Puao in 1866Seven Week War，PrussiaDisturbed by a quick and amazing victoryEuropeBalance of power[1]。Earlier, the Frenchnapoleon iii DominateContinental EuropeMomentum: AlthoughSecond Empire It is not consolidated internally, but with the help of the French armyCrimean WarandAustrian Italian French WarThe continuous military victories achieved by China have calmed many internal contradictions and won a certain degree of popular support.Napoleon III tried to restore the European hegemony of the First French Empire.However, Prussia was at the prime ministerBismarckUnder the planning of the German Federal Government, he is actively making himself play an important role in the German Federation.
German EmpirePreviously unstable, Prime Minister of Iron and SteelBismarckHe believed that many years of meetings and negotiations were not enough to unite Germany. As the prime minister of Prussia, one of Germany's two great powers, he proposed to use war to unite Germany and successfully achieve German unityBismarckKnown as the Prime Minister of Iron and BloodAustro-Prussian War After the Franco Prussian War, Austria, another powerful power, was kicked out of the German Empire and united with Hungary, known as the Austro Hungarian Empire in history)
1866Austro-Prussian War The victory of the French established its leading position in the German Federation and seriously threatened France's hegemony in the European continent.
The French authorities realized that the rise of Prussia threatened their position, so the nationalists in the Congress proposed an active foreign policy, which they even regarded as compensation for the domestic generous concession policy.Napoleon III asked Bismarck to agree that Bavaria andGrand Duchy of Hesse Part of the territory ofAustro-Prussian War The reward of being conservative and neutral.As for the relationship between France and Germany, it has not yet reached the stage of war, the king of PrussiaWilliam IHe once replied to France that Germany and France should still hold a meeting to discuss the ownership of Alsace and other places
The cause of the 1870 war wasSpainQuestion of succession to the throne, Queen of Spain, 1868Isabella IIBecause of his dissolute private life and political chaos, he was overthrown, resulting in the suspension of the throne.The Spanish cabinet meeting decided to find suitable successors, among whom was the King of PrussiaWilliam IDistantly relatedHohenzollern family It seems that Prince Leopold of France is likely to become a candidate. Unfortunately, the news leaked at the end of June 1870, which greatly angered the French Foreign Minister, Duke Gramont. After the party refused, he threatenedWilliam I, asking to ensure that he would never touch the Spanish throne, William politely refused the request of the other party.But Bismarck, who deliberately provoked the war, deliberately added to the telegram (the so-calledEms Dispatch ）, infuriated the French media and worried about the claim that there was no excuse for sending troopsThe Tuileries The fox and the mysteriousSphinxFrench emperor Napoleon III declared war immediately.
Situation of both sides
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Strength of both sides
On the eve of the Franco Prussian War, the Prussian army, which implemented the universal conscription system, was the most powerful army in Western Europe.North German Confederation The military strength (including the armies of the southern German states) can reach more than 1 million in wartime (including more than 690000 combat troops).It is almost twice the strength of France.In wartime, the armed forces were unified into severalArmy group。German artillery is equipped withKrupp Arsenal The steel tube rifled gun manufactured has an effective range of 3.5km.
As early as the winter of 1868-1869, the general staff chiefOld Mao QiThe general had already drawn up a war plan. Maoqi expected that the French army would attack first, and the direction of attack must be chosenAlsaceandLorraineRegion, especially inStrasbourgCrossing the Rhine nearby, because this is a prominent part in the southeast of France, directly facing the German land on the east bank of the Rhine. According to the situation of the French railway, Maoqi can easily calculate that the Strasbourg railway is not able to gather all the main forces of the French army, and more than half of the French army (150000) should be located in the west and north of Strasbourg, the hinterland of FranceMaceGet off and assemble.In this way, the French Mays Group and the Strasbourg Group are bound to be separated by the Vosges Mountains.
Maoqi concentrated his three army groups in Mays and StrasbourgRhineBehind him, he doesn't take the initiative to attack because he wants toVosge MountainsSeparate the French army and don't want mountains to separate their offensive forces.Once the direction and strength of the French attack are determined, the Prussian army can concentrate its forces to defeat the separate French army, and then launch a resolute attack on Alsace and Lorraine, wipe out the main enemy force in the final battle, and occupy Paris.The plan also stipulates that onceAustro Hungarian EmpireTo join the war on the French side, the Prussian army will take military action against it.The total number of French troops during the war did not exceed 570000, of which only 330000 to 340000 were fighting troops.
At that time, the French army implemented a standing army system. The army was experienced in battle and the commanders at all levels were experienced. They fought all over Europe, Asia, Africa and the Americas.However, the French military system does not have two levels of military and division in peacetime (except for the guard army), and the square warehouse soldiers are organized in the face of war, so it cannot guarantee the coordination of the department (unit), which is a major mistake of the French military head office.France did not make a careful war plan in advance, and there were many mistakes in the hasty plan.
French military establishment
The French army (initially, the French army was organized into one corps, called the Rhine Corps, and on August 6, 1870, it was divided into two corps, respectivelyBazanandMcMahonCommand)
The 12th Army: Commander, Crown Prince Albert of Saxony (the future King of SaxonyAlbert I）
The 5th and 6th Cavalry Divisions
The 3rd Legion: Commander Friedrich William, Crown Prince of PrussiaFriedrich III ）
The 5th Army: Commander Kirshbach
6th Army: Commander Tumpringer
The 11th Army: Commander Brose
Bavarian 1st Army: Commander Tann Ratzamhausen
Bavarian 2nd Army: Commander Haltman
Wiltenberg Division
Baden Division
Cavalry 2nd and 4th Divisions
The course of the war
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Phase I
Situation of Franco Prussian War
July 19, 1870Francenapoleon iii First toPrussiaWar was declared, and the Franco Prussian War broke out.But a few days before that, France had begun to mobilize. Many enthusiastic French supported the war, and the French army, which included a high proportion of professional soldiers and experienced veterans, was considered invincible.However, due to the French army's involvement in too many colonial wars, he neglected to deal with this great enemy on the European continent. He should plan ahead of mobilization. By the end of July, about 220000 people from eight armies were gathered at the border, and Napoleon III was appointedCommander in Chief, Lebuf isChief of the General Staff。
Napoleon III deployed his army in three lines: the first line is the main Rhine Corps, which governs three armies, and is located between Tionville and Birch on the French German border. At first, the French Emperor commanded them personally, and then Field Marshal Bazan commanded them;The second line consists of two armies, which are deployed atStrasbourgAnd Metz, under the command of Marshal McMahon;The third line consists of two reserves, which are located in Nanxi and Xialong.This was originally a pre emptive offensive deployment, and the plan was to concentrate troops to quickly cross the border toFrankfurtThe breakout cut off the connection between South Germany and North Germany, forced the states of South Germany to remain neutral, and defeated Prussia with all their strength.
But at the same time, the general armyWilliam IAs Commander in Chief,Moltke Chief of the General Staff.The plan is to concentrate superior forces to attack Alsace and Lorraine, trying to wipe out the main force of the French army at the border between France and Prussia or drive it to the north of France, and then attack Paris.The mobilization plan of the PLA is well planned. By the end of July, the railway transport forces had assembled three regiments with about 470000 people and 1584 artillery guns at the border.
On August 2, 1870, the French army first launched an attack on the Prussian army with three divisions in the Salbuluken area, but there was no effective combat action, and only made some small-scale contacts with the enemy's vanguard forces.On August 4, 1870, the general army turned to attack and crossed the border.The French army met the attack of the Prussian army on the unfavorable positions in the border area, the Crown Prince of PrussiaFriedrich Wilhelm The third regiment of the French army defeated the division of General Douai of the French army with 10 times the number of people at Vicanburg (August 4, 1870). The French army was killed and wounded 23%. On August 6, 1870, the two armies fought again in Walter. The French heavy cavalry launched a brave charge. But the second regiment of Prince Carl Frederick of the French army was 130000, and the first army of Marshal McMahon was 40000 people.On the same day, the 2nd Army of General Fraser of France, who belonged to Bazan Army, was also defeated by the 1st Army of the Prussian Army with overwhelming numbers in Falbach, opening the door to Lorraine.
Franco-Prussian War
After the war, there was an interval between campaigns. Since the main force of the general army was not fully deployed, it was impossible to carry out continuous attacks and pursue the victory.Although the French army was defeated in the battle in the border area due to insufficient pre war preparations, the main force was not heavily hit by the general army, and the losses were limited;At the same time, the positions on the border are set up for attack and are not suitable for defense at all.Under this situation, the main force of the French army should withdraw to the depth of the war zone in a planned way, replenish the troops, adjust the deployment, and stand ready to fight the general army.
However, the failure of the first battle had immediate political impact,Emile OlivierCollapse, August 10Charles Kuzan MontopiaThe formation of a cabinet belongs to the main battle group headed by the queen.The Paris government, which was regented by the Queen, repeatedly intervened in the battle deployment of the front line commanders to prevent the front line troops from retreating to the war zone in depth for the political needs of maintaining its own rule;And the French emperor who was commanding at the front line was also orderedParis, thus making a big mistake.The Rhine Corps, the main force under the command of the French Emperor, had initially ordered to retreat to the Sharon Barracks in the strategic hinterland, but the Paris government believed that if the army retreated, the capital would revolt, insisting that it should not retreat.
napoleon iii
So, on August 9, 1870, the French emperor changed his original plan, stopped the withdrawal of troops, and decided to stick to it at all costsMace。
On August 12, 1870, the ill Napoleon III handed over the command of the Rhine Corps to Marshal Bazan.However, Bazan is only brave and has no good command and strategic ability. He is hesitant, sometimes determined to retreat to Sharon and join McMahon, sometimes determined to defend in Mays.When the final decision was made to retreat to Sharon, the opportunity was lost and the general army was approaching.By August 16Battle of MaslaturAnd August 18Glavolot Saint Prival BattleThe two armies showed incredible bravery. The French artillery was very fierce. Conorbel and Geben caught and killed each other. Although the French army successfully repelled the attack of the general army and caused heavy losses to the first legion of the general army and the royal guard, it failed to open the road to Verdun. Bazan's legion returned to the Mays fortress again, and fell into the first place of the general army7 armies of the 2nd Corps and 3 cavalry divisions (160000 people) are surrounded.
McMahon led the army (more than 120000 people, 393 guns, 76 "Mitrailleuse" machine guns) back to Sharon.He was going to lure the enemy deep into the city of Paris and fight the Prussian army.Queen Eugenie as regent and Count Baliqiao, Prime Minister of the EmpireCharles Kuzan MontopiaWorried that continued retreat would cause unrest or revolution in the country, the Queen believed that "only the enemies of the emperor would allow him to return to Paris".
On August 22, 1870, the Speaker Raul led a delegation to the French emperor's headquarters, advised the emperor not to return to Paris, and ordered McMahon to march to Mays.Then, the regent conference in Paris sent a telegram to the emperor: "If we do not support Bazan, there will be very bad consequences for Paris. Faced with this situation, there is doubt whether the capital can defend itself." So the emperor attached orders to Paris.In this way, the Xialong Legion embarked on the last way to be annihilated in Sedang.McMahon set out from Reims to Mace on August 22, 1870.At this time, a false message came from Berlin, saying that except for the troops that besieged Mace, the Prussian army was determined to advance all the way to Paris.In fact, the 3rd Regiment of the general army is still pursuing the MacMahon Regiment and making a bold detour to the right. Together with the newly formed 4th Regiment, the French army led by MacMahon and Napoleon III are besieged in Sedan.
From September 1 to 2, 1870, Bazan led the French army trapped in Metz to break through the siege, which became the most costly battle. Since then, the discipline of the French army has been greatly damaged. At the same time, the Prussian and French armies conducted a decisive battle in Sedan, namelySedan Battle。On the morning of September 1, the general army occupied Fuliji, Dongsheri and other places, successfully cut off the road for the French army to retreat westward, and blocked the French army from behind.At noon of the same day, the general army also completed the encirclement of the French army and attacked with powerful artillery.In the afternoon, after the French army failed in several attempts to break through the siege, Napoleon III was forced to send a letter to William I at 4:30 p.m., saying that he would "hand over his sword to His Majesty".
On September 2, 1870, Napoleon III formally led 83000 soldiers to surrender to the general army.In this battle, the French army lost 104000 people and the Prussian army only lost more than 9000 people.France is in an uproar.
During the Franco Prussian War, Engels pointed out in a series of war essays that,There were three basic mistakes that led to the disastrous defeat of Sedan: "First, the position where the French army met the enemy's attack, so that the victorious Prussian army could wedge into the French army's scattered armies. As a result, the French army was divided into two independent forces, and they could not meet each other, or even cooperate in combat;Second, Bazan's army hesitated to act in Metz, and was tightly besieged there;Third, the forces used and the routes along which Bazan was rescued were simply instigating the enemy to capture all the reinforcements. "Engels said here that the three basic mistakes made by the French army, in addition to the wrong strategic guidance of the Paris government, are also related to the mistakes of the top commander of the front line.
First of all, when the French army failed in the first battle on the border and decided to retreat, but the Paris government did not allow the main Rhine Corps to retreat, McMahon, as the commander of the French right-wing army, should consider the situation and start from the overall situation of the war, lead the army to move closer to the Rhine Corps in order to coordinate operations.In this way, the Rhine Corps may avoid being encircled by the general army.But he mechanically retreated to Sharon alone, thus providing the general army with a condition to take the advantage of the situation and divide the whole French army into two parts, and then defeat each other.
Secondly, if not for Bazan and Napoleon III's mistakes, the 100000 French troops who retreated to Mays might have overcome the obstruction of the Paris government and safely retreated to Sharon before falling into siege.However, they hesitated and still wanted to make a hopeless defense in Fort Metz, but they were blocked by the general army;After being besieged, Bazan passively waited for reinforcements and did not actively organize breakthrough.In this regard, Engels pointed out keenly in his short review of the War Crisis: if Bazan did not want to dedicate the whole of France to the invaders and trapped himself in a place where hunger would soon force him to surrender, he should immediately retreat from Metz.However, he remained in place.
Thirdly, more directly, McMahon violated the basic principles of war and chose the wrong route of action to rescue Metz by bypassing the border city Sedan.Judging from the actual situation of the battlefield at that time, for McMahon, the shortest, fastest and most reliable route to Metz was to directly pass through the 3rd Regiment of the General Army.Of course, to do so requires both a keen strategic vision and the courage and boldness to defeat the powerful enemy. However, he lacks the necessary qualities in both aspects, so he has to go on the road of being defeated.Sedang is a tiny place, only 8 kilometers away from the Belgian border in the north, and there is a big river in the west and southwest - the Mex River.During the battle, more than 100000 French troops were finally squeezed into an arc with a depth of only three or four kilometers in front of the general army under the siege of the general army. It was difficult to implement maneuver and make proper deployment.In this way, the losses caused by the concentrated shelling of hundreds of artillery by the French army alone would be enough to make the French army unable to support it.
Phase II
Prussian troops on the outskirts of Paris
The disastrous defeat of Sedan immediately triggered a chain reaction. On September 4, 1870, the big bourgeoisie in France, which controlled the financial economy, took the opportunity to launch a coup in France, overthrow the Second French Empire, establish the Third French Republic, and formLouis Jules TrocheThe "national defense government" headed by the general.So far, the obstacles to German national unity have been eliminated, but the Prussian authorities are determined to continue the war and send troops to Paris.Since then, Prussia's war of self-defence has turned into a war of aggression.
For France, the second stage of the Franco Prussian War has turned into a progressive war of national liberation.The people demand universal armed forces.The national defense government tried to collude with the enemy to prevent the revolutionary movement from continuing to develop, and had begun to hold secret negotiations with Bismarck. At this time, deterred by the pressure of the people, although it delayed for a long time, it was forced to take measures to strengthen the defense of Paris.When the German army advanced to the French capital, it was like entering a deserted land. On September 19, 1870, Paris was about to be besieged.
On September 23, 1870, the Prussian army occupied Tule, and on September 27, 1870, the defenders of Strasbourg surrendered.Thanks to the patriotic enthusiasm of the people, France was able to build a huge army (includingthe National Guard , free shooters, defenders of Paris and other fortresses, about one million people, including 400000 troops in Paris), which brought great difficulties to the headquarters of the PLA.All the troops were trapped in the fortresses and continued to besiege Mays and Paris.The Falois Army Group, which gathered in Tule and Bourcher, was ready to go to Paris to rescue.
At this time, Marshal Bazan, the commander of the French Rhine Group, was secretly negotiating with the enemy, which was a blow to the republican France.As a result, one of France's most elite group armies (170000 people) fell without fighting on October 27, 1870, 72 days after being encircled by Meis.EngelsIt pointed out that "... this is an unprecedented event in the history of war"（《Complete Works of Marx and Engels》Volume 17,People's Publishing House1963, p. 166).The Prussian army pressed the two group armies freed from this to the French Loire Group Army and the Northern Group Army, both of which were defeated by the main force of the Prussian army.Because Bazan surrendered, the French government had no intention of organizing defense and conducting secret truce negotiations with the enemy, and the people were hungry and trapped, so the people of Paris held an uprising on October 31, but it was suppressed. On November 7, 1870, the Loire Group Army launched an attack. On November 9, 1870, the enemy Bavarian Second Army was defeated near Kurm, and occupiedOrleansHowever, on December 4, it was counterattacked by the general army and forced to withdraw from Orleans.
In January 1871, the French Northern Army Group was defeated near San Cantan, and the Eastern Army Group was defeated near Belfort.The French war went from bad to worse and was in dire straits.
From December 27, 1870, the Prussian army used 502 heavy artillery to bombard Paris.The Paris defenders were trapped for four months.During this period, they used balloons (65 balloons carried 164 people out of Paris successively, including those who were determined to resist the war of resistancegambetta ）Keep in touch with carrier pigeons and field army groups.
On January 22, 1871, the residents of Paris held another uprising.After the French government suppressed the uprising, it conducted final negotiations with the command of the Prussian army, signed a treaty on the surrender of Paris on January 26, and signed an armistice agreement on January 28.Most of the artillery forts of the Paris Fortress, together with artillery and ammunition, were handed over to the German army with an indemnity of 200 million francs.On February 26, the Treaty of Versailles was initialled.Before the National Assembly approved the draft peace treaty, the Germans obtained the right to send their troops into Paris. These troops did not withdraw from Paris until March 3, when the peace treaty was approved.On March 18, the Paris people's uprising was successful,paris commune(1871) The commune was proclaimed and existed until May 28.On May 10, Germany and France signedFrankfurt Peace Treaty(1871), confirming the basic provisions of the draft Treaty of Versailles[2]However, the conditions are more stringent. The compensation will be increased from 200 million francs to 5 billion francs, and will be cededAlsace LorraineMost of the area.
War analysis
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The war plan of the PLA is thorough;Sufficient soldiers;Rapid mobilization and assembly;The equipment is superior to that of the French army (after the French army physically tested the superiority of the French Shaspo type needle gun, the French army withdrew the troops beyond the range of the French infantry, and used superior steelKrupp Cannon Beat the French).By 1870, it was very difficult for an army to get close to the enemy. The French infantry attacked the French army and the French light cavalry attacked the positions of the French army, both of which suffered heavy casualties. The reason for the final victory of the French army was its artillery on the one hand and its military strength on the other, allowing them to use flanks to encircle.
Prussia's railway network is of great significance to the military.The British military scientist said: "The superior transport capacity of the German railway system was a powerful factor in its victory in 1870." In all campaigns of the Franco Prussian War, it was difficult to win the frontal attack, and it was necessary to mobilize superior forces to outflank the enemy from both wings.Mobilizing a large number of troops for encirclement requires rapid mobilization of troops, and the transportation capacity must keep up.The developed railway network in Prussia not only can quickly transport a large number of troops to the front and assemble them in the battle area, but also can make the supplies of the troops timely supplemented.Compared with Prussia, there is a big gap in the railway transport capacity of France.After the war broke out, it failed to mobilize enough troops in time.At the beginning of August 1870, when the 370000 Prussian troops led by Maoqi crossed the border, France could only fight with more than 240000 troops.According to another information, on August 2, 1870, France could only have 265000 soldiers on the border, while Prussia had gathered 500000 troops on the Rhine.The important relationship between railway transportation and military affairs.As General Dai Laigai pointed out in his book Modern War, "When a country organizes its own border defense, the first thing to consider is not to enclose the territory with fortresses, but to make the railway network cover the whole territory, so as to ensure that troops can be concentrated as quickly as possible."[4]The North German coalition led by Prussia always has a 2-1 advantage in terms of the number of soldiers in the war.The War in the History of Europe even said that the total force invested by the North German Allied Forces was 1.2 million, more than twice that of Napoleon's invasion of Russia.
Napoleon III's postwar talks with Bismarck in Sedang
The reason for the victory and defeat of both sides in the Franco Prussian War was that although the quality of France's standing troops was better than that of the conscripts of the French armyPolitical corruptionThe war plan is not well planned, and the military establishment is unreasonable (except for the guard army, there is no division and army level establishment in peacetime, and the army is formed only when facing the battle);Slow mobilization and assembly;The logistics supply is backward and the battle command is chaotic.This war shows that it is useless to rely solely on professional soldiers. The national army should be under the control of careful and strategic generals. The number advantage has once again become a key factor in determining the outcome of the war[5]。
War Impact
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On January 18, 1871, King William I of Prussia was crowned emperor at Versailles, and the German Empire was founded.On 28, the two warring parties signed an armistice agreement, a preliminary peace treaty was signed on 26 February, and the Frankfurt Peace Treaty was officially signed on 10 May.The treaty stipulates that France will pay 5 billion francs in compensation and cede Alsace (excluding Belfort) and eastern Lorraine (including Fort Mays).During this period, the people of Paris held another armed uprising on March 18, establishing the first proletarian regime in the world, the Paris Commune, but was suppressed 72 days later.Through the war, Germany basically achieved unification and became a major power in Europe;France lost its hegemony on the European continent.The contradiction between Germany and France has further intensified, laying a hidden danger for a new and larger military conflict.The war shows that the implementation of the universal compulsory military service system is of great significance to the mobilization of the army and the preparation for war. Railway transportation has improved the mobility and logistics support capabilities of the army, artillery has shown its power in battle, and the General Staff has played an important role in guiding the war.[6]
paris commune
The founding of the German Empire
International political situation
The Franco Prussian War broke the relatively stable balance of power in Europe. The rise of the German Empire and the decline of France changed the balance of colonial power, thus intensifying the contradictions among the great powers and prompting the colonial countries to readjust their relations with each other.Germany tries to isolate France and encircle unstable countries with a united EuropeFrench RepublicIn 1873, the Three Kingdoms officially formed the "Three Emperors Alliance", realizing the purpose of isolating and weakening France.As the competition for colonies intensified, the relationship between the three countries gradually deteriorated. After the Berlin Conference in 1878, the "Three Emperors Alliance" collapsed.In 1882, Germany and Austria formed a three country alliance. At the same time, France and Britain and Russia gradually approached each other, formingThree country agreement。Thus forming two major cities in Europemilitary blocThe two major military groups madly expanded their troops to prepare for war, which further aggravated the contradictions between the imperialist countries and eventually led to the outbreak of World War I[3]。
War significance
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Frankfurt Peace TreatyThe clauses of the World War I (1914-1918) were very harsh, which deepened the contradiction between France and Germany and eventually became a reason for the outbreak of the First World War (1914-1918).The experience of the Franco Prussian War shows thatUniversal compulsory military serviceFor building a large army and making it well prepared in advancewar preparationIt is of great significance. The General Staff has played a great role in preparing and implementing operations. The preparation of mobilization plans and railway transportation plans, as well as the use of telegrams in military affairs, are of special significance. The German army was able to complete mobilization and strategic deployment ahead of the other party by relying on the above measures, thus mastering the strategic initiative.military commandThere are also changes.Maoqi did not command the group armies by issuing centralized and unified orders, but issued individual instructions to the commanders of the group armies, who acted according to the instructions and the specific conditions of the region.The army can fight in a broad front, and can implement the maneuver of encircling the enemy's wings.The practice of a large number of troops working together on a broad front shows more and more clearly the characteristics of modern campaigns.During the Franco Prussian War, new combat weapons and more sophisticated weapons (German artillery and French Chassepot) had a significant impact on the development of military academia.The infantry battle formation continues to be improved, and the skirmish line formation is being used more and more widely.The enhancement of firepower has greatly enhanced the stability of the military defense, increased the difficulty for the enemy to break through the defense line, and improved the role of tactical mobility.After the Franco Prussian War, many countries implemented a universal conscription system.
The Franco Prussian War broke the old European pattern, and the new pattern needs to be reassembled.This process reflects not only the changes in strategic status and strategic objectives caused by the changes in the strength of major European countries, but also the fierce diplomatic conflicts and secret transactions between major countries.Around the evolution of the triangular relationship between Germany, France and Russia, two major imperialist military groups were formed. The "weak" France, after trying to get rid of its strategic isolation, also had quite innovative diplomatic characteristics at that time, which attracted wide attention and still deserved serious discussion and reflection[3]。
