Meteorology is the study of the atmosphereobject, which explains the characteristics of the atmosphere from both qualitative and quantitative aspects, and focuses on the study of atmosphericweatherSituation and change rule and its influence on weatherprediction。
Chinese name
meteorology
Foreign name
meteorology
Definition
The discipline of explaining atmospheric characteristics qualitatively and quantitatively
Meteorology is the study of the atmosphereobject, a discipline that explains the characteristics of the atmosphere from both qualitative and quantitative aspects, focusing on the study of atmospheric weather conditions and change rules and weather forecasting.Meteorology isAtmospheric scienceOne ofbranch。
In the Brief History of Meteorology in China written by Li Zhenghe, it is believed that meteorology is the beginning of the emergence and development of natural science. Natural science and applied technology have promoted the scientific and systematic theory of atmospheric science, and many disciplines such as synoptic science, atmospheric dynamics and climatology have gradually emerged.[2]The science of studying physical phenomena and processes in the atmosphere and their changing laws.Meteorology has a wide range of research fields,research methodThe difference is great.
And studying various atmospheric phenomena,atmosphereInteraction with underlying surface and meteorological effects produced by human activities.
explain
Systematically and scientifically explain these phenomena, functions and effects, and clarify their occurrence and evolution laws.
analysis
Analyze, diagnose and predict the weather in the past, present and future according to the recognized laws.Climate serves the national economy and people's daily life.
The first person to establish meteorology wasancient GreekphilosopherAristotle。In his bookOn MeteorologyHe was the first to narrate and explainwind, cloud, rain, snow, thunder, hail and other weather phenomena, and this book is the earliest meteorological book in the world.Until the 18th and 19th centuries, due to the development of physics and chemistry and the successive invention of pressure, temperature, humidity, wind and other measuring instruments, the research of atmospheric science moved from simple description to quantitative analysis.In 1820,a germanBudlandThe first surface weather map was drawn, creating a modern eraWeather analysisAnd forecasting methods.In 1835,FrenchCorioliPut forward the concept of wind deflection;In 1857DutchBaibeiluoPut forward the relationship between wind and pressure, and their concepts becomeAtmospheric dynamicsAnd weather analysis.
Around 1920,NorwayOfPierkanisFather and son proposed a set of“Polar frontTheoryMid latitudeRegional weather changes.It has been more than 70 years since the theory was published in 1920s, but it is still the main theoretical basis for today's weather forecast, and also lays a theoretical foundation for analyzing and forecasting the weather in the next 1-2 days.In the 1930s,RadiosondeThe widespread use ofthree-dimensional spaceAtmospheric science research.According to the high-altitude weather map drawn by a large number of exploration dataAtmospheric long wave。1939Rossby ProposedLong wave dynamicsHis theory has also made great contributions to weather forecasting.In the 1950s and 1960s, computers, weatherradarThe application of satellite and remote sensing technology has made various atmospheric phenomena as large asatmospheric circulationThe formation process of raindrops can be expressed in the mathematical form of physics and chemistry, which has made atmospheric science develop by leaps and bounds.
Development process
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embryo
Military meteorology
The budding period mainly refers to the long period before the middle of the 16th century. This period is characterized by the accumulation of some sporadic and local meteorological observations due to the needs of human life and productionPerceptual knowledgeAnd experience to explain some weather phenomena.
During this period, China has made many achievements in this field, and is in the leading position in the world.Three thousand years ago,Yin DynastyOracleWind, cloud, rain, snowrainbow, XiaTornado、thunderstormAccording to written records, he often asked about the weather in the next ten days (called“Bu Xun”）And record the actual situation for verification.Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States PeriodAccording to wind, cloudphenologyObservation records of, determineThe twenty fourth solar termIt is of great significance to guide the agricultural production season in the Yellow River basin and has been used in modern times.Qin and Han DynastiesThe times also came《Lu's Spring and Autumn Period》、《Writings of Prince Huainan》And The Book of Rites and other books related to phenology, which are the earliest literature on phenology in the world.
Meteorological observation instrumentIt is also the earliest invention of China.In the Western Han Dynasty (104 BC), bronze and bronze were already popularphoenixHexiangfeng Copper BirdWind vaneIn the Tang Dynasty, it developed to use Xiangfengniao in fixed places, and wind sensors made of chicken feathers in the army.In Europe, it was not until the 20th century that there were records of migratory birds measuring wind.In the Western Han Dynasty, the hygroscopic characteristics of feathers, charcoal and other materials were also used to measure air humidity.In the Song Dynasty, monk Zanning (10th century AD) used itSoil charcoalThe hygrometer predicts rain and shine.The record of precipitation is also the earliest in China, according toThe Book of the Later Han DynastyIt is recorded that at that time, all the prefectures under its jurisdiction were required toBeginning of SpringreachBeginning of AutumnDuring this period, I reported to the imperial court about the rain. Since then, all dynasties have attached great importance to the rain conditions in various places.So the rainfall and water in ChinadroughtIt has rich records and the longest history.Due to the needs of production and life, human beings urgently need to predict future weather changes, and have accumulated a lot of experience in long-term observation practice.These experiences are expressed in short rhymes for easy memory and application, which is called weather proverbs.Chinese weather proverbs are extremely rich, except for someFeudal superstitionBesides, most of them are the crystallization of the experience of working people in past dynasties.Tang dynastyYellow hairOf“Xiangyu Book”, appeared at the end of Yuan Dynasty and the beginning of Ming DynastyLou YuanliEdited《Tian Family's Five Elements》And the late Ming DynastyXu GuangqiThe "Complete Book of Agricultural Administration" compiled is a work summarizing the experience of the masses in weather forecasting.
Meteorology also sprouted very early abroad. Aristotle, the great Greek philosopher in the 4th century BC（Aristotle）Comprehensive discussion on Meteorology (about 350 BC)waterThe atmospheric phenomena have also been properly explained.Now the foreign language name of meteorology evolved from Aristotle's original book title.
In short, in the infancy of meteorology, China and Greece were at the forefront. In terms of discipline nature, meteorology and astronomy are mixed together, which can be said to haveAstrologyThe nature of.
Initial stage of development
meteorology
The initial stage of development included the middle of the 16th century to the end of the 19th century.At that time, the development of European industry promoted the development of science and technologyindustrial revolutionThe requirements of the.And becauseNavigation technologyThe progress of long-distance commerce and the activities of exploration teams have expanded people's horizons. Geography is booming, which is between physics and geographyMarginal science——The development of meteorology and climatology has laid a foundation.In addition, meteorological observation instruments have been invented during this period,Surface meteorological observationStations and stations have been established successively, forming a ground meteorological observation network, andradioThe invention of technology can start to draw ground weather maps.Because of these conditions, meteorology and climatology gradually separated from astronomy and became independent disciplines.
1593 Italian scholarGalileo（Galileo）InventionthermometerItalian scholar in 1643Torricelli(Torricelli) Inventionbarometer。The appearance of these two important instruments has made meteorological observation a great leap forward.In particular, the relationship between air pressure and weather changes is most direct. The barometer was once known as the "eye" of the weather.1783Saussure (Saussure) InventionHair hygrometerWith these instrumentsmeteorological observatoryThe station provides necessary conditions.In 1653, the meteorological observatory was first established in northern Italy, and then other countries also established one after anotherSurface meteorological observationStation, start to accumulate meteorological data.But at this time, there was only some decentralized research, lacking international cooperation and exchange.In 1854, the United States, France and RussiaCrimean Peninsula A war broke out.The Anglo French Allied FleetBlack SeaEn route causestormThe crash was close to the annihilation of the whole army.This matter has aroused the attention of the countries concerned.Later, according to the meteorological observation records of relevant stations, it was found that the storm moved from Western Europe to Eastern Europe.So people thought that if we could establishMeteorological station network, and through telecommunications, we can predict future weather changes and take corresponding preventive measures to reduceDisastrous weatherLosses caused to all parties.This understanding has opened up a situation for international cooperation in the meteorological community and promoted the development of weather analysis.
Radar meteorology
With the invention and application of wireless telegraphy, the results of meteorological observation can be quickly transmitted to all parts of the country.It creates conditions for drawing weather maps.From 1860 to 1865, many countries drew weather maps.With the help of weather maps, the development of meteorology has taken a big step forward.The main research achievements of meteorology and climatology in this period include:seaThe law of wind pressure on the plane,cycloneModels and structures, in the atmospherePhotoelectric phenomenonandClouds and rainThe preliminary interpretation of the formation,atmospheric circulationThe explanation of some phenomena of the.Since the 19th century, some high-qualityClimatic map, such as world annual average temperature distribution map, world monthly average pressure distribution map, world annual precipitation distribution map, etc.In addition, German scholarsHann(Hann) Since 1883Climatology HandbookThree volumes, this is the first major work in climatology.
Although China's meteorology has a long history and was among the world's advanced countries in its infancy, it has been at a long-term standstill due to the suppression of feudal rule and the low level of productionstate。During this period, in order to invade China, the imperialists set up meteorological observation institutions in China one after another to collect meteorological data to serve their military and economic aggression.First came to China, using modernMeteorological instrumentIt was the French missionary who made meteorological observations. He set up a weather station in Beijing in 1743.Since 1830, Russia has sent people to Beijing intermittently for meteorological observation.1873 FranceCatholicismWill be in ShanghaiXujiahuiThe observatory was founded by the Germans in Qingdao, Shandong Province in 1893Qingdao ObservatoryIn addition toBritisherThere are 43 customs weather stations (all located in coastal and riverside ports) under the control of the Chinese government. They all serve their own military, navigation and merchant ships. The Chinese government has no right to interfere. At this time, China's meteorological cause is completelySemi colonyOf a nature.
Development period
Since the 20th century, meteorology has been developing.The general characteristics of this period are: with the needs of production development and technological progressSurface meteorological observation, and also conduct direct observation at high altitude, thus getting rid of the qualitative description stage and entering into the quantitative test stage, fromUnderstanding natureAnd gradually develop in the direction of predicting nature, controlling and transforming nature.This period can be divided into early and recent stages.[1]
1. Early in the first 50 years of the 20th century.At this time, meteorological observation began to develop to the upper airkite, with peopleballoonAnd rockets are high-altitude observation tools. Of course, the height reached by them is limited, butAerometeorologyAnd laid the foundation for its development.During this period, there were three major advances in the development of meteorology.
(1) Frontal theory: During the First World War, due to the inability to obtain meteorological data from neighboring countries, Norway established a relatively dense meteorological network.Norwegian scholar V. Bjerknes and J. Bjerknes, etcApplied PhysicsThrough long-term weather analysis and practice, the frontal theory of cyclone formation was established, which laid a physical foundation for 1-2 day weather forecast.
（2）long waveTheory: In the 1930s and 1940s, due to the requirement of early prediction of disastrous weatherRadiosondeAnd the general development of high-altitude wind measurement, which can analyzeupper-air chart 。SwedenscholarRossby (Rossby) and others studied the atmospheric circulation and put forward the long wave theory.It not only lays a theoretical foundation for weather forecasting for 2-4 days, but also makes meteorology develop from two dimensions to three dimensions.
(3) Rainfall theory: In the 1930s,Bergeron Fenderson(Bergeron Fendeison) found that the coexistence of ice crystals and supercooled water droplets in the cloud is most conducive to the formation of rainfall from the study of the formation of rain, thus putting forward the rainfall theory.In 1947, dry ice andSilver iodidefall intoSupercoolingA large number of ice crystals can be generated in the water drop, which is an artificial effectCold cloudPrecipitation provides a way.Further research also found that in tropical warm clouds,Small water dropletsCollision and merger can also lead to rainfall, which lays a theoretical foundation for the artificial influence on warm cloud precipitation.From then on, human beings began toUnderstanding natureEnter the era of artificial influence on local weather.[1]
2. Recent
Since the 1950s, it has been in the near future.Thanks to electronic computers and new technologies such as radar, laserremote sensingThe use of artificial satellites has greatly promoted the development of meteorology and climatology.The main performances are as follows:
(1) Carry out large-scale observation test
Before the 1950s, the world had organized two meteorological surveys in 1882 and 1932 in the polar regions, called the International Polar Year, and obtained some data on upper air meteorology and the relationship between the sun and the earth.Since the 1950s, large-scale atmospheric observation experiments involving at least dozens of countries have been carried out many times, and the scale has become larger and larger.For example, a large-scale atmospheric observation experiment carried out from December 1977 to November 1979 was attended by more than 100 countries, including China.The global atmospheric test is based on fiveGeostationary satelliteAnd 2 nearPolar orbitSatellite as the backbone, cooperationMeteorological rocket, and compare with conventionalSurface meteorological observationStationautomatic weather station, aircrafts, ships, buoy stations and altitude fixing balloons to form several global and relatively complete three-dimensional observation systems.This global observation plan is to try to solve the weather forecast between 10 and 14 days, and further understand the physical process and physical causes of weather phenomena.[1]
(2) The atmospheric physical phenomenaNumerical simulation testMeteorology and climatology, unlike physics and chemistry, can be tested indoors, but the earth's atmosphere is used as a laboratory.Only with the help of electronic computers can we conduct accurate and quantitative numerical simulation tests on various atmospheric physical phenomena, such ascirculationTo the cloudraindropThe generation process ofmicrocosmicThe combination of process and dynamic macro process makes meteorology enter the stage of experimental science.
(3) Study the atmosphere as a wholetroposphereAndstratosphereMedium,High latitudeIt is another great leap forward in the development of meteorology and climatology to study the combination of regions and low latitudes, and the southern and northern hemispheres.Man has also observed, analyzed and studied chemical phenomena and processes in the atmosphere for many years, and has formed a new branch of meteorology——Atmospheric chemistry。Especially in recent years, the monitoring of air pollution and the exploration of environmental protection measures have promoted the progress of atmospheric chemistry.
After liberation, China's meteorological cause has developed rapidly.stayThe first five-year planDuring this period, China established 1378 meteorological stations at all levels. By the end of 1957, China had 1635 meteorological stations at all levels, nearly 22 times more than in the early days of liberation.A network of weather and climate stations has been built all over China for more than 40 years.The study of meteorology and climatology in China has entered a period of high development.In terms of basic theories, such as atmospheric circulation and dynamic meteorology, in terms of synoptic science, such asChinese weather，Plateau meteorologyIn satellite meteorology, such as very high resolutioncloud chartThe development of the receiver,Satellite meteorologyAnd detection principle have made remarkable progress.stayWeather modificationCloud and fog physics has been carried out,Artificial precipitationAnd artificial hail suppression, and has achieved good results.[1]
Future development
With the development of science and technology, the invention of meteorological observation instruments, detection means, communication equipment and computing tools, and the expansion and deepening of human exploration of atmospheric phenomena, it has gradually developed into scientific meteorology.Since the 20th century, new achievements of modern science and technology have been widely applied in the field of meteorological science, which has brought meteorological science into a new era.For example, the introduction of electronic technology has made atmospheric detection automatic, remote sensing and systematic;The appearance of weather radar enables meteorologists to monitor and track the movement and development of strong storms;The application of electronic computers has made numerical prediction come trueweather forecastTowards objectification and quantification;meteorological satelliteThe application of GIS has filled in the meteorological data of desert, plateau, ocean and other regions; GIS;The development of space technology has made atmospheric researchCosmic spaceExpanding, humans can overlook the earth's atmosphere from outer space and so on.At present, with the development of information science, the world is facingMicroelectronics, new materials, new energy andMarine technologyThe new technological revolution, which is the main symbol, will certainly promote the rapid development of meteorological science.[1]
Research object
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Due to the gravity of the earth, there is a gas sphere around the earth, forming the so-calledAtmosphere。
The distribution of the atmosphere is so wide that no place on the earth's surface is not covered by the atmosphere;It is so thick that no mountain can pass through the earth's surfaceatmosphereAnd the highest peak on earthMount QomolangmaCompared with the thickness of the atmosphere, it is only a drop in the ocean.Humans live at the bottom of the atmosphere“Underlying surface”On.The atmosphere is an important part of human geographical environment.
The earth is a member of the solar systemplanet, powerfulsolar radiationIt is the most important energy on the earth.This energy first passes through the atmosphere and then reaches the underlying surface. All physical (chemical) phenomena and processes in the atmosphere, except for the nature of the atmosphere itself, are directly or indirectly related to solar radiation and the underlying surface.These phenomena and processes are closely related to human life and production activities.In the long-term production practice, human beings constantly observe, analyze and summarize themPerceptual knowledgeIt was raised to rational knowledge, then verified and revised in production practice, and gradually improved, which led to special research.[1]
Atmospheric phenomena and processes, explore their evolution laws and changes, and directly or indirectly use them to guide production practice for human service science meteorology.
Meteorology covers a wide range of fields, including:
(1) Use the atmosphere as a research materialobjectTo discuss its characteristics and state, such as the composition, range, structure, temperature, humidity, pressure and density of the atmosphere.
(2) Study the energy source, nature and transformation that lead to the occurrence and development of atmospheric phenomena.
(3) To study the essence of atmospheric phenomena, so as to explain atmospheric phenomena and seek the laws to control their occurrence, development and change.
(4) Discuss how to apply these laws and take certain measures to predict and improveatmospheric environment Services (e.gWeather modification, peopleEngineering precipitation、Defogging, hail suppression, etc.) to make it more suitable for the needs of human life and production.
Due to the wide range of requirements put forward by production practice for meteorology and the many problems involved in meteorology, the methods used to solve these problems in meteorology are very different. In addition, with the rapid development of science and technology, meteorology is divided into many departments.
research method
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There are four main research methods, namely, observational research, theoretical research, numerical model research and experimental research:
Observational research
Observational research is to understand different atmospheric phenomena through observation. It can be said that it is one of the cornerstones of meteorological theory, and it is also a concern of general meteorological enthusiasts.There are also many observation methods,weather station、High-altitude balloon, WeiNebulogram、Radar echo mapEtc.Observation and research is not only observation, but also induction and analysis to a certain extent. For example, the sentence "tomorrow turns cold" is an analysis.In addition, draw weather maps and organizeTropical cyclone pathThe classification of climate regions is also the work of the observation and research institute.[1]
theoretical research
There are three major parts of theoretical research. In addition to observation, physics and mathematics are also important for theoretical research.The theory can be generated from two aspects. On the one hand, it is directly established from observation data, such as the analysis of tropical cyclone intensityDwozakAnalytical methods, on the other hand, are evolved from physical theories or other meteorological theories, such asGeostrophic equation、Pressure gradient equationEtc.Many physical theories need the help of mathematics. Conversely,Mathematical languageSometimes it can make people understand physics and weather theory better.[1]
Numerical model research
Few people know about numerical model research, and they all needTheoretical knowledgeComputer programming skills and experimental skills.Numerical model research will put different physical and meteorological equations into the computer in the form of computer programs, and then calculate the future temperature, humidity, pressure, wind direction and other changes to assist in weather forecasting or theoretical research.
experimental study
Experimental research is also known by few people. Experimental research is weaker than before due to the emergence of numerical model research, but it also has its existence value. For example, to verify certain theories, numerical model research cannot be done.
Meteorology is divided into many branches: atmospheric physics, synoptic science, dynamic meteorology, climatology, and so on.With the development of production, the application of meteorology has become increasingly widespread, and has emerged one after anotherMarine meteorology、aeronautical meteorology，Agrometeorology、Forest meteorology、Pollution meteorologyAnd other applied disciplines.The application of modern science and technology in the field of meteorology has seen the emergence of new branches, such asRadar meteorology、Satellite meteorology、cosmic meteorology Etc.Meteorology is closely related to production and life and involves many disciplinesapplied science。[1]
