synonymPeasant War in the Late Ming Dynasty(The peasant war at the end of the Ming Dynasty) generally indicates the peasant uprising at the end of the Ming Dynasty
Peasant Uprising in the Late Ming DynastyThe Northern Shaanxi Uprising broke out in the seventh year of Tianqi (1627) at the end of the Ming Dynasty, and the thirteen Kuidong families completely failed in the third year of Kangxi (1664).[92]Also known as the peasant war in the late Ming Dynasty[1]The civil commotion in the late Ming Dynasty[2]Civil Revolt in the Late Ming Dynasty[3]Etc.
At the end of the Ming Dynasty, natural and man-made disasters continued to occur, and class contradictions became increasingly acute.The Ming court facedHuang TaijiIn order to save money and streamline the organization, the Ming government was forced to reform the post office due to the threats outside the border and the famine in the mainlanddroughtPeople can't live, they have to take risks.The peasant uprising in the late Ming Dynasty first broke out inNorthern Shaanxi。The land here is barren and the production is backward,taxesandCorveeSerious, plus years of occurrenceFamineTherefore, it led to the peasant uprising.[4]
After the Qing army entered the customs, the peasant army adoptedLianming Anti QingDecision of.[6]However, due to the limitations and strategic mistakes of the peasantry, coupled with the crazy suppression of the Qing army and the landlord class, the peasant uprising finally failed.[7]
The peasant war at the end of the Ming Dynasty dealt a heavy blow to the decadent forces of the Ming Dynasty.[8]The 2 million peasant revolutionary army fought hard with the landlord class army in the vast area of more than ten provinces in the north and south of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River.The peasant army further proposed“Equal farmland tax exemption”The slogan of the Chinese ancient peasants' anti feudal struggle has entered a new stage.
Name
Peasant Uprising in the Late Ming Dynasty, Peasant War in the Late Ming Dynasty, etc
Time of occurrence
1627
Location
Northern Shaanxi, Central Plains, Huguang and Southwest China
At the end of the Ming Dynasty, all kinds of social contradictions intensified unprecedentedly, which was prominently manifested in the class contradictions between the peasants and the landlord class.For example: FuwangZhu ChangxunThe palace built in Luoyang cost 280000 taels of silver;When Zhu Changxun surrendered to the vassal, he also receivedMing ShenzongForty thousand hectares of prime farmland.Zhu Changxun is not satisfied.He fought with the people in Luoyang for profits. When the people suffered from famine, they were reluctant to give money for relief.[12]
Squeezed by the decadent feudal landlord class, resistance and struggle emerged in endlessly throughout the country, for example;In 1588, an uprising of tens of thousands of peasants led by Liu Ruguo broke out at the junction of Anhui, Jiangxi and Hubei;In 1589, Li Yuanlang and Wang Zilong rebelled in Shixing and Wengyuan, Guangdong;In 1599, 1604, 1606 and 1622, there were large-scale riots in Zhejiang, Fujian, Nanjing and Shandong.In 1627, the famine uprising in Chengxian County, northern Shaanxi, opened the prelude to the peasant uprising at the end of the Ming Dynasty with the participation and leadership of Li Zicheng.[13]Shaanxi became the center of peasant uprising.
Strict taxation and land merger
After the middle of the Ming Dynasty, the bankruptcy of the state finance and the increase of taxes, the continuous withdrawal of Taicang silver for their own enjoyment, and even the import of Tibetan silver from the external treasury into the Ministry of Finance, led to the internal and external difficulties of the state finance and faced bankruptcy.[14]In order to cope with the increasing military expenditure, the imperial court continuously increased taxes. The ruling class of the Ming Dynasty dispatched a large number of mine tax supervisors nationwide in the name of collecting mineral taxes, collecting exorbitant taxes and profiting from the people.It increased the burden on the people and accelerated the intensification of class contradictions.[15]
From the royal family to the officials, gentry and landlords, the annexation of land became more and more rampant, and they relied on political power to occupy a large number of official land and private land.The emperor set up many imperial manors in Jifu area.Through "begging" and accepting "offering", the royal princes, xunqi and eunuchs also occupied a large area of land across the county and became the largest land occupiers in the country.[16]
Organizational system defects
The apparent reasons for the outbreak of the peasant uprising in the late Ming Dynasty were the rapid development of the commodity economy and the sharp increase of the degree of exploitation, the contradictions between farmers and landlords, the contradictions between various social strata and feudal rulers, and the intensification of contradictions.The deep contradiction lies in the system of eunuch and tax system in the middle and late Ming Dynasty.[17]
The corruption of the military system
The disadvantages of the military garrison system in the system of garrison reclamation were exposed later. The first one was the withholding of food and pay. In the late Ming Dynasty, it was a very common phenomenon for generals to withhold the food and pay of their soldiers. They used their income to live a rotten life, and bribed military officials, surveillance eunuchs, and military officials to seek promotion or exonerate themselves;Secondly, the garrison reclamation of the army was mostly occupied by officers, tyrants and internal supervisors, which made the army lose the source of food. This determined that the contradiction between the people who occupied the army fields and the soldiers would inevitably intensify. There were many frictions in peacetime, and it was impossible to achieve unity in wartime;[18]The third is the corruption of military discipline. One of the important manifestations of the corruption of military discipline is "killing good people and taking credit", so the officers and soldiers often massacre unarmed civilians.[14]It is said in the historical records, "Today, when officials and soldiers come here, they rob merchants, search for residents, prostitute women, and burn houses in the name of food. People are more afraid of soldiers than thieves."[19]；The fourth time, the mutiny at the end of the Ming Dynasty was an important manifestation of the ruling crisis.Since Wanli, incidents of mutiny in the army due to lack of pay have been heard from time to time.During the apocalyptic period, there were also mutinies in Funing, Hangzhou and other places, as well as mutinies in Yutian County, Hebei Province to assist the Liao army.[18]
The climate of China since the 17th century, when the Ming DynastyThe Little Ice Age of the Ming DynastyFrom the late Wanli period to the Tianqi period, the climate in China became significantly colder, the sandstorms in the north became more and more serious, the drought increased year by year, and the agricultural harvest dropped sharply.[9]At the same time, the temperature in the Central Plains and the rainfall in the northern farming and pastoral areas reached the lowest point since the Qin and Han Dynasties.The whole late Ming Dynasty was accompanied by drought, cold current, locust, flood, plague, plague, etc. Since then, the climate in the Central Plains has continued to decline, the world is in chaos, and wolves are rising.[10-11]
Direct cause
Announce
edit
In the middle and late Ming Dynasty, with the overall corruption of the official administration, the post delivery system also had many disadvantages.When officials of all sizes come and go on the road, they order the post station to provide more than the actual needs, and the excess part will be converted into silver and put into private pockets, which will increase the burden of post station personnel.Later, under the auspices of Liu Mao, the imperial court issued new rules on the use of post office delivery, and announced the reduction of post office funds. With the reduction of post office funds, the phenomenon of post office men closing their bellies and post horses falling dead has become more and more serious. A large number of strong men who used to rely on post office delivery to make a living were forced to flee, and a considerable part of them joined the peasant uprising.[14]
Shaanxi has long been the focus of social contradictions throughout the country. The vassal kings of the Ming Dynasty levied exorbitant taxes on farmers, and farmers lived in more hardship than their regions, with sharp class contradictions.This area is also an area where Mongolian, Han and Hui people live together. It is a place of fierce ethnic struggle. People of all ethnic groups have deep conflicts with the rulers of the Ming Dynasty.Therefore, Shaanxi has become the first region to brew and break out peasant disputes.Under such social conditions, with Shaanxi as the center, peasant uprisings, mutinies by soldiers and strikes by artisans continued to take place all over the country, which prepared the necessary conditions for the peasant war at the end of the Ming Dynasty.
Li ZichengSince childhood, I was forced to give it to a landlord named Ai because of debtshepherd。Later, he worked as a courier in Yinzhou (now Mizhi County).At the age of 21, he wounded the landlord and fled to Ganzhou, Gansu (now Ganzhou District, Zhangye City) to join the army.[20]At that time, peasant uprisings broke out everywhere in the country.
In March of the seventh year of the Apocalypse (1627), Shaanxi suffered a severe drought. Zhang Douyao, the magistrate of Chengcheng, despite the death or life of hungry people, still pressed for taxes and squeezed farmers.Wang Er, a Baishui famine victim, gathered hundreds of peasants who could not survive to fight. He asked everyone, "Who dares to kill the magistrate?" Everyone said with one voice, "I dare to kill." So Wang Er led the famine victims to rush to the county seat and kill Zhang Douyao, opening the prelude to the peasant war in the late Ming Dynasty.
Beacon fire is everywhere
After Wang Eryi revolted, many places responded.In the first year of Chongzhen (1628), Wang Jiayin of Shaanfugu, Wang Daliang of Hanan, Gao Yingxiang of Ansai and other leaders led the uprising of hungry people, and Shaanxi responded.[21]Zhang Xianzhong also revolted in Mizhi, Yan'an, and later Zicheng joined Gao Yingxiang's army.[22]Wang Jiayin's Rebellion was the most influential during this period. They once occupied Fugu and established a temporary revolutionary regime.However, the peasant uprising army did not have a unified command and fought separately, but its composition was complex. It lacked a clear goal of overthrowing the Ming Dynasty's regime, and was still in a strategic defensive situation nationwide.
ChongzhenIn July of the first year (1628),Wang Jiayin、Yang Liu、No mudAnd held the flag for the first time in Fugu, Shaanxi and other places,[23]From the first year of Chongzhen to the third year of Chongzhen,Gao Yingxiang、Zhang Xianzhong、Li ZichengThere were more than 100 rebel troops in Shaanxi.Thousands of officers and soldiers on the border also joined the Rebellion and became the backbone because of the mutiny due to lack of pay.At this time, the Rebels fought spontaneously and blindly.Ming TinglingTrilateral GovernorCraneAdopt the strategy of "suppressing and pacifying at the same time, focusing on pacifying".However, the Ming court was unable to feed a large number of hungry people. Those who had already been pacified began to rise again.Yang He was jailed for this, and Hong Chengchou succeeded in supervising Shaanxi and adopted the policy of "suppressing the strong and pacifying first and then pacifying" to concentrate his forces on attacking Shaanxi Rebels.
The rebel armies of various ministries have successively moved eastward,Li Zicheng、Zhang XianzhongAround 1630, he also joined the Rebellion.[24]In the third year of Chongzhen (1630), Zhang Xianzhong revolted in Mizhi Shibazhai, Shaanxi, claiming to be the "Eight Kings".[25]Li Zicheng also killed corrupt officials and rebelled against them. He became an "adventurer" in the uprising army led by Gao Yingxiang.
Defeat and courage from time to time
The Northern Shaanxi Uprising shocked the rulers of the Ming Dynasty. Emperor Chongzhen planned to use the strategy of suppression and pacification to quell the peasant uprising as soon as possible. Yang He, the governor of the three sides, implemented the policy of mainly pacifying, supplemented by suppression, in an attempt to disrupt the peasant revolution.In addition to heroic sacrifice, many leaders of the rebel army in Shaanxi battlefield accepted the imperial court's invitation to pacify them, presenting a situation of surrender and rebellion.
From the fourth year of Chongzhen's reign (1631) to the sixth year of Chongzhen's reign (1633), in order to avoid the main force of the Ming army, Wang Jiayin led the army into Shanxi, and the center of the uprising was transferred to Shanxi.Operations have also evolved from extremely decentralized and isolated to relatively centralized and responsive.After Wang Jiayin's sacrifice, Wang Yong joined forces with more than 200000 people from Gao Yingxiang, Zhang Xianzhong, Li Zicheng, Luo Rucai and other departments, known as the 36 Battalions, and once defeatedDaning、Xizhou, ZezhouShouyangWait for the city.[26]As the fighting continued in Shanxi, the peasant uprising army moved from a separate state to a cooperative stage.
In the winter of the sixth year of Chongzhen (1633),Used by Wang himselfAt the expense of battle, the Rebellion, under the leadership of Gao Yingxiang, launched a fierce battle with the Ming army, which caused great losses.More than 100000 people from 24 battalions, including Gao Yingxiang, Zhang Xianzhong, Luo Rucai and Li Zicheng, broke through the military encirclement and moved to the west of Henan and the north of Chu, where the Ming army was weakYunyangAs the center, the branches come and go between Henan, Chu, Sichuan and Shaanxi, and take advantage of the weakness of the separation of officers and troops to guard the border, which is not coordinated with each other, to carry out guerrilla mobile operations.In dealing with the Ming army, the Ming army had to guard the passes separately, and was too poor to pursue and suppress. It fell into the dilemma of too long a front and scattered troops.The growing force of the Rebel Army declared the bankruptcy of the Ming Dynasty's appeasement policy. To change the passive situation of "different powers and mutual wait-and-see", the Ming court adopted the policy of "concentrating forces and comprehensively surrounding and suppressing".[27]
In the seventh year of Chongzhen (1634)Chen QiyuAs the governor of five provinces, he commanded the Shaanxi, Shanxi, Yuchuan and Huguang government troops in a unified way, and attacked from all sides in an attempt to wipe out all the rebel troops at one fell swoop.Rebels moved into Hanzhong one after another, and the encirclement and suppression failed.Emperor Sizong of the Ming Dynasty removed Chen Qiyu and succeeded him as governor of the five provinces with Hong Chengchou.When they mobilized officers and troops into Shaanxi and reorganized the siegeLi ZichengThey still insisted on moving outside Shaanxi and Gansu, and other ministries moved into Henan again.[28]In order to change the passive situation, Hong Chengchou surrounded the central area of the uprising with heavy troops. Hong Chengchou led the main force out of the pass to pursue.The key attack was carried out, and Gao Yingxiang's Rebellion was successively defeated by Queshan, Zhuxian Town (today's southwest of Kaifeng City) and other places, and was forced to move into the western mountainous areas.
Fighting in the Central Plains
Hong Chengchou
In the eighth year of Chongzhen (1635), the Ming Dynasty SchoolHong ChengchouOut of Shaanxi,Zhu DadianOut of Shandong, the insurgents were attacked on both sides.The insurgents deeply felt that only joint operations could be powerful, and all the insurgents joined forces in HenanXingyangA total of 13 families, 72 battalions, discuss the strategy against the enemy together.[29]The Rebels marched in three directions: one to Shaanxi in the west, one to Shanxi in the north, and one to the eastFengyang（SeeFengyang Battle）, burn down the imperial mausoleum.[30]
Gao YingxiangZhang XianzhongWhen officials and soldiers were trapped in Shaanxi, they entered Henan three times.The Ming court realized that it was difficult to successfully encircle and suppress the Rebels in an all-round way under the condition of mobile operations, and changed to the policy of taking responsibility in different areas and focusing on attacks.withLu XiangshengHe is the governor of five provinces, ruling the Central Plains exclusively;Hong Chengchou ruled the northwest, taking charge of each other and cooperating with each other.The winter of that year and the spring of the ninth year,Gao YingxiangZhang Xianzhong failed consecutively in Henan, lost more than half of his troops, and the remnants returned to Shaanxi.[31]At this point,Li ZichengHe also lost many times in Xingping and other places.In order to strengthen the offensive in Shaanxi, the Ming court orderedSun ChuantingAttack all the departments of Gao and Zhang in HanzhongHong ChengchouLi Zicheng and other troops in northern Shaanxi were specially attacked.In July, Gao Yingxiang was inZhouzhi County）Sun Chuanting, the governor of Shaanxi Province, ambushed and died, and the rest went back to Li Zicheng.At this time, the Qing army entered the border and brokeChangpingWait for 16 cities,Zhu YoujianUrgent toneLu XiangshengLed the army to rescue, reducing the pressure on the Central Plains.Zhang XianzhongTake the opportunity to recover, join forces with Luo Rucai and other departments, more than 200000 people, march eastward along the river, and disperse activities inQizhou, Huoshan area.[32]
After the sacrifice of Gao Yingxiang, the Rebellion Army gradually became two powerful brigades, one led by Zhang Xianzhong, and operated in Hubei, Anhui, and Henan;The other branch, led by Li Zicheng, is active in Gansu, Ningxia and Shaanxi.
Ruzhou Campaign
In the 10th year of Chongzhen era (1637), Zhu Youjian, the Emperor Sizong of the Ming Dynasty, ordered him againXiong WenchanPremier of five provincesimperial guards1200 people organized a new encirclement and suppression campaign.Li Zicheng marched into Sichuan and destroyed more than ten cities at one time. However, when he returned to Shaanxi in 1638 (the 11th year of Chongzhen's reign), under the siege of Hong Chengchou's superior forces, the uprising army suffered great losses.[33]Li Zicheng defeated Zitong and guarded Minzhou (now Minxian County, Gansu Province) and Lintao.In the same year, he was attacked by Hong Chengchou and Sun Chuanting's army in the Taohe area, and was defeated in Minzhou.At the same time, Zhang Xianzhong also servedZuo LiangyuDefeat the army and retreat after being woundedGucheng。[34]Xiong Wenchan then changed encirclement and suppression to appeasement.Liu Guoneng、Zhang Tianlin, Zhang Xianzhong, Luo Rucai, successively sent down the Ming Dynasty or gave them a massage.In order to preserve the strength of the Rebellion,Li ZichengThe peasant uprising fell into a low tide when he led the remnants of the army to move in the border mountainous areas of Sichuan and Shaanxi.In September of the 11th year of Chongzhen (1638), the Qing army entered the border in two ways, and the capital was under martial law. Hong ChengchouSun ChuantingLed the army into the garrison, and the number of officers and soldiers in the northwest decreased.
After a year of recuperation, Zhang Xianzhong, together with Luo Rucai and Zhang Tianlin, rose again in the 12th year of Chongzhen (1639) to destroy Fang CountyPowcan , onLuomonkey Mountain(now southeast of Zhushan County, Hubei Province) annihilated Zuo Liangyu, the main force of the Ming army.[35]Zhu You Inspects and Kills Xiong Wenchan, and Dispatchs Military Department SecretaryYang SichangSupervise the army to suppress.
At the beginning of the 13th year of Chongzhen (1640), Luo Rucai defeated the army in Xiangyouping, but soonZhang XianzhongThey were successively defeated by Manao Mountain and Kuizhou, and were forced to transfer to Sichuan.[36]Yang Sichang led the main force to pursue Sichuan.Li Zicheng took the opportunity to enter Henan in November and rapidly developed into tens of thousands of people.At this time of the peasant army's uprising, the superior officers and troops were always in the strategic offensive position, while the peasant army was in the position of fighting against encirclement and suppression and seeking survival.All departments are in harmony at different times, from east to west, looking for gaps and weak points to attack, so as to mobilize exhausted enemies, form local advantages in campaigns and battles at favorable times, attack and weaken the enemy unexpectedly, and preserve and develop themselves in the fight.
Entering Beijing to destroy the Ming Dynasty
The battle of Li Zicheng's march into the capital
After 13 yearsguerrilla warfareThe mobile operations gradually concentrated until the end of the 13th year of Chongzhen (1640)Li Zicheng、Zhang Xianzhong、Luo RucaiLed by several peasant armies.In the repeated ups and downs of war practice, it has gradually matured.Li Zicheng, in particular, absorbed the opinions of intellectuals and began to implement the strategy of "benevolence and justice, winning the hearts of the people" and "taking the world according to Heluo".Politically implement the policies of "free food", "pacify the people" and "buy and sell", and vigorously carry out propaganda work to disrupt the enemy, forming a situation of "all the people attach themselves to thieves rather than soldiers", militarily implement mobile operations, and start mobile attacks on strategic points of the blind army.[37]
At the beginning of the 14th year of Chongzhen (1641), Luoyang was captured.After Li Zicheng captured Luoyang, he collected a number of weapons and supplies, greatly improved the equipment of the peasant army, and made himself a well-equipped army.He confiscated gold, silver and a large number of food supplies in King Fu's Mansion, and issued a notice to open a warehouse to help the poor, so that the hungry people could eat at a distance.[38]Li Zicheng and Zhang Xianzhong successively occupied Luoyang and Xiangyang, declaring the bankruptcy of the Ming Dynasty's encirclement and suppression policy.Zhang and Luo's allied forces defeated the army in SichuanKaixianHuanglingLater, at the speed of 300 li a night, he got rid of the chasing army and returned to Chu to attack Xiangyang in February（SeeBattle of Xiangyang），Yang SichangFear of sin and commit suicide.Luo Rucai Appears Due to DisagreementLi Zicheng。Zhang Jun was defeated in Xinyang and moved to Anhui.Li Zicheng attacked Kaifeng three times from the 14th year of Chongzhen (1641) to the 16th year of Chongzhen (1643)（SeeBattle of Kaifeng）, the main force of the five annihilators, attacked Xiangyang, andBattle of RuzhouMedium total annihilationSun ChuantingMain force: brokenTongguan, entered Xi'an, occupied the whole territory of Qin, Gansu and the mountainous areas of western Shanxi, and incorporated most of the trilateral army.[39]At this point,Zhang XianzhongHanyang and Wuchang have also been captured.The strategic situation changed qualitatively, and the peasant army began to turn to strategic attack.
At the beginning of the 17th year of Chongzhen (1644), Li Zicheng established in Xi'anDashun regimeLater, they marched to Beijing.[40]Entering Shanxi in February, onlyNingwuIn the first battle, Taiyuan and other places will be destroyed.March,da tong、Xuanfu, I came down from my seat and forced myself to the capital city.[41]On the 17th, the officers and soldiersThree campsFirst, on the 18th, the city guard eunuch opened the door to offer the city. On the 19th, the city was brokenImperial cityZhu Youjian hanged himself, and the rule of the Ming Dynasty was overthrown by a peasant uprising.[42]Zhang Xianzhong's Ministry also captured Chengdu in August of that year and establishedDaxi regime。[43]
Li ZichengAfter entering Beijing, the situation is how to eliminate the remaining forces of the Ming Dynasty, the strongest of which is entrenched inShanhaiguanOfNingyuanCommanderWu Sangui。Wu Sangui is to surrenderDashunIn early April of the 17th year of Chongzhen's reign (1644), when it was reported that the Dashun Army had arrested Minister Mingxun and Qi in Beijing, severely punished him, recovered stolen money and money, and detained his family members, they were beaten awayTang Tong, deploy defense and beg for soldiers from the Qing army outside the Shanhaiguan Pass.Cooperate with the Qing army to suppress the uprising army.[44]In April, Li Zicheng led an army to attack Wu Sangui, and fought fiercely at Shanhaiguan Pass（SeeShanhaiguan Battle）。Under the joint attack of the Manchu and Han armies, Li Zicheng failed and withdrew to Beijing.On the 29th, he was proclaimed emperor in a hurry, and the country was founded successfully. The next day, he withdrew from Beijing[45]。After Li Zicheng withdrew from Beijing, he planned to implement a strategic retreat and plundered the city of Beijing,[46]Enter Xi'an via Pingyang and Hancheng, Shanxi.[47]
In the winter of the first year of Shunzhi (1644), the Qing army attacked Xi'an in two ways, and Tongguan fell in the first month of the next year,Li ZichengFrom Xi'an to Wuchang via Xiangyang.In the third year of Shunzhi (1646), the Qing army entered Sichuan from southern Shaanxi and attackedWestern Army，Zhang XianzhongHe left Chengdu in July of the next year, went north to fight against the Qing army, and died in Phoenix Mountain (now SichuanNanxi CountyNorth).[48]
Facing the southward movement of the Qing army, the rest of the Dashun army appeared at the forefront of the anti Qing struggle.Li Zicheng died in battle in May of the first year of Hongguang (1645)Jiugong MountainAfter that, the rest of it consists of two branches and one routeHao Huanqi、Yuan Zongdi、Li LaihengAnd other leaders in Dongting Lake area and Hubei Xingshan area;Another routeLi Guo、High first meritLeaders, activities in the Hunan Hubei Jiangxi region.Yu MingHuguanggovernorHe Tengjiao, Governor of Hubei in Ming DynastyBlocking Yin tinJoint anti Qing.
After Zhang Xianzhong died in the battleLi Dingguo、Liu Wenxiu、InnoqiThe rest of the Great Western Army, which was dominated by others, was appointed by the Duke of Guizhou in the fourth year of Shunzhi's reign (1647)Mu TianboIt entered Yunnan to pacify the chieftain rebellion;The rest of the Western Army occupies the whole territory of Yunnan and Guizhou provinces and one part of Sichuan Province.
In 1652, the Yongli regime accepted the proposal of Sun Kewang and Li Dingguo to unite against the Qing Dynasty, and made the capital Anlong Mansion.Soon, the Ming army, with the rest of the Western Army as the main body, launched a comprehensive counterattack against the Qing army.
The uprising failed
Although the peasant army and the Nanming regime united to fight against the Qing Dynasty, the various political forces in the Nanming Dynasty criticized each other, and the peasant army was also hit by exclusion, unable to unite against the enemy, which gave the Qing army a breathing space.[47]
In the sixth year of Shunzhi (1649), the Qing army went south,He TengjiaoHe was captured in Xiangtan and killed in Changsha six days later.The Qing army reoccupied the following yearHuguangOther newly recovered lost lands have also been lost.The Ming army failed to expand its achievements on the three battlefields of Sichuan, Hunan and Fujian, and fell into a stalemate with the Qing army.In the 13th year of Shunzhi's reign (1656), Sun Kewang plotted to usurp the throne, which triggered internal strife in the Southern Ming Dynasty,Li DingguoEmbraceEmperor YongliWhen he arrived in Yunnan, he defeated Sun Kewang badly the next year.After Sun Kewang's surrender to the Qing Dynasty, all military information in the southwest was available to the Qing court, and all the facts in Yunnan and Guizhou were known to the Qing army.The Qing army concentrated its forces to suppress the peasant army. In the first month of the 16th year of Shunzhi's reign (1659), the Qing army went to Kunming and occupied Yunnan. Emperor Yongli fled to Myanmar in February,Wu SanguiZhao Butai and Shang Shan led the Qing army to fight against Li Dingguo in Mopan Mountain in western Yunnan.This actually marked the demise of Nanming, when Nanming had no foothold in China.
On April 15 of the first year of Kangxi (1662), Emperor Yongli and his son Zhu Cixuan were hanged by Wu Sangui in Kunming;Li Dingguostaychenla Hearing the news of the death of Emperor Yongli, he also died of grief and anger.In August of the third year of Kangxi (1664),Kuidong Thirteen SchoolsThe resistance to the Qing Dynasty failed,Li LaihengThe whole family burned themselves, the resistance of the Ming Dynasty in the mainland ended, and the rest of the peasant army in the late Ming Dynasty completely failed.[47]
Historical evaluation
Announce
edit
positive
military concept
The peasant war at the end of the Ming Dynasty was the longest, largest, sharpest and most far-reaching peasant war in ancient Chinese history.[49]
The most typical tactic of the peasant war at the end of the Ming Dynasty was mobile warfare, which had great advantages. The Rebel Army was in harmony at different times, appearing and disappearing mysteriously, which made the Ming Army exhausted.Although the Ming army was superior in numberGovernorAndMilitary ministerThere are contradictions. The military and government are corrupt, the army has no combat effectiveness, and the troops are divided into separate operations. In specific campaigns, they are often only a fraction of the insurgents, and often fail.
The peasant army has made proper use of strategic strategies,MianchiThe breakthrough completed the strategic transfer, and later changed from mobile operations to positional warfare, avoiding adverse conditions and turning passive into active.The insurgent army has strict discipline and strong combat effectiveness, which is in sharp contrast to the Ming army.
Attacking the landlord class
After 1949, the traditional view of history believed that,Li ZichengThe peasant revolution under the leadership hit the landlord class heavily;To curb the highly concentrated development of land, so that the peasantsPersonal attachmentRelaxation;Raised in the uprising“equal land”Slogan since Tang and Song Dynastiespeasant 's warA new development ofLand ownershipThis is the first time in the history of the Chinese peasant war, marking that the peasant war in the feudal society of China has entered a new historical stage.The peasant uprising at the end of the Ming Dynasty has written a glorious page in the history of the Chinese people's revolutionary struggle.[50]
Every time the peasant army went to a place, it first killed the royal family. From the 14th to 17th year of ChongzhenMing dynasty Emperor Shenzong's son、Tang WangChongwangKing Min、Acting king, King of ShuKing of ChuAnd dozens of noble princes were killed by the whole peasant army.As for the princes and generals, countless people were killed.[63-64]Shanxi is only a microcosm.In fact, although Li Zicheng is famous for not killing people indiscriminately, few Ming Dynasty royal families survived when he fought.[65]Is conqueringLuoyangTime, FuwangZhu ChangxunIt was cut alive and mixed with deer blood in the wine, called "Fulu Wine", and drank happily.[66]In Xiangyang, Zhang Xianzhong captured the King of XiangZhu YimingAlthough Zhu Yiming knelt down to beg for life, Zhang Xianzhong did not spare his family.Zhang Xianzhong Defeats Wuchang and Captures the King of ChuZhu Huakui, sinking it alive in the West Lake, and burning nearly a thousand palaces and pavilions of the King of Chu.[65]Zhang Xianzhong's captureChangdeThe royal family of Rong King was killed.ConquerChongqingKill Zhu Changhao, the king of Shu, and his family.
In the war at the end of the Ming Dynasty, the death rate of the royal family also reached the highest in all social strata.In the late Ming Dynasty, the most prominent feature of the uprising army's killing of the members of the Ming royal family was its determination and thoroughness.As long as it isZhu YuanzhangTheir descendants, whether they surrender actively or capture passively, whether they don't kneel or struggle to survive, whether they refuse to tell the treasure location or happily give up all their wealth, will all be killed.In the history books, the words used to describe the encounter of the royal palace under the front of the army are "all", "all" and "all".[67]The historian concluded: "All the royal clans, regardless of whether they are good or bad, whether they are military or civilian, who are surnamed Zhu, are all killed, and there are no local gentry in the city.[68]”
negative
Nothingness of slogans
The peasant army spread everywhere, "Eat his mother, wear his mother, open the door to meet the intruder, and don't give food when he comes"[51]The slogan of "Equal field free of grain", which is an extreme egalitarian and anarchist slogan, can only further lead to the torture and wage collection of Dashun's military to raise military funds, so that on the way to Beijing, especially after entering Beijing, the government officials, dignitaries, rich businessmen, gentlemen, etc. of the Ming Dynasty were severely tortured and extorted money, causing social chaos and public unrest.[52]
And the peasant armyequal landThe slogan does not reflect the farmers' demand for land, but only demands to reduce taxes and corvees.The peasant army's policy of "cutting off the rich to help the poor" also "does not mean that the peasantry redistributes the land of the feudal landlords", but that it seizes the "floating wealth" of the landlord class and takes the landlord's "movable property such as food, gold, silver, clothing, etc." to help the poor.[53]
In the armed struggle of the late Ming Dynasty, whether the peasant army could consciously and positively raise the question of denying the feudal land ownership as the basis of feudal rule has always been a concern for future generations,[54]At the beginning of the 1960s, the historians had a discussion on the slogan of "equalizing land" of the peasant army in the late Ming Dynasty.Some scholars doubt whether the peasant army in the late Ming Dynasty ever put forward the slogan of "equal farmland", let alone put it into practice due to the current situation.[55]
Therefore, in addition to its wartime role of inspiring and appealing to the public, the simple slogan of "equal farmland free of grain" has much practical significance in the small peasant society at that time, and how long it can last, which needs to be seriously considered. The implementation of "equal farmland free of grain" should not be too idealistic.[56]
A long list of crimes
Some scholars pointed out that the peasant army, forced to make a living, should be praised for its resistance to tyranny.However, some literature points out that the burning, killing, looting and looting of the peasant army are more heinous than the official army. Although the history written by the feudal ruling class has stigmatized the peasant army, it can not cover up the fact that the peasant army has done evil everywhere under the banner of resisting the government.[57]For example, Zhang Xianzhong implemented more policies in Sichuan and other placesTyranny, slaughtered countless cities, almost killing Sichuan people;[58]The so-called disciplined Li ZichengWuguanTucheng；Where he went, "All people with wealth are broken; people with clothes cannot live in peace, even with five punishments, and the dead are everywhere"[59]。He's breakingYanshiAfter the massacre, most of the victims were ordinary people.[60]
Where the peasant army passed, the royal family, princes and princes of the Ming Dynasty were doomed.The most magnificent royal palaces in various places were almost destroyed in the continuous wars throughout the country.Taiyuan Commandant of the Ming DynastyGinger inlaySeeing and hearing, the peasant army "attacked, looted, burned, and prepared for great harm, especially the suzerain vassal";"The clan name of Yun (today's Datong, Shanxi) is more than four thousand. The intruders occupy the territory for six days, and the slaughter will be exhausted.[61-62]The "History of Southern Xinjiang" also said: "The sky is decorated in the Ming Dynasty, so the disaster of sacrifice is brought, and the slaughter is almost exhausted."
In ancient history books, all kinds of civil uprisings were recorded as "thieves".After 1949, many aspects of historical research were established by using the basic principles of Marxist class struggle theory,[69]After the supremacy of "peasant uprising", all "thieves" are understood as "uprisings".In fact, many of these bandits were robbers who gathered to rob in peacetime. They were extremely destructive and did not have any "uprising" program.[70]
Historical influence
Announce
edit
positive
The peasant war in the late Ming Dynasty was one of the famous peasant revolutionary movements in Chinese history in terms of its scale and influence;It is also a rare large-scale peasant war in Asia and around the world.At the same time, because it occurred at an important time in Chinese history, it has distinctive characteristics and significant historical role.[71]
Impact the old order and system
The peasant uprising army in the late Ming Dynasty and the Ming and Qing armies overthrew the Ming Dynasty and attacked the Qing Dynasty after more than 30 years of repeated battlesChinese farmersIt occupies an important position in the history of war and has played a certain role in promoting the development of social history.Although it ended in failure, like all the peasant wars in the history of China's founding society.However, the peasant uprisings in the late Ming Dynasty were not as long, large-scale, fierce and far-reaching as those in the past.[5]
The peasant war had a violent impact on and destruction of the old production relations and feudal order in the Ming Dynasty, opening the way for the recovery and development of social economy in the early Qing Dynasty.[8]The succeeding Qing Dynasty took the collapse of the Ming Dynasty as a reference, eliminated many political and economic evils of the Ming government, and took some measures conducive to the recovery and development of social production, thus promoting the development of Chinese society.[72]
Changing the relationship of land exploitation
The peasant war also changed the relationship of land exploitation, and had a certain impact on the development of urban industry and commerce.Li Zicheng's peasant army also noticed the problems of urban industry and commerce. For the first time in the history of the Chinese peasant war, he put forward the slogans of "buy and sell" and "fair trade" to protect the development of industry and commerce, reflecting the interests and requirements of urban industry and commerce.[8]
Li Zicheng's peasant army put forward the slogan of "equalization of land" for the first time, which deeply touched on the land problem in feudal society, promoted the peasants' spontaneous struggle for land, and had an important impact on the peasant uprising in the Qing Dynasty.[8]
Promote historiography research
The peasant war at the end of the Ming Dynasty also promoted the study of the Ming and Qing dynasties in the Chinese history circle, especially an important topic in the research field of the peasant war history since the founding of the Communist Party of China.I am afraid that the number of monographs, papers and popular reading materials published in the past three decades is only that of modern timesTaiping Heavenly KingdomThe revolutionary ability is comparable.[73]
Not only did he study the peasant war in the late Ming Dynasty at home, but also some overseas historians were keen on it.[74]
Strengthen cultural exchanges between regions
At the turn of the Ming and Qing dynasties, Li Zicheng, Zhang Xianzhong and other northwest farmers armed forces moved to the south, and the accompanying northwest operas were broadcast simultaneously as "military operas".This is the reason for the connection between the Eastern and Western Shaanxi Opera in Guangdong and the Northwest Shaanxi Opera.[75]
The acting activities of the peasant uprising troops in the late Ming Dynasty, which came with the flow of the war, are also the great migration of the art community itself, a dissemination, renewal and re integration of local opera tunes.The excavation of historical data shows that not only there were a large number of opera performances in the peasant uprising troops at the end of the Ming Dynasty, but also it can be inferred from the composition of the native place of the soldiers, the content of the plays performed and other elements that the Bangzi Opera was produced in the northwest of China in the peasant uprising troops at the end of the Ming Dynasty.Their acting activities objectively promoted the spread of local opera tunes, made substantial contributions to the prosperity of Huabu Opera in the Qing Dynasty, and provided a good historical opportunity for the ecological renewal of Chinese opera art.[76]
Later generations learn from history
In the first half of the 20th century,Mao Zedong、Chiang Kai shekIn the process of studying and reflecting on the peasant war at the end of the Ming Dynasty, Mao Zedong, standing on the position of peasants, affirmed the historical role of the peasant war, and found out some experiences and lessons that modern Chinese revolution should learn from its failure.On the other hand, Chiang Kai shek, standing in the position of the Ming Dynasty, denounced the peasant war and drew a conclusion from the demise of the Ming Dynasty that at the moment when Japanese imperialism invaded China“You must settle in before you fight outside”Conclusion.[77]
negative
At the end of the Ming Dynasty, the peasant wars also brought negative effects. Some people also pointed out that the peasant wars were not only not a historical motive force, but also more harmful to society, economy and culture than the corrupt and incompetent ruling class.In fact, some peasant uprisings hit the people hard,[78]
Disrupt order
At the end of the Ming Dynasty, the peasant war disrupted the feudal ruling order and led to the demise of a unified Ming Dynasty.The old order was broken, and in the next ten years, China could no longer organize to fight against the invasion of the Qing army, which eventually led to the destruction of the peasant army and the Nanming army together by the Qing army.In the later Qing Dynasty, due to the complex social contradictions, in order to consolidate its rule and prevent the resistance of the majority of Han people, the ruling order became more and more conservative, rigid, and even appearedShaving is easy to wearCultural fault.[79]
Destroy productivity
At the end of the Ming Dynasty, the role of the peasant war was also negative. The peasant war lasted for nearly 20 years, which not only caused heavy damage to the system and ruling order that existed in the Ming Dynasty, but also destroyed the agricultural production and development in all parts of the war zone.The battlefield of the peasant war in the late Ming Dynasty, on the one hand, has a large number of casualties, the agricultural production environment has been damaged, and the agricultural reproduction chain has been broken.[80]
After the large-scale peasant war, the social productivity has been in a state of stagnation and decline for a long time.There was also fragmentation and separatism, and the social productive forces were destroyed for a long time without promoting them.[70]
The peasant army at the end of the Ming Dynasty was no better than that in previous dynasties.
Destroy culture
In the places where the peasant army passed, the local gentry and Confucian scholars were impacted to varying degrees, and some private collections of books, as well as the historical materials and books in the Academy were destroyed.Some are lost or even destroyed.[81]
dispute
Announce
edit
Name
Because some of the main leaders who led the peasant war were not in the true sensea farmerTherefore, some people pointed out that the word "peasant" in the so-called "peasant war at the end of the Ming Dynasty" needs more discussion.[82]
Scope of activities of Li Zicheng
Some scholars pointed out that Li Zicheng had been active in Shaanxi since he broke through the Xing'an Chexiang Gorge in June of the seventh year of Chongzhen. He had not left the customs for eight, nine, ten and eleven years, and was not in Henan and Anhui.Therefore, the Henan Xingyang Conference, whose main content is Li Zicheng's resolution of the dispute between Ma Shouying and Zhang Xianzhong at the meeting and his proposal of the strategy of division and orientation, should be a nonexistent event;Li Zicheng also did not participate in and lead the campaigns of attacking Fengyang, burning the imperial mausoleum and encircling Chuzhou.Li Zicheng was the leader of an independent army from a very early age. He was not a general of Gao Yingxiang. Even if he had been a general of Gao, his time would be very short.It was said that after Gao Yingxiang died, Li Zicheng led his people and claimed to be the king, which was totally untrustworthy.[83]
Equal field free of grain
One of the important issues in studying the peasant war in the late Ming Dynasty is whether the peasant uprising army carried out the policy of "equal land".In recent years, the historiography community has been conducting research and discussion.The most clear historical record about Li Zicheng's army's practice of equalization of land is the Record of Sins, which said that Li Zicheng had implemented the "system of equalization of land between high and low" in the seventeenth year of Chongzhen, which shows that "equalization of land" is a system;According to the historical data about Li Zicheng's "cutting off the rich to help the poor" in the "Outline of Unleashing", it also demonstrates that the peasant army has indeed implemented the system of equal farmland.However, there is no record of how farmers implemented the "equal field" system after seizing land.[84]
In the peasant war at the end of the Ming Dynasty, Sichuan was the province that suffered the most from the war. Many forces hanged here, turning the land of abundance into a hell on earth, causing a large number of deaths.[85]aboutSlaughter ShuThere are two views of the killers, one is that the leaders of the peasant army at that timeZhang XianzhongAll, one andEntryLater, the Manchu armySichuanIt is related to years of massacres.[86]Others believe that it was the Southern Ming Army and the local landlord armed forces.[87]
Anecdotes and allusions
Announce
edit
The Water Margin, one of the four masterpieces, had a great influence on the peasant war in the late Ming Dynasty.According to the available data, the Water Margin affected the peasant uprising, which began in the middle of the Ming Dynasty, and reached the peak of the peasant war at the end of the Ming Dynasty. The peasant army fought against the government under the banner of "robbing the rich to help the poor" and "acting on behalf of heaven".[88]
There are four main reasons for the final failure of the peasant war:
First, because the Qing army entered the Shanhaiguan Pass, the Manchu and Han landlord classes gradually combined, and the whole domestic situation changed against the peasant army.
Second, the peasant army, especially Zhang Xianzhong'sRoving banditismThe style of work is serious, and the construction of base areas and political power is ignored.[89]
Third, the main general of the Li Zicheng Department of the peasant army made the proud mistake of victory. After entering Beijing, he was unorganized, undisciplined and corrupt.Many generals have made serious mistakes, and some have been carried away by victory, resulting in complacency, paralysis and contempt for the enemy, and ignoring the danger of the landlord class's rampant counter attack.It also fostered corrupt ideas, improper political handling, lax military discipline, reduced combat effectiveness, and could not resist the erosion of money, wine and sex, and gradually disappeared the original revolutionary will.[50][90]It is also a common historical phenomenon to fight against corrupt officials and not against the emperor. Li Zicheng, the leader of the peasant army, once claimed to be the descendant of Emperor Jianwen.[91]
Fourth, after the death of Li Zicheng and Zhang Xianzhong, the peasant army was unable to unite internally and fought for power and profit, which greatly weakened its strength.[8]
artistic works
Announce
edit
literary works
Ye Jiesheng, A Brief History of the Peasant Uprising Army's Alliance against Manchuria in the Late Ming Dynasty, People's Publishing House.
