Potassium chloride is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula KCl. It looks like salt, odorless and salty.Commonly used as additives for low sodium salt and mineral water.Potassium chloride is a commonly used electrolyte balance regulator in clinic. It has a definite clinical effect and is widely used in various clinical departments.
Appearance and properties: white crystal, extremely salty, odorless and non-toxic.Easily soluble in water, ether, glycerin and alkali, slightly soluble in ethanol, but insoluble in absolute ethanol, hygroscopic, easy to caking;The solubility in water increases rapidly with the increase of temperature, and it often plays a double decomposition role with sodium salt to generate new potassium salt.
Refractive index:
one point three three four
Water solubility: 342g/L (20 º C)
Stability: stable.It is incompatible with strong oxidants and acids.moisture-proof.Moisture absorption.[6]
Storage condition: 2-8 º C
chemical property
The properties are basically the same as sodium chloride. Potassium chloride can be used as raw material for industrial preparation of metal potassium (replace with metal sodium at 850 ℃:
, this is a reversible reaction, which is conducive to the reversible reaction from the perspective of thermodynamic properties, because when potassium reaches the boiling point temperature of 774 ℃, it will become a potassium vapor overflow, which is conducive to the right shift of the reaction direction.)
electrolysisPotassium chloride solutionCaustic potassium can be prepared, chloride ions can be precipitated by silver ions, and potassium ions can be precipitated by sodium tetraphenylborate.Potassium chloride reacts with concentrated sulfuric acid to formPotassium bisulfateAnd hydrogen chloride（
）It can also be used as an organic reaction.The working standard potassium chloride is used to calibrate the silver nitrate standard solution.Lattice energy: 715 kJ/mol.
Excessive oral potassium chloride is toxic;Median lethal doseIt is about 2500 mg/kg (similar to the toxicity of ordinary salt).The median lethal dose of intravenous injection is about 100 mg/kg, but its serious side effects on the myocardium should be noted. High doses can lead to cardiac arrest and sudden death.Death by injection is the principle that excessive intravenous injection of potassium chloride will lead to cardiac arrest.
Production method
1. By recrystallization method, industrial potassium chloride is added into a dissolution tank containing distilled water for dissolution, and then decolorizing agent, arsenic removal agent and heavy metal removal agent are added for solution purification. After precipitation, filtration, cooling crystallization, solid-liquid separation, drying, the finished product of edible potassium chloride is prepared.
2. Rock salt carnallite mainly composed of magnesium chloride and potassium chloride is crushed, mixed with 75% water, fed with superheated steam, and cooled to separate potassium chloride.This coarse crystal is obtained by water washing and recrystallization refining.The mother liquor after separating sodium chloride from seawater is obtained through concentration, crystallization and refining.
3. In the flotation method, potash rock salt ore (or sand crystal salt) is crushed by a ball mill, and then 1% octadecylamine flotation agent is added while stirring. At the same time, 2% cellulose is added for flotation, and then centrifuged to obtain potassium chloride products.The decomposition flotation combined method is used to screen carnallite first, then crush the crude product, add water, mother liquor and flotation agent for decomposition, and then rough select, select, filter, wash, centrifugal separation, and dry to produce finished potassium chloride.[1]
4. The bittern and old bittern (mother liquor after the precipitation of potassium magnesium chloride double salt) after the precipitation of sodium chloride from seawater are mixed in a certain proportion by the bittern mixing method, so that the molar ratio of magnesium sulfate and magnesium chloride in the mixed brine is less than 0.11, and the ratio of magnesium chloride to potassium chloride is about 11. The bittern (containing 90% sodium chloride, 2% magnesium chloride, 1% magnesium sulfate and 0.4% potassium chloride) is fully separated in the bittern mixing tank and removed.Evaporate and concentrate the mixed brine to 128 ℃, and then put it into a heat preservation settler. At 124 ℃, high temperature salt (containing 40% sodium chloride, 14% magnesium chloride, 13% magnesium sulfate and 1% potassium chloride) will be separated, and at 85~90 ℃, low temperature salt (containing 20% sodium chloride, 17% chloride, 22% magnesium sulfate and 1.3% potassium chloride) will be separated.After separation, the filtrate is cooled to separate potassium magnesium chloride double salt, namely artificial carnallite, and the mother liquor after separation of carnallite is old halogen.Carnallite is decomposed by adding water to dissolve magnesium chloride to obtain crude potassium chloride;The latter is washed and recrystallized to obtain the finished product.As potassium chloride for medicine or food, it is also necessary to dissolve the above products in water, filter them and fill them with chlorine until they are saturated.Boil to remove excess chlorine, and then introduce hydrogen chloride to separate potassium chloride.After separation, it is washed with water and then dissolved in water, filtered, cooled to about - 5 ℃ to obtain crystals, and dried at 100-120 ℃ to obtain finished products.Carnallite flotation The main component of carnallite is potassium chloride. Potassium chloride is obtained by roughing and cleaning with water and flotation agent.This product is washed and recrystallized to obtain a finished product.
5. SetPotassium hydroxideNeutralize with hydrochloric acid.Add stoichiometric pure hydrochloric acid into the pure potassium hydroxide aqueous solution. The acid is slightly excessive to make the solution slightly acidic. After heating and concentration, the solution must still be acidic. After cooling, there is potassium chloride precipitation. Suck and filter, place the precipitation in an evaporating dish, place it on a sand bath, and heat and dry it while stirring.Refining method The impurities contained in the potassium chloride sold in the market are mainly sodium chloride and magnesium chloride, but also contain a small amount of sulfate, iron salt, aluminum salt, etc.Take 500g of commercially available potassium chloride and 1.5L of distilled water, grind them together, filter them, put the filtrate into an evaporating dish, add 5g of lime milk made of calcium oxide and 12g of pure barium chloride, fully mix them, take a little of the upper clear liquid after sedimentation, drop barium chloride, confirm that there is no precipitation, filter, add 15g of pure anhydrous potassium carbonate to the filtrate, stir it, stand still, filter it,Heat the filtrate to boiling point and add dilute hydrochloric acid to make it acidic.Concentrate with direct fire until the volume is concentrated to 1/3, and then potassium chloride will precipitate. After cooling, absorb and filter the crystals, place them in an evaporating dish, and dry them with a sand bath.[2]
6. Add 25 parts of distilled water to 10 parts of industrial potassium chloride, heat and stir evenly, add hydrogen sulfide gas or hydrogen sulfide solution into the solution to make the sulfide of heavy metals completely precipitate, then add a little activated carbon and a little hydrogen peroxide respectively, then add an appropriate amount of barium chloride saturated solution, and check SO42-Whether the ions are completely precipitated.Filter the solution, heat it for 5min, add potassium carbonate, make the pH value of the solution reach 11~12, and check Ba2+Whether the ions are completely precipitated (it is qualified if the filtrate sample is acidified with dilute sulfuric acid and the solution is not turbid or precipitated).Filter while hot, neutralize the filtrate with chemically pure hydrochloric acid to pH=7, stir evenly, and let the filtrate cool and crystallize.The product can be packaged after crystallization and drying at (100 ± 5) ℃.The addition amount of barium chloride and potassium carbonate in the process should be based on
And Ca2+Determine the content of ions, etc.If mechanical stirring (150~200 rpm) is used during crystallization, the purity of the reagent obtained is much higher (for the content of sulfate impurities and ammonium salt impurities).
7. Cold decomposition method: put carnallite into the decomposer after crushing, add water, mother liquor and flotation agent for decomposition, and pump the coarse potassium slurry discharged from the lower part of the decomposer into the settler.Settled slurry is discharged from the bottom of the reactor, centrifuged, and mother liquor is removed to obtain crude potassium.The crude potassium is sent into the scrubber, and the sodium chloride contained in it is dissolved into water at room temperature. The slurry is precipitated again, centrifuged, and dried to produce finished potassium chloride.The clear liquid is recycled as the mother liquid of refined potassium.
purpose
Main purpose
Mainly used in inorganic industry, it is the basic raw material for manufacturing various potassium salts or alkalis, such as potassium hydroxide, potassium sulfate, potassium nitrate, potassium chlorate, potassium dichromate, etc.The pharmaceutical industry is used as a diuretic and a drug to prevent and treat potassium deficiency.The dye industry is used to produce G salt,reactive dye Etc.In agriculture, it is a kind of potash fertilizer.Its fertilizer effect is fast, and it can be directly applied to farmland to increase the water content in the lower soil layer, which has the effect of drought resistance. However, it is not suitable for use in saline alkali land and crops such as tobacco, sweet potato and sugar beet.Potassium chloride tastes similar to sodium chloride (bitter), and is also used as an additive for low sodium salt or mineral water.In addition, it is also used as flame suppressant for making muzzle or muzzle, heat treatment agent for steel, and for photography.It can also be used in medicine, scientific application, food processing, and some potassium chloride can replace sodium chloride in salt to reduce the possibility of hypertension.
Clinical medicine
Potassium chloride is a commonly used electrolyte balance regulator in clinic. It has definite clinical effect and is widely used in various clinical departments.It is used to treat and prevent diseases caused by various reasons (insufficient food, vomiting, severe diarrhea, application of potassium excretion diuretics or long-term application of glucocorticoid and adrenocortical stimulating hormone, potassium loss nephropathy, Bartter syndrome, etc.)HypokalemiaIt can also be used for frequent, multiple premature beats or rapid beats caused by cardiac and renal edema, digitalis and other cardiac glycoside poisoningArrhythmia。
Storage method
Store in a cool and ventilated warehouse.Keep away from kindling and heat sources.It shall be stored separately from oxidant and shall not be mixed.The storage area shall be equipped with appropriate materials to contain leakage.
Security risk
Close operation and strengthen ventilation.Operators must be specially trained and strictly abide by the operating procedures.Recommended for operatorsSelf suction filtering dust maskWear chemical safety goggles, anti poison penetration work clothes and rubber gloves.Avoid dust generation.Avoid contact with oxidants.Load and unload gently during transportation to prevent damage to packaging and containers.Provide leakage emergency treatment equipment.Empty containers may leave harmful substances.
Pharmacopoeia standard
Announce
edit
Source content
Calculated as dry product, the content of potassium chloride (KCl) shall not be less than 99.5%.
character
This product is colorless long prismatic, cubic crystal or white crystalline powder;Odorless, salty and astringent.
This product is soluble in water, but insoluble in ethanol or ether.
identify
The aqueous solution of this product shows the identification reaction between potassium salt and chloride (Appendix III, Part II of Pharmacopoeia 2010).
inspect
PH
Take 5.0g of this product, add 50mL of water to dissolve it, and then add 3 drops of phenolphthalein indicator solution without color development;After adding 0.30mL of sodium hydroxide titrant (0.02mol/L), it should be pink.
Clarity and color of solution
Take 2.5g of this product, add 25mL of water to dissolve it, and the solution should be clear and colorless.
sulfate
Take 2.0g of this product and check it according to the law (Appendix Ⅷ B, Part II of Pharmacopoeia 2010 Edition). Compared with the control solution made of 2.0mL of standard potassium sulfate solution, it should not be more concentrated (0.01%).
sodium salt
Dip the platinum wire in the aqueous solution (1 → 5) of this product, burn it in a colorless flame, and it shall not show continuous yellow.
Manganese salt
Take 2.0g of this product, add 8mL of water to dissolve it, add 2mL of sodium hydroxide test solution, shake it well, and place it for 10 minutes without color development.
Aluminum salt (for preparation of hemodialysis solution)
Take 4.0g of this product, add 100mL of water to dissolve it, and add 10mL of acetic acid ammonium acetate buffer (pH 6.0) as the test solution;Take another 2.0mL of aluminum standard solution (accurately measure an appropriate amount of aluminum single element standard solution, dilute with water to prepare a solution containing 2 μ g aluminum per 1ml), add 98mL of water and 10mL of acetic acid ammonium acetate buffer solution (pH 6.0) as the reference solution;Measure 10mL of acetic acid ammonium acetate buffer solution (pH 6.0), add 100mL of water as blank solution.Transfer the above three solutions to the separating funnel, add 0.5% 8-hydroxyquinoline trichloromethane solution for extraction three times (20, 20, 10mL), combine the extraction solution, place it in a 50mL volumetric flask, add chloroform to the scale, shake it up, measure it according to the fluorescence analysis method (Appendix IV E of Pharmacopoeia Volume II, 2010 Edition), and measure it at the excitation wavelength of 392nm and emission wavelength of 518nm,The fluorescence intensity of the test solution should not be greater than that of the control solution (one millionth).
Iodide, barium salt, calcium salt, magnesium salt and iron salt
The inspection shall be conducted according to the method under sodium chloride, and it shall meet the requirements.
Bromide
Take 0.2g of this product, put it into a 100mL measuring bottle, add water to dissolve it and dilute it to the scale, shake it up, accurately measure 5mL, put it into a 10mL colorimetric tube, and check it according to the method under sodium chloride, and it should meet the requirements (0.1%).
Loss on drying
Take this product, dry it at 105 ℃ to constant weight, and the weight loss shall not exceed 1.0% (Appendix VIII L, Part II of Pharmacopoeia 2010).
heavy metal
Take 4.0g of this product, add 20mL of water to dissolve it, add 2mL of acetate buffer solution (pH 3.5) and appropriate amount of water to make it 25mL, and check according to the law (Method 1, Appendix VIII H, Part II, Pharmacopoeia 2010 Edition), the content of heavy metals shall not exceed 5% per million.
Arsenite
Take 2.0g of this product, add 23mL of water to dissolve it, add 5mL of hydrochloric acid, and check according to the law (Method 1, Appendix VIII J, Part II, Pharmacopoeia 2010 Edition), which should meet the requirements (0.0001%).
Assay
Take about 0.15g of this product, precisely weigh it, add 50mL of water to dissolve it, add 5mL of 2% dextrin solution, 2mL of 2.5% borax solution and 5-8 drops of fluorescent yellow indicator solution, and titrate it with silver nitrate titrant (0.1mol/L).Every 1ml of silver nitrate titrant (0.1mol/L) is equivalent to 7.455mg of KCl.
Circulation system drugs>antiarrhythmic drugs>other antiarrhythmic drugs
Dosage form
1. Injection: 1.0g (10mL);
2. Sustained release tablets: 0.5g, 1.0g.
pharmacological action
Slow down atrioventricular node conduction by inhibiting the autonomy of sinoatrial node and ectopic pacemaker.
Pharmacokinetics
Potassium chloride is rapidly absorbed by oral administration and discharged from the kidney quickly, with a short retention time in the body.
indication
Caused by potassium deficiencyVentricular arrhythmiaMalignant ventricular arrhythmia (such as twisted ventricular tachycardia and ventricular fibrillation).For hypokalemia (mostly due to severe vomiting and diarrhea, inability to eat, long-term use of potassium excretion diuretics orAdrenocortical hormoneIt can also be used for the prevention and treatment of paroxysmal tachycardia or frequent ventricular extrasystole caused by cardiac glycoside poisoning.
High atrioventricular conduction resistanceHigh degree atrioventricular blockorIndoor conduction blockUse with caution.During the intravenous infusion of potassium chloride, closely observe the changes of ECG. If hyperkalemia changes the peak of T wave and QRS broadens, immediately stop the drug and intravenous injection is availablesodium bicarbonateOr sodium lactate against the toxic effect of hyperkalemia.Intravenous administration of potassium chloride should be avoided.
Adverse reactions
Oral potassium chloride can easily cause stomach discomfort.Intravenous drip, when the concentration of potassium chloride is high, it can cause phlebitis or vein spasm, can cause high blood potassium, lead to atrial and ventricular conduction block, sinus ventricular arrest, etc.
Usage and dosage
Take 1~2g orally three times a day.In case of emergency, intravenous drip of 0.3%~0.5% potassium chloride solution, 1g per hour, with a total amount of 1.0~1.5g, generally not more than 2g.For ventricular arrhythmias caused by severe potassium deficiency, especially torsional ventricular tachycardia and ventricular fibrillation, the concentration of potassium chloride solution can be as high as 0.6%~0.9%.
Drug interaction
1. Slow release potassium salt can inhibit the intestinalVitamin B12Absorption of.
2. Non steroidal anti-inflammatory and analgesic drugs can aggravate the gastrointestinal reaction of oral potassium salt.
Cannot excrete potassium in case of oliguria.First remove the cause of oliguria, make the urine volume reach 30~40ml per hour, and then supplement potassium.When using potassium retention diuresis (such as spironolactoneAminopteridineEtc.), do not use potassium salt to avoid high potassium.
Potassium chloride tablet
Announce
edit
Drug profile
Dosage form: tablet
Ingredients: The main ingredient of this product is potassium chloride.
Character: This product is white tablet or sugar coated tablet.
Functional indications
1. Treatment of hypokalemia caused by various reasons, such as insufficient food, vomiting, severe diarrhea, application of potassium excretion diuretics, hypokalemic family periodic paralysis, long-term applicationGlucocorticoidAnd supplement hypertonic glucose, etc.
2. Prevention of hypokalemia When patients have potassium loss, especially if hypokalemia is harmful to patients (such as patients using digitalis drugs), preventive potassium supplementation is required, such as little food consumption, severe or chronic diarrhea, long-term use of adrenocortical hormone, potassium loss nephropathyBartter syndromeEtc.
3. Digitalis poisoning causes frequent, multiple premature beats or tachyarrhythmia.
Usage and dosage
Oral potassium salt is used to treat mild hypokalemia or preventive medicine.The routine dose for adults is 0.5~1g (6.7~13.4mmol) each time, 2~4 times a day, after meals, and the dose is adjusted according to the condition.Generally, the maximum daily dose for adults is 6g (80mmol).
Adverse reactions
1. Oral administration may cause gastrointestinal irritation, such as nausea, vomiting, pharyngeal discomfort, chest pain (esophageal irritation), abdominal pain, diarrhea, and evenPeptic ulcerAnd bleeding.It is more likely to occur in patients with fasting, large dosage and original gastrointestinal diseases.
2. Hyperkalemia should be noticed when the original renal function is damaged.
(1) Acute dehydration, which may lead to decreased urine volume and K+Decreased excretion;
(2) FamilialityPeriodic paralysis, hypokalemic paralysis should be supplemented with potassium, but it is necessary to distinguish hyperkalemic or normal periodic paralysis;
(3) Chronic or severe diarrhea can cause hypokalemia, but it can also cause dehydration andHyponatremia, causing prerenal oliguria;
(4) Conduction block arrhythmia, especially when digitalis drugs are used;
(5) Large area burns, muscle trauma, severe infection, 24 hours after major surgery and severe hemolysis, which can itself causeHyperkalemia；
(6) Adrenal dysfunctional syndrome with insufficient secretion of mineralocorticoid;
2. The following follow-up examinations shall be performed during the medication:
(1) Blood potassium;
(2) Electrocardiogram;
(3) Blood magnesium, sodium and calcium;
(4) Acid base balance index;Renal function and urine volume;
3. When taking ordinary tablets and sugar coated tablets, they have a strong stimulating effect on the gastrointestinal tract, so it is best to dissolve them into solutions before taking them.
Medication for the elderly
Kidney clearance K in the elderly+The function decreases, and hyperkalemia is more likely to occur when potassium salt is used.
Drug interaction
oneAdrenal glucocorticoidEspecially for those who have obvious effects of mineralocorticoid, adrenocortical mineralocorticoid and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), because they can promote the excretion of potassium in urine, they can reduce the curative effect of potassium when used together.
twoAnticholinergic drugIt can aggravate the gastrointestinal irritation of oral potassium salt, especially potassium chloride.
3. Non steroidal anti-inflammatory and analgesic drugs aggravate the gastrointestinal reaction of oral potassium salt.
4. When sharing stock (blood stock contains 30mmol/L of potassium for less than 10 days and 65mmol/L of potassium for more than 10 days), potassium containing drugs and potassium preserving diuretics, the chances of hyperkalemia increase, especially those with renal function damage.
fiveAngiotensin converting enzyme inhibitorCyclosporine A and cyclosporine A can inhibit aldosterone secretion and reduce urinary potassium excretion, so hyperkalemia is easy to occur when used together.
6. Heparin can inhibit the synthesis of aldosterone, reduce the excretion of potassium in urine, and is prone to hyperkalemia when used together.In addition, heparin can increase the chance of gastrointestinal bleeding.
7. Slow release potassium salt can inhibit the absorption of vitamin B12 in the intestine.
pharmacological action
The normal concentration and concentration difference of potassium ions inside and outside cells are closely related to some functions of cells. Potassium participates in the regulation of acid-base balance, the synthesis of sugar and protein, andAdenosine diphosphateA certain amount of potassium is required to transform into triphosphate glycosides;Potassium participates in the excitatory process between nerves and their innervating organs, among neurons, and in the neurotransmitters of nerve endings（acetylcholine）Formation of;The content of potassium in the heart can affect its activity. The cardiac excitability increases when potassium is low. The patients with clinical hypokalemia are mainly arrhythmia;Potassium is an essential ion for maintaining the normal tension of skeletal muscle.The deficiency of potassium ion is manifested as muscle weakness and twitching.[3]
