainly different in syllables;Ru Sheng isRhyme tailReceive [- p], [- t], [- k] with short pronunciationEntering rhyme, and the other three voicesMasculine rhymeMatch, for example, the four rhymes of "East, East, Send, House" are different in the four tones of "Ping, Shang, Go, Enter"Yin rhymeFor example, "Zhi, Zhi, Zhi", "Yu, Yu, Yu, Yu" and so on, there are only three tones: "Ping, Shang, Xie".The development of the four tones from the Middle Ages to the modern times is closely related to the clarity of the initial consonant. In order to illustrate this relationship, the four tones in the Middle Ages are traditionally divided into yin and yang:voiceless consonantThe initials are called "Yin Ping, Yin Shang, Yin Qu, Yin In", such as "Guan, Guan, Guan, Kuo";In the Middle AgesDullnessThe initials are called "Yangping, Yangshang, Yangqu, Yangru", such as "Lang, Lang, Lang, Lang, Yue".
In the early Tang Dynasty, some people criticized《rhyme classification of characters》The division of rhymes is too detailed, which means that the phonetic system of Qieyun is not consistent with the spoken language at that time.From《Song rhyming dictionary》At the beginning, some rhymes in Qieyun have been marked with "the same use" with a certain rhyme, which actually means that there is no obvious difference between the two rhymes.At the end of the Song Dynasty and the beginning of the Yuan Dynasty, in order to facilitate the writing of poetry, some rhyme books simply combined 206 rhymes into 106 rhymes according to the "same use" method of Guangyun, which became the standard for rhyme in old style poetry.Pingshui People were the first to mergeLiu YuanThe "Renzi New Journal of Ritual Rhyme" (1252), which presided over the publication, is called "106 Rhymes" by the world“Flat water rhyme”。Pingshui rhyme is mainly a combination of the rhymes in Guangyun, which does not really represent the pronunciation of spoken language in the Song and Yuan dynasties.
Neoclassical sound
Generally, in the Yuan DynastyZhou DeqingPrepared by《Central Plains Phonology》As a representative of the voice system.《Central Plains Phonology》It was written in 1324Traditional Opera of the Yuan DynastyIn the prevailing period, Zhou Deqing summarized and sorted out the rhymes used by Northern Opera writers at that time into a book, which became the criterion for writing rhymes used in Northern Opera, and had a great impact on the creation of ancient Chinese operas."Central Plains Rhythm" is specially written for opera, so it can jump out《rhyme classification of characters》Systematic rhymingArches, recording the northern voice system active on the stage of the Yuan Dynasty.As for whether this voice system can represent theYuan DaduThere are different views on the dialect of (today's Beijing), but it is undoubtedly modernNorthern Mandarin The source of Chinese pronunciation represents an important stage in the development of Chinese pronunciation.
The phonetic system represented by Zhongyuan Yinyun is much simpler than that represented by Qieyun, which is quite close to modern timesBeijing dialect。"Central Plains Rhythm" has changed《rhyme classification of characters》The arrangement method based on tone is changed to based on rhyme. Tones are listed under each rhyme, and then divided into several small rhymes. Homophony words are listed in the same small rhyme, and there is no single initial consonant.According to the distribution of Xiaoyun《Central Plains Phonology》There may be a total of 20 initials (excludingZero consonant）, which is very similar to modern Beijing dialect.The initial consonant system of Chinese language has been greatly simplified from the middle ancient times to the recent ancient times, mainly because most of the voiced initial consonants in the middle ancient times have become voiceless. Except for a few voiced initial consonants such as [m -], [n -], [l -], the rest have become voiceless, merged with the original voiceless initial consonants, such as "bu" [b -] into "bu" [p -], "zai" [扷 -] into "zai" [堭 -], "xiang" [z -]Incorporate "four" [s -], etc.
Central Plains Phonology divides finals into 19category of words sharing the same final, named after two Chinese characters, such as "Dongzhong, Jiangyang, Zhisi", which is only a large category of finals, and each rhyme part also includes different finals.The 19 rhyme parts actually include more than 40 finals, only about 1/3 of the medieval finals, mainly because of the medievalEntering rhymeIt has disappeared in recent times, andYin rhymeFull merge.In addition, there were many finals in the Middle AgesMetrical abdomenVowels are very similar, and they have also been combined in recent antiquity. For example, "East, Winter and Bell" have three rhymes in the medieval version, and they have been combined into one rhyme in recent antiquity.There may be only [i] and [u] rhymes in modern Chinese, but there are different opinions on whether the rhyme [y] has appeared at that time, but it has become modern by the late Ming Dynastyfour classes of syllables set up according to the form of the finalSituation.A medieval nasal soundRhyme tail[- m], [- n], [- 嬜] and vowel suffix [- i], [- u] in《Central Plains Phonology》It was still completely preserved in, but soon [- m] was merged with [- n], leaving only two sets of nasal rhymes, [- n] and [- 嬜].MedievalStopeThe rhyme endings [- p], [- t], [- k] are due toEntering rhymeIt disappears and no longer exists. Many of them are incorporated into vowel finals [- i] and [- u], such as "Mai" into "Sell" and "Foot" into "Stir";Other rhymes are completely lost and merged with the original vowels without rhymes, such as "tongue" into "snake" and "slide" into "hua".
"Central Plains Rhythm" divides tones into four categories: "Yin Ping, Yang Ping, Shang Sheng, Qu Sheng", and modernBeijing dialectExactly the same.The mediaeval flat tone can be divided into yin and yang according to the clarity of the initial consonant. The mediaeval clear initial consonant reads yin and ping, such as "tong, shi, po, chun";The mediaeval voiced initials are pronounced Yang Ping, such as "Tong, Shi, Po, Chun".Since most of the mediaeval voiced initials have become voiceless in recent times, Yin Ping and Yang Ping are purely tone differences.Although there are Shangsheng and Qusheng in the middle and modern times, their contents are different.In addition to [m -], [n -], [l -] and a few other voiced initials in the middle ancient times, those who read Shangsheng became Qusheng in the modern capital. For example, "Shang" and "Shang" and "Shang", "Du" and "Gamble" were pronounced Shangsheng in the middle ancient capital, but "Shang" and "Du" were voiced initials, and they became Qusheng in the modern times. "Shang" and "Gamble" were unvoiced initials, and they still read Shangsheng.The biggest change in tone from the middle ancient times to the recent ancient times is that the ru tone is no longer an independent categoryEntering tone characterIn recent ancient times, it has been classified into Yangping, Shangsheng and Qusheng respectively. For example, "Da" is classified into Yangping, "Bi" is classified into Shangsheng, and "Mai" is classified into Qusheng.Since ancient times, some of the Rusheng characters that belong to Shangsheng have been changed to Yin Ping, such as "saying, blind, and governor"《Central Plains Phonology》Belong to Shangsheng, modernBeijing dialectThey all read as Yin Ping.As for whether the Ru tone has completely disappeared during the period of "Central Plains Rhythm", there are still different views, but it is certain that the Ru tone has lost its independent status as a tone at that time.
The development of phonetics is unbalanced, and some Chinese dialects still retain some characteristics of medieval and even ancient sounds.For example, three complete sets of Cantonese are keptStopeRhyme tail[- p], [- t], [- k] and nasal ending [- m],Suzhou dialectThe voiced initials [b -], [d -], [g -], [扷 -], [z -], etc. are systematically stored.As for the independent tone of the entering tone, most dialects in the south of the Yangtze River are still the same, from the central plains in the lower reaches of the Yellow River toNorthwest ChinaThere are also many dialects that still have the entering tone, preserving an important feature of the Chinese tone before the modern times.
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The study of ancient phonetics began in China in the 3rd centuryAntitangentIt is said that the earliest method of phonetic transcription was the Three Kingdoms PeriodSun Yan《Literary ExpositorYin Yi has been lost today.The invention of Fanqie shows that people at that time could divide a word (that is, a syllable) into two parts: initial and final according to the characteristics of Chinese pronunciation.In the Northern and Southern Dynasties,author of an epochmaking work in phonologyThey also noticed that "flat, upward, downward, inward"Four tonesFrom then on, it laid the foundation for Chinese syllables to be divided into three parts: sound, rhyme and tone, and revealed the basic characteristics of Chinese pronunciation.On this basis, rhyme books represented by Qieyun gradually developed and formed.It is an important development of Chinese phonetic research that the rhyme book analyzes the Chinese pronunciation according to the initial, final and tone, and induces a fairly complete phonetic system.There are rhyme books in Chinese history, although they are often mixedArchaic soundBut many rhyme books can describe the basic features of the phonetic system at that time, which is very valuable in ancient times.The rhyme book was written for the convenience of readers to write poems in rhyme, which appeared in the late Tang Dynasty and early Song DynastyThirty-six lettersIt is purely to summarize the initial consonant system at that time, and has consciously entered the field of phonetic research.Popular after the Song and Yuan Dynastiesrime tableThe rhyme chart combines the vowels and thirty-six letters summarized in the rhyme book, and divides them into several categories according to the pronunciation characteristics. They are sorted into tables for people to check. Although the terms used are complex and some are difficult to understand, the systematic nature of Chinese pronunciation is more obvious due to the simplification of the phonetic system into charts.
Ancient scholars discovered it very earlyAncient and modern soundsIs different.The 3rd century, the end of Han DynastyLiu Xi《Denomination》It has been mentioned in "The ancients talked about cars and their voices were like houses... Today's cars are close to homes." However, this understanding is limited to individual words and sounds.A systematic understanding of the historical development of speech began in the 16th century, the Ming DynastyChen DiFrom the historical point of view, the proposition that "there are ancient and modern times, north and south places, characters have changed, sounds have shifted, and it is imperative" is a theoretical pioneer to correctly understand the development and change of voice.Gu YanwuUnder the influence of Chen Di, he made a pioneering research on the ancient sounds. He divided the ancient sounds into 10 parts, laying the foundation for the research methods of ancient sounds.the Qing dynastytextologyPopular, some famous scholars such asDai Zhen、Duan Yucai、Wang Nianshun、Qian DaxinThey all made great contributions to the study of archaic sounds. The more refined the study, the more detailed the division of rhymes.Scholars in the Qing Dynasty seldom studied the initials of ancient sounds, only Qian Daxin proposed“Ancient without light lip sound”、“No supralingual sound in ancient times”Today, it still seems completely correct.Jiang YougaoIt was compiled into Ten Books of Phonology, which divided Shanggu Yin into 21 parts and listed the homophony table. It can be regarded as a summary of the study of Shanggu Yin in the Qing Dynasty.At the beginning of the 20th century,renowned for studies in philology and textual criticismandHuang KanJiang's conclusion was also revised, and the methods and achievements of studying ancient sounds in the Qing Dynasty came to an end.
Scholars in the Qing Dynasty studied phonetics fortextologyThe main purpose of the service is to dredge up the ancient books of the pre-qin period, so the voice development after the ancient sound is not paid much attention to《rhyme classification of characters》The mediaeval sound represented by“Homophony”Few people specialize in research.Late Qing DynastyChen LiTo reverse this bias, Qieyun Kao (Inner and Outer Chapters) is analyzed and summarized word by word《Song rhyming dictionary》OfAntitangentThe upper and lower characters are used to examine the initials and finals of the mediaeval sounds.What he createdLinkage methodAlthough there are some shortcomings, the method is relatively rigorous, and the conclusion is basically credible, which has been quoted so far.
After the May 4th Movement, western linguistic theories were introduced into China and had a great impact on the study of Chinese phonetics.Swedish scholarBernhard KarlgrenuseComparative linguisticsThe research of Chinese phonetics, which constructs the actual values of mediaeval and archaic phonetics, has freed the research of Chinese phonetics from the shackles of Chinese characters and embarked on the path of phonetic standardization.Gao Benhan has written many books, and the most influential one is《Chinese Phonological Studies》(French, 1926),better known as YR. Chao、Li Fanggui、Luo ChangpeiThe book was translated into Chinese and published in 1940.The translation has made necessary revisions and supplements to the original content, which is higher than the originalAcademic value。In 1934, Zhao Yuanren wrote the article "Pluripotency of Phonetic Notation" (English) to explain some phenomena in Chinese dialects and ancient soundsPhonemeThe application and theory ofPhonologyImportant theoretical works of the founding period.During this period, Li Fanggui successively published three articles on the ancient sound, including The Source of Qieyun a, and Luo Changpei published articles on the ancient sound, including The Study of Zhiche Chengniang's Phonetic Value, The Study of Qieyun Yuyu's Phonetic Value and the Dialect from which it is based. These articles have made great contributions to the mapping of the ancient sound and the medieval sound.In the 1940s,Lu Zhiwei"A Brief Introduction to Ancient Sounds" (1947) was published, which started with statistical methods to study the upper and middle ancient sounds and put forward many unique opinions.Lu Zhiwei also systematically studied some materials of the ancient sounds and wrote 9 articles, including Interpreting the Central Plains Phonology, which promoted the research of the ancient sounds.Dong Tonghe《Ancient Phonology Table》(1944) is a summary of the study of ancient sounds in this period.
better known as YR. ChaoCompleted in 1928Research on Modern Wu LanguageIt's the first one in Chinamodern linguisticsMethods The monographs on the investigation of Chinese dialects have a great influence on the subsequent dialect investigation.Many linguists have begun to attach importance to the dialect survey, published many monographs, and improved the dialect survey methods.The dialect questionnaire formulated by Zhao Yuanren based on the research results of medieval sounds is still the basis of the tables used to investigate the dialect phonetic system.The first step of dialect survey is to understand the phonetic system of the dialect. During this period, the development of dialect survey has accumulated a large number of dialect phonetic data for phonetic research, which has greatly deepened the understanding of Chinese phonetic characteristics.
In the 1920s,Liu Fuanddistinguished linguist and strong supporter of language reformUsed in France successivelyExperimental phoneticsThe method of analyzing and studying Chinese phonetics based on GIS has opened up a new field for phonetics research.Liu FuFour tone Experiment RecordWang Li has analyzed the tones of 12 Chinese dialects with instruments《An Experimental Record of Bobai Dialect》(French) To GuangxiBobai dialectThe vowels, consonants and tones of.After returning to China, Liu Fu founded the Linguistic Music Rhythm Laboratory at Peking University, designed and invented the tone inference scale, which is a pioneer of experimental phonetics in China.The Research Reasons of Experimental PhoneticsCounter-Japanese WarIt was interrupted for more than 20 years due to the lack of instruments and equipment.
Phonological research since 1949 began to promote Putonghua nationwide in the 1950s, andChinese Pinyin Scheme, which has greatly promoted the study of Chinese phonetics.Since 1956, a nationwide survey of Chinese dialects has been carried out. A large number of dialect survey workers have been trained, and a large number of brochures have been compiled for people from all over the country to learn Mandarin. This survey, which focuses on popularization, has basically clarified the outline and characteristics of the phonetic system of dialects from all over the country.In the process of drawing up the scheme of Chinese phonetic alphabet, we launched a series of activities related to PutonghuaPhonemeThe discussion of has deepened the theoretical understanding of studying phonetics.At the same time, the scope of phonetic research has gradually expanded. In addition to initials, vowels and tones, attention has also been paid to the light and heavy tones of Putonghuaretroflex finalThe study on the change of pronunciation and intonation of Putonghua is more detailed and in-depth.
After 1959, on the basis of the basic completion of the dialect survey, the dialect survey gradually deepened. Jiangsu, Fujian, Shanxi and other provinces successively carried out more detailed provincial dialect surveys.1979《dialect》Since its inception, the magazine has successively published many valuable dialect survey articles, most of which focus on the description of the dialect phonetic system. Among them, many articles have noticed the phonetic differences within dialects and the phonetic relationship between adjacent dialects, which greatly enriched the content of Chinese phonetic research.
Wang Li《Chinese History Manuscript(Volume I) (1957) is the first book in China that systematically discusses the development of Chinese phonetics from ancient times to the present from the perspective of modern linguistics, including Wang Li's achievements in studying ancient sounds for many years, which has a great impact at home and abroad.Wang Li wrote it again in his later years on the basis of the original book《History of Chinese Phonetics》(1985), which is more abundant than the original book.Li Rong《Synchonic phonology》(1952) It is listed according to the Tang manuscript "Wang Renqu's Publishing Mistakes to Supplement Qieyun" found in 1947《rhyme classification of characters》It is the first monograph in China to comprehensively study the phonology of Qieyun.From the late 1950s to the early 1960s, there were many articles studying the development of Chinese phonetics《Central Plains Phonology》The nature of phonology has been discussed in depth.Zhou ZumoGuangyun School Edition (1960)《Collection of rhyme books of the Tang and Five Dynasties》(1983) andLu ZhiweiThe Ming Dynasty publication Zhongyuan Yinyun (1978), collated and photocopied by, etc., has been successively published, providing full, accurate and reliable data for the study of medieval and neoclassical sounds.In the 1980s, the research on the history of Chinese phonetics entered a new period of development. The number of monographs and papers was far more than that in the past. Many of them had a higher academic level, the research field was expanded, and research methods were also being explored.
Interrupted since the Anti Japanese WarExperimental phoneticsResearch began to recover in the 1950s.Since the 1970s, due to the rapid development of electronic computers and other science and technology, the content of experimental phonetics has undergone considerable changes and has gone beyond the traditionalphoneticsIts scope has become a multidisciplinary knowledge.Using modern instruments and equipment to study Chinese speech has become a new scientific field in China. PhonologistsPhonologist, psychologists andCommunication engineerThey have begun to carry out experimental research on Chinese phonetics from various perspectives. They have initially achieved gratifying research results in the aspects of Mandarin vowels and consonants, as well as tones, accents, and intonation, and have conducted frequent academic exchanges internationally.Some colleges and universities have also begun to establish voice laboratories to train talents in this field.Institute of Language, Chinese Academy of Social SciencesIn recent years, great progress has been made in the artificial synthesis of speech by using electronic computers, which has gradually approached the international level, laying the foundation for the artificial synthesis of speech in the future.
