nowadaysSwedenIn the southNorwayWesternscandinavian peninsula, considered as the hometown of the Germanic people, migrated to southern Europe in the rearImperium RomanumDuring this period, they moved south to the north of Germany and split into several tribes, driving away people living inThe AlpsOn the vast northern plainsCelts。Western Roman EmpireAfter its demise, many countries were founded on its ruins, and on the way to development, they absorbed, inherited and carried forwardancient GreekAndAncient RomeThe natural science knowledge and experience ofChristianity(from Judea), which rose rapidly before the 13th century.
The etymology of the word "Germanic" is still uncertain.At present, the most credible theory holds that the term "Germanic" is composed ofGaulishAdjacent to (*ger）And "people" (*mani）Composition, as a contrast, todayWelshMiddle "adjacent" workger, "Neighbor" in ancient Irishgair, and todayirishPrefix ingar-(adjacency), and adjectivesgarach(adjacent).It is also said that the word "Germanic"CelticIt means "noisy";asBrittanyAndCornish"Shouting" ingarm, "Call" in Irishgairm。In addition, scholars also proposed that the term "Germanic" is composed of "spear/gun" (*gēr）And "people"（manni）Synthesis;medieval timesDutchOfghere，old high german OfGer, andOld Norse OfgeirrCan be used as reference.
In the past, Germanic refers to the area where Germanic people live. Later, in some modern languages, such as EnglishGreek、ItalianandRussianIn, it is reserved as a title for "Germany".
Historical evolution
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Historical evolution
The origin of the Germanic peoples has not yet been clarified.It is said to use ironNorthern EuropePeople and usebronzeware, OperationIndo EuropeanOfthe BalticMixed by residents on the south bank,Bronze AgeLater, these people lived in the presentSwedenSouth ofDenmarkThe peninsula and northern Germany are betweenAmes River、Oder RiverThe area between the Hutts Mountains.[3]
The word "Germanic" was first used by Greek historiansBohidoni。He first used the word about 80 BC.Maybe he heard this word when he contacted a small ethnic group in Central Europe that cannot be verified today and used it to address all Germanic ethnic groups. It is possible that the name of such a small ethnic group later became the name of the entire ethnic group.[2]
germanic people
51 BCCesarIn his《Gallic War》The German name is used in.Caesar will come fromRhineThe east hasceltic The opponents of globalization and other mixed populations are collectively called Germanic.Before that, the Romans called the people in western EuropeCeltsThe people in eastern Europe are called Cynthians.By this time, Rome had realized that the Germanic people were not Celts, but an independent ethnic group.TacitusCelts called the nations east of the Rhine "Germanic", and later these nations themselves called themselves Germanic.According to this statement, the word may be derived fromCelticCome here.Strictly speaking, only from this time can people call these nations Germanic.The people of the Bronze Age in northern Europe are almost certainly Germanic.The relationship between the so-called Tomahawks and the Germans is still controversial.According to the latest theory, through the study of rivers and place names, the Germanic people were born in the north of the mountains in central Germany today.But most scholars are skeptical of this theory.[2]
In the Tahitian era, all Germanic peoples realized that there was arelationship。Some Germanic people serving in the Roman army sometimes call themselves Germani, while those free Germanic people living east of the Rhine River did not have a collective name specifically used to address themselves. Until the 11th century, they used diutisc (modernGermandeutsch，This adjective means "belongs to people"), which is why the word became popular.As for GermaniClan nameAnd the exact meaning of the language used by the ethnic group is still unknown.
Bronze AgeIn the late period, the Germanic people lived in what is nowSwedenSouth ofDenmarkThe peninsula and northern Germany are betweenEm River、Oder RiverAnd the Hatz Mountains.With the application of ironware, economic development andnatural disasterFrom around the 6th century BC, Germanic tribes began to move southward.Vandal、GepideandGothsMoved from southern Sweden, occupiedthe BalticThe south bank is roughly equivalent toOder RiverAndvistula river The area between.Early migration activities also developed southward and westward.As a result, Celtic nationalities living in most of the western part of Germany today were squeezed out.In the 3rd century BC, they arrived along the south of Yibei RiverBohemianIn the north, along theSal RiverEnter the Thuringia area.At the end of the 2nd century BC, they settled inJutland PeninsulaThe invasion of Germanic tribesmediterranean seaCultural area, directly confronting the Romans.In the middle of the first century BC, a large number of Germanic people set out from the hinterland to the Rhine River, and the Roman Empire continued to take placemilitary conflict。After a long struggle, the Vandals of the Germanic tribesBurgundianAnd the Gothsvistula river Watershed.In the middle of the 1st century BC, the Celts were expelled and finally settled to the east of the Rhine Riverthe danubeNorth andthe north seaA vast area between.
Rhine
At the end of the first century BC, RomeSlaveryAfter the Republic was replaced by the Empire, the Germanic tribes directly adjacent to the north of the Republic were taken as the objects of conquest.In 9 BC, the Romans expanded their territory from the Rhine River to the Elbe River in the east. In the era of Caesar, the Germanic people had settled west of the Rhine River and reached the Danube River in the south.The first large-scale battle between them and the Romans took place at the end of the second century BC, whenSimbrianAndTeutonicJoint invasion of southern Gaul and northern Italy, but in the first 102 and 101 years, all were wiped out by Mario (157~86? BC).The conquering goal of the Roman Empire was to occupy the vast Germanic tribal residential areas up to the Elbe River, and put them into the empire's territory to formRoman Province——LargeGermania。The Roman Empire concentrated its efforts to build the Rhine regionmilitary base。In 12 BC, the Roman Empire concentrated 36 legions on the Rhine front, with a total force of 300000 people, and began the war of conquest of the Germanic tribes in that year.[2]
At the beginning of the war, the Roman army met the stubborn resistance of Germanic tribes and suffered heavy losses.In AD 8, a Roman army that went deep into the German hinterland was hit hard by the German tribes.The Romans "struggled to conquer their opponents on the way forward, and they had to pay the price of bleeding every time they won." However, the resistance of the Germanic tribes was all independent and there was no joint action.This enabled the Romans to concentrate their superior forces to attack the tribes in turn.After more than 10 years of war, most Germanic tribes were conquered.Unable to send enough troops to occupy the entire Germanic residential area and exercise effective rule over it, the Roman Empire had to force the conquered Germanic tribes to pay tribute to the Empire and establish a mandatory treaty dependency relationship.
After years of struggle, the Germanic people gradually realized that to defeat the well-equipped and experienced Roman army, it was necessary to change the fragmented state of each tribe.thereforeTribal allianceIt began to appear.
Elbe River
In the autumn of AD 9, the soldiers of Germanic tribesTeutoburg Forest In the encounter with 30000 Roman troops, the Germanic people won a major victory, and three Roman legions were almost wiped out.After this victory, many Germanic tribes regained their independence.This determines theSphere of influenceIts boundary is not in the Elbe River, but still in the Rhine River basin.
In AD 11, the Roman Empire crossed the Rhine again and launched a new war of conquest against the Germanic people, and achieved local victory.In 17 AD, Roman troops occupied Strasbourg, Wendish andMainz。But the Romans were unable to go further into the German hinterland.In the middle decades of the 1st century AD, the Roman Empire gradually pushed the border to the east bank of the Rhine, thus strengthening the Roman Rhine Danube border system.After the second half of the 1st century AD, the Romans began to build boundary walls on the east bank of the Rhine.This means that the Roman Empire finally ended the war of conquest.
At the beginning of the first century AD, the Roman Empire officially incorporated the upper reaches of the Rhine and Danube into its empire, and established two provinces: the Upper Germanic Province and the Lower Germanic Province.The former capital is Mainz, and the latter is Cologne.The governors of the two provinces are deputy generals of the local Roman garrison.
In the second century, two important changes took place in the Germanic region: first, the divided Germanic tribes in the past united into big tribes; second, the Germanic people increasingly attacked the Roman border.The reason for the great migration of these Germanic peoples cannot be proved today. One possible reason is that with the Germanic tribesEconomic cultureDevelopmentclan communeWith the disintegration of the system, the upper stratum of the tribe is eager to expand and plunder new land and wealth, and the lower stratum of the tribe has to move out to seek new land to make a living because of the population growth.The Roman Empire is weakening day by day, unable to resist the invasion of foreign enemies.Or maybe it was caused by famine.In short, from the 4th century AD, the tribes scattered outside the Roman Empire, mainly Germanic, began to migrate to the Roman Empire on a large scale.
"G" refers to the Germanic region
In 376 AD, GermanicVisigothsTribal receptionHun Attack, they are gettingRoman emperorAfter consent, cross the Danube to enterBalkan PeninsulaOfThrace。The next year, the Visigoths rebelled against the oppression of the Romans.395 yearsThe split of the Roman EmpireThe Visigoths fought together with local slaves and slave farmersWestern Roman Empire。In 418, it was established in southwest GaulThe Kingdom of Visigoth。Following the influx of Visigoths into the Roman Empire, Germanic tribes include BurgundiansFranks、Ostrogothic、AngloandSaxonsEtc.The great migration of the Germanic peoples lasted about two centuries. Together with the local slave and slave peasant uprisings, they destroyed the Roman Empire and established many Germanic kingdoms on the Roman territory,Frankish KingdomIt gradually became the most powerful country among the Germanic kingdoms.
The Roman Empire faced the threat of the Franks in the border areas in the lower reaches of the Rhine River.Maine RiverThe river basin was occupied by Burgundians around 260 years ago, and located inblack forestAgri Dekomet of the region isAlemanniPossession.The Burgundians apparently moved from the eastern part of Germany.The Franks and the Alemannians may be two national alliances. In the time of Tacitus, they once held one side respectively, although some immigrants from the east may live together among them.Tacitus talked about those who lived inthe BalticIn the second half of the second century, the ethnic groups along the coast migrated to the southeast.Therefore,GothsDuring this periodUkraineHejinRomaniaMost of the region;GepideoccupyTransylvaniaMountains to the north;VandalAnd become their neighbors in the west.
By 500 years ago, the Angles and Saxons had enteredEnglandThe Franks ownGaulNorth of.Burgundian occupationLonghe RiverAlong the valley, the Visigoths live in their west.The Ostrogoths settled in Italy, while the Vandals arrived in Africa.In 507, the Franks expelled the Visigoths from most of the Gaul area they occupied.The Visigoths in Gaul were alreadyPyreneusOne Belt Expansion toRoyal RiverThey entered the valley after being expelled by the FranksIberiaIt was not invaded until 711arabDefeat.568 yearsLombardyEnter Italy and establish an independent kingdom. By 774, the kingdom wascharlemagne (742 ～ 814).Since Goths and other nationalities left, some areas in eastern Germany have beenSlavicAfter the occupation, the Slavs also expanded westward, as far as Bohemia and the Elbe River basin.After the eighth century, the Germans recovered the eastern part of Germanylower Austria Region andStiria、CarinthiaThe Slavs were driven out of most of these places.
Encyclopedia x ignorance: illustration of Germanic people
historical event
About 500 BC - 50 BC, it is believed thatPrimitive GermanicUser related former RomeIron cultureDistribution area, inScandinaviaTo the southMagentaThe part marked is the distribution area of Astov culture.
The earliest reports about Germanic people came from their contacts with Greeks and Romans.
About 120 years agoSimbrianandTeutonicThe reason for the southward movement cannot be fully verified today.According to historical data at that timeJutland PeninsulaThere was a big storm last year, so the residents there left their hometown.Today, more people suspect that the famine caused by the population growth of Simbri people and the erosion of sea water on land caused by climate change is the reason for migration.
About 113 years ago, they metRoman。In the war between the two nations, the Romans almost completely annihilated.The germans stopped fighting because they took a sudden storm as a warning to their weather god.
In 109, 107 and 105 years ago, the Romans fought against these two Germanic groups again and again, but each time they were defeated.Up to these twoEthnic splitPost Roman talents defeated Teutons in the first 102 years and Simbrians in the first 101 years.
The breakthrough of the Simbris and Teutons to the mountains in central Germany where the Celts lived severely hit the Celts' power in central and southern Germany, making it possible for other Germanic people (such as the Sweebies) toHessenandMaine RiverSettle in the basin.Under the leadership of the leader Ario Vestus, they even broke intoGaul, but was thereCesarDefeated in the first 58 years and forced to returnRhineEast.
Caesar's occupation of Gaul in the first century made the Germanic people become the direct neighbors of the Romans.This contact has never been peaceful.Caesar crossed the Rhine River 55 and 53 years ago to launch a punitive attack on the Germans.But Caesar saw the Rhine as the border between the Germans and the Romans.
But since then, the Rhine border is still not peaceful.Roman emperorAugustusIt was decided to move the soldiers stationed in Gaul to the Rhine River.But the Rhine border is still unstable.
Augustus therefore changed his strategy.From the previous 12 years to the first 9 years, his adopted son Nero Claudius Dulusus attacked the Germans many times.He conquered several Germanic tribes.But these tribes did not really surrender to the Roman Empire.In the previous 8 years, Dulusus fell off his horse and died.His brotherTiberius The attack of Dulusus was resumed from the previous 8 years.In four years he conquered the Cherucians, who had resisted Rome ever since.In order to continue to move towards the Elbe River, the Romans established a series of cities east of the Rhine River.The names of some cities in Hessen, Germany today come fromLatin。
In six years, the Romans tried toMainz Set out to attack todayBohemianA kingdom of.But because inPannoniaA riot broke out, so the action was abandoned halfway.Nevertheless, the Romans still regarded the Germanic region on the Elbe River as one of their provinces.
After the German resistance seemed to have been eliminated, Publius Kunktilius·Varus Mandated to introduce Roman law and tax collection in the occupied areas.He was the governor of the province and the top commander of the Rhine Corps.Wallus had previouslySyriaHas gained a reputation for cruelty and greed.His rule soon aroused German resistance.He ordered that those who opposed Rome should be severely punished, and the taxes he introduced were very unfair in the eyes of the Germans.For the Germans, only slaves paid taxes.
In this case, Alminus, the nobleman of Cherucie, was able to unite several Germanic tribes.Arminius himself ownsRoman citizenshipEvenRoman Knights。He used Valus' trust in him to lead Valus into a trap.stayTeutonburg Forest CampaignCentral Rome lost three legions (about 25000 soldiers).In this way, the plan of Rome's eastward development ended in 9 years.By the time of the great national migration, the Germanic people had little influence from Rome.
Teutonburg Forest Campaign
The distribution of Germanic tribes in the primitive Germanic era (before 100 B.C.) and the expansion map of different historical stages (50 B.C., 100 B.C., 300 A.D.). The purple part is the territory of the Roman Empire in 68 B.C. and 117 A.D. respectively.
In the 14th and 16th years, under the leadership of Guimanicus, the Roman army crossed the Rhine again and entered the Germanic region.Historians are still unclear about the nature of the two expeditions.Therefore, it is unclear whether they are the continuation of Roman expansionist policies or punitive attacks.
However, since then, the war between the Germans and the Romans has continued.In 29, the Roman army was pacified. So far, it is more pro RomanFrisianThe riots.In order to put an end to the Batava riots in 69, Rome had to transfer troops from Spain and Britain.83 Roman EmperorDomitianIt was decided to move Rome northward at the boundary of the Rhine and Danube rivers.A long boundary wall was built in Rome to the west of the Rhine River and north of the Danube River to protect the border between Rome and Germany.At the same time, the Rhine region is divided into two provinces: Upper Germain and Lower Germain.
The research after 1995 believed that the upper Germanic boundary wall was not built in 83/85 when Domitian ruled, but 98 years latertrajan Established during the reign.After more than 100 years of research, no cultural relics (such as boundary tablets, engravings or wood that can be used to determine time) before 98 years have been found on the Upper Germanic boundary wall.Moreover, this boundary wall is more suitable for the military needs of the Trajan period.This need was not so clear during the Domitian period.
In 122Hadrian Under the rule of the RomansNeckar Riverandthe danubeThe boundary wall between them moved 20 to 40 kilometers north again.The last time Rome moved its border to Germanic region was in 159 under the rule of Antoninus Beus.
In the second century, two important changes took place in the Germanic region: first, the divided Germanic tribes in the past united into big tribes; second, the Germanic people increasingly attacked the Roman border.
In 167, the Makman people, the Kwadi peopleLombardy、VandalAnd other tribesPannoniaThe province led to the Markman War (167-180).Marcus AureliusLed four timesmilitary actionConquered the invading germans.At that time, Rome may have plans to establish two new provinces.But after the death of Marcus Aurelius in 180, his son Comodus resumed his defensive strategy.He made peace with the Germans.
Many historians regard the Markman War as the prelude to the great national migration.The reason is thatGothstowardsBlack SeaAnd the migration of the Vandals to the Danube, which caused the population changes on the Roman border.The reason for the migration of these Germanic peoples cannot be proved today, and it may be caused by famine.
Warfare
About 330 years agoancient GreekThe famous explorer PetraeusMarseilleDepart to BeihaiJutland Peninsula。On the west coast of the peninsula, he found a beach rich in amber, where a Germanic tribe lived. Pitaias called it "Guton" in his travel diary.Later, scholars verified that this was the Teutonic tribe of the Germanic people.At this time, the Germanic people still lived a primitive lifeNomadic life, is constantly migrating.About 200 years ago, the Bastanais, one of the East Germanic people, entered today'sRomaniaEast merged withMacedoniaandBalkan PeninsulaOther ethnic groups in the war.
The Long March of Simbrians and Teutons
About 120 years agoSimbrianandTeutonicThe reason for the southward movement cannot be fully verified today.The historical data at that time said that there was a big storm on the Jutland Peninsula, so the residents there left their hometown.Today more people suspect that the famine caused by climate change is the cause of migration.
First centuryCesaroccupyGaulMaking the germans the direct neighbors of the romans.This contact has never been peaceful.Caesar crossed the Rhine River 55 and 53 years ago to launch a punitive attack on the Germans.But Caesar saw the Rhine as the border between the Germans and the Romans.They met the Romans about 113 BC, and the Romans were almost annihilated.The germans took a sudden storm as a warning to their weather god, so they stopped fighting.
In 109, 107 and 105 years ago, the Romans fought against these two Germanic groups again and again, but each time they were defeated.It was not until after the split of the two nationalities that Rome defeated the Teutons in the first 102 years and the Simbrians in the first 101 years.
The War between Ario Vestus and Caesar
The breakthrough of Sinbury and Teutons to the central mountain areas where the Celts lived hit the Celts in central and southern Germany heavily.Later, other Germanic people (such as the Sweebies) were able toHessenAnd the Maine River basin.Under the leadership of their leader, Ariovistus, they even broke into Gaul, where they were defeated by Caesar 58 years ago and forced to return to the east of the Rhine River.But since then, the Rhine border is still not peaceful.The Roman emperor Augustus decided to move the soldiers stationed in Gaul to the Rhine River.But the Rhine border is still unstable.Augustus therefore changed his strategy.From the previous 12 years to the first 9 years, his adopted son Nero Claudius Dulusus attacked the Germans many times.He conquered many Germanic peoples.But these nations did not really surrender to Rome.In the previous 8 years, Dulusus fell off his horse and died when he retreated.His brother Tiberius resumed the attack of Dulusus eight years ago.In four years he conquered the Cherucians, who had resisted Rome ever since.In order to continue to move towards the Elbe River, the Romans established a series of cities east of the Rhine River.Today, some cities in Hessen, Germany, are named after Latin.In six years, the Romans attempted to attack from MainzBohemianA kingdom of.But this action was abandoned because today'sHungaryA riot broke out.
In the autumn of AD 9, the soldiers of Germanic tribes encountered 30000 Roman troops in the Teutonburg Forest. The Germanic people adopted guerrilla tactics, relying ongeographical environmentHe used the winding and complicated road in the forest to deal with the Roman army, and soon divided the Romans into numerous small pieces and attacked them one by one.Three Roman legions were almost annihilated.The germans won a great victory.This victory was a turning point for the Germanic people, and many Germanic tribes regained their independence.The battle of Teutonburg Forest put the Roman Empire in a predicament, and the Roman emperor was forced to give up his plan to establish a Greater Germania province.This determined that the boundary of the Roman Empire's sphere of influence was not in the Elbe River, but still in the Rhine River basin.In the 14th and 16th years, under the leadership of Guimanicus, the Roman army crossed the Rhine again and entered the Germanic region.Historians are still unclear about the nature of the two expeditions.Therefore, it is unclear whether they are the continuation of Roman expansionist policies or punitive attacks.
However, since then, the war between the Germans and the Romans has continued.In 29, the Roman army quelled a riot by the Frisian people who had hitherto been more pro Roman.In order to put an end to the Batava riots in 69, Rome had to transfer troops from Spain and Britain.
In 83, the Roman emperor Domitian decided to move Rome northward at the boundary of the Rhine and Danube rivers.A long boundary wall was built in Rome to the west of the Rhine River and north of the Danube River to protect the border between Rome and Germany.At the same time, the Rhine region is divided into two provinces: Upper Germain and Lower Germain.
The research after 1995 believed that the Upper Germanic Boundary Wall was not established under Domitian rule in 83/85, but under Trajan rule in 98.After more than 100 years of research, no cultural relics (such as boundary tablets, engravings or wood that can be used to determine time) before 98 years have been found on the Upper Germanic boundary wall.Moreover, this boundary wall is more suitable for the military needs of the Trajan period.This need was not so clear during the Domitian period.
In 122Hadrian Under their rule, the Romans moved the boundary wall between the Neckar River and the Danube River 20 to 40 kilometers north again.The last time Rome moved its border to Germanic region was in 159 under the rule of Antoninus Beus.
Markman War
In 167, the Makman, Kwadi, Lombardy, Vandal and other tribes entered Pannonia Province, leading to the Makman War (167-180).Marcus Aurelius led four military operations to conquer the invading Germans.At that time, Rome may have plans to establish two new provinces.But after the death of Marcus Aurelius in 180, his son Comodus resumed his defensive strategy.He made peace with the Germans.
Weapons and equipment
In the early Roman Empire, the weapons used by the Germanic people, whether offensive or defensive, were characterized by the lack of metal materials.Their main weapon is a spear, and few people wear swords.They know little about helmets and breastplates.They use a kind of light shield, which is woven of wood or wicker. Sometimes it is inlaid with iron edges, and sometimes it is reinforced with leather. This is their only defense weapon.This lack of adequate equipment explains why the Germanic people always used the tactics of fierce attack and quick decision when they confronted the well armed Roman army.If they were involved in a protracted hand to hand battle, their light shields and spears would meet the Romans' heavy swords and square shield armor, because there was no hope of winning.By the 6th century, few Germanic nationalities had enough military equipment.None of them has ever built an armed force that can matchJustinian I (Justinian I, 483~565).
Ethnic division
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Distribution of Germanic people
In the Tahitus era, the distribution of the main Germanic nationalities was as follows: the Chatti lived in Hesse.Frisii distributed inRhineAndEm RiverBetweenCoastal zone。The Chauci live inWeser RiverOfestuaryNearby, the Cherusi, the tribe of Aminius, gathered in the south.The name of the Sweeby used to beSwabia (Schwaben) the origin of this place name, while this ethnic group is scattered inMecklenburg(Mecklenburg), BrandenburgSaxony(Saxony) andThuringia(Thuringia) everywhere;The Semnone people living in the Havel River and Spree River basins belong to the Swabi ethnic group, and the Lombardy people living in the northwest of the Semnon region are also a Swabi ethnic group.Another 7 ethnic groups believe inEarth GoddessNerthus, where the Angles live in the Angeln Peninsula in the east of Schleswig.In the border area of the Danube River in the Roman Empire, the Hermunduri peopleRegensburg(Regensburg) is developed northwardFrankia(Franconia) and Daturingen.Originally residing inMaine RiverThe Marcomanni people in the basinWestern YuanDuring the last ten years of the previous century, they moved to Bohemia, where a man named BoiiCeltA place occupied by a nation.To the east of the Makomani people is the Quadi people living in Moravia.In the lower reaches of the Danube, there is a people called Bastarnae, who are often regarded as Germanic.Goths, Gepides and Vandals are scatteredthe BalticSouth bank area.Tacitus also talked about living in today'sSwedenSuione and Sitone in the territory.He also mentioned several ethnic groups that were unimportant in history, but heSaxonPeople and Burgundians were not mentioned at all. As for other important nationalities that protruded after that time, he certainly could not predict their names.
In North Germany andScandinaviaThe living Germanic tribes can be roughly divided into North Germanic, West Germanic and East Germanic.
North Germanic
The North Germanic is a Scandinavian Germanic.They later evolved into Danes, SwedesNorwayPeople and Icelanders.archaeologistDivide the North Germanic people into two groups: East and West.
West Germanic
West Germanic people include:Elbe RiverThe Germanic people, such as the Swabian, later evolved into Schwaben, Makomani/Markman and Kuadi/Kwadi, and finally became Bavarians.
North Sea Germanic people, such as Batavi, Frisian/Frisian, Kauken, Saxon/Saxon, Anglo, Jute, etc., later formed Anglo Saxon/English.
The Rhine Weser River Germanic people, such as the Cherucians, the Cardians (ancestors of Hessian people), the Franks, etc.
East Germanic
Among East Germanic peoplethe BalticSouthernGoths, Vandals, Burgundians, etc.Archaeologists divided them into four groups.Because the Xiongnu people fromAsiaEntry and Slavs fromEastern EuropeThe influx of these people was under great pressure, and they were forced to migrate westward and southward, which caused many conflicts between them and the local people.
population
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There are more than 300 million pure Germanic people in the world.
Germanic settlementCentral EuropeLater, the clan organization was maintained.In the middle of the first century B.C., the productivity of the Germanic people was quite low, even those who had more contact with the RomansSu WeihuiThey also rely on animal husbandry and hunting for a living. Agriculture is not important. They still use slash and burn cultivation. Maybe a piece of land will be lost after several harvests and replaced with new land.At that time, the Germanic people had not settled down and had no slaves. The clan leader presided over official duties. During the war, the people who held the power of life and death were electedMilitary chief, which is obviously very completeGentile society。The land is jointly owned by the commune, and the amount of land in the commune shall be subject to the number of tillers;Within the commune, they will be distributed to each person according to their status.It can be seen that the cultivated land is still owned by the commune, but it is notAverage distributionHas.The researchers think that it refers to the "big family commune", which includes several generations, cultivates certain land and uses the surrounding wastelandMatriarchyThe transition form from the communist family to the modern small family.Farm animalAnd residence have been owned by each family, no longerpublic property；In particular, farm animals are their favorite property, which can be used to compensate for minor crimes.Long after the rural commune（Marque）It is from this kind of big family commune that it developed.
150 years later, great changes have taken place in Germanic people.They stopped flowing, settled down and settled down in villages. They knew to build houses with wood, paint the houses with shiny clay, and dig for hidden thingscellar。Agriculture is more advanced than that in Caesar's time, but it only grows grains, and there is no vegetable garden or orchard.Animal HusbandryStill occupy an important position, they oftena herd of livestockWe boast of our abundance.The clothes are made of animal skins, but women can already wear those with purple edgesLinenClothes.There are light iron weapons.Roman coins were exchanged near the empire.
Sociology
In the first century AD, most Germanic tribes formedmilitary democracy , and a large family commune formed according to regional relations, called "Marke".The members of the commune have simple houses and exclusive yards, several of which are adjacent to each other to form a small village.Everyone gets land from the commune for farming, and the products belong to themselves.According to Caesar's records, the Germanic people are engaged in animal husbandry. Most of their food is milk, cheese, meat, etc., which are taken from the cattle and sheep they graze. The Germanic people are also engaged in some farming, the main crops are grainsroot tuberPlants, vegetables, etc.However, the cattle and horses raised by the Germans are not good breeds if measured by the standards of the Romans.
Little is known about the degree of business development in the early Germanic areas.There must have beenslave tradeAnd many slaves were sold to the Romans.The few potters who use Tao Jun to make pottery are selling their products like blacksmiths and miners.The most important cargo is livestock.However, most of the utensils used in ordinary Germanic villages are self-made.In Caesar's time, many foreign businessmen peddled Italians andCeltsOur products are very active.The merchants supplied rich samurai with goods such asWineAnd bronze ware.But sinceAugustusAfter coming to power, the Germanic people from the Roman EmpireimportThe number has increased greatly.At that time, German leaders were able to buy all kinds of goods, such as glass containers, red tableware, Roman weapons, brooches, statuettes, various decorations and other items, which could not be bought before.These Roman products have raised a lot of value for buyers, but it is not very clear what kind of payment method the German people used to exchange for these goods.
The most important grain is barley.Germanic people often do not farm their fields to allow them to restore their productivity.Famine often occurs in the Germanic region.Around the first century, Germanic people came into contact with plows, but their popularity was very low.
The Iron Age began in Germany, that is, in the main areas where Germanic peoples lived and lived, about four centuries earlier than the Kaiser Age.But even in Caesar's time,Metallic materialsFor Germanic household utensils, it is obviously a luxury, and most of those utensils are made of wood, grass, or pottery.Most of the larger metal devices they used were bronze, although the weapons were not yet made of copper.Most of the pottery is still handmade. Pots and jars made by Tao Jun are quite rare.
fromTacitus Before the great national migration, the progress of the Germanic people was particularly rapid, and there was no written record.Archaeological excavations show that trade with Rome once flourished.They uselivestock, slaves andamberIn exchange for Roman weapons, textiles and gold and silver products.At the same time, agriculture and animal husbandryMetalworking, textile andshipbuilding industryIt has further developed and its population has increased dramatically.
Economics
The majority of Germanic people are settled farmers and seldom hunt.The economy is self-sufficient. Handicrafts include ironworkers, potters and carpenters.Indo EuropeanThe time wheel of language has already been invented. In Germanic language, the time wheel has two words.The germans have no money.Their trade is dominated by the exchange of goods.The most important goods (like the Romans) were livestock.In today's Englishfee(charge) is the same root as the German word Vieh (livestock).
The main livestock are cattle, sheep, pigs, goats and horses.BeekeepingAnd textile industry.The germans also know how to makecheeseThey have a word for cheese.
Around the first century, Germanic people came into contact with plows, but their popularity was very low.The most important grain is barley.The germans know how to useFallowTo restore their productivity.They also know how to use fertilizers.The grain is mainly made into porridge untilthe medieval timesUntil now only the rich could afford bread.
Because of the high latitude,PhotothermalInsufficient, plain isMoraine plainThe soil is relatively poor, and the productivity in Germain is much lower than that in Rome in the south.TacitusHe wrote: "They have a lot of livestock, but most of them are not so good. Even cattle are not as tall as cattle, even their horns are small." Famine often occurs in Germain, and many peopleinnutrition。theiraverage life spanLow.historianIt is estimated that this is the main reason for their migration.
life
CaesarAt that time, Germanic people wore very little, often just a piece of animal skin, and men and women bathed together in the river.Most of the food is dairy products and meat. They do not invest much energy in agriculture, and the land is redistributed every year.Germanic settlements are quite small.Through the investigation of their graves, archaeologists can infer that their settlements generally have about 200 residents.There is no systematic plan for these settlements: if a German settles in a place, others will move there.Up to now, we can still see such villages composed of many small villages in Germany and other Germanic cultural areas.
Through archaeological excavation, archaeologists know that the houses of the Germanic people are wooden houses. Since the wood has already decayed, they can only investigate their building methods through the holes left by the pillars on the foundation.The most common German housing is rectangular.People and animals live in the same house, and only one wall separates them.There are no other walls in the house.There is a burning point in its middle.A hole in the house is used to smoke.Germanic houses have no windows.
By comparing the remaining bones with those in theMarshlandThe research on the bodies preserved in the German Museum proves that the Germans are indeed higher than the Romans. In addition, they do have considerable physical strength. Most Germans do have blonde hair.Generally speaking, Germans are one head taller than Romans.
Germanic health is often poor:innutritionandarthritisVery popular.Their average life expectancy is only 35 years.
Ancient writers jointly reported that the germansAlcoholismVery powerful.The most important alcohol isMeadandBeer。Germans often celebrate on important festivals.They believe that their gods also like wine.Tacitus reported: "This is a kind of drink made from barley or wheat, which is similar to wine..." He wrote about their alcoholism: "As long as they are given enough wine, it is easier to defeat them with wine than with weapons."
Culture and art
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Culture and art
Romeslave societyThe city has luxury markets and shower facilities, water pipes and sewage ditches that draw water from mountain streams or springsroad network, highly developedhandicraft industry, urban and rural houses with heating facilities, many cultivation techniques of the Romans, such asGrapeThe introduction of planting methods, horticulture, etcRoman cultureImpact on these two regions.This influence also permeated the language of the Germanic people.Germanic languagesMany Chinese terms in the fields of military affairs, quarrying technology, architecture, gardening, trade and transportation can be traced back tothe Romance group of languages。Through Roman merchants who went to Germany to do business and Roman soldiers who stayed in the conquered areas, Roman culture penetrated into other Germanic tribes across the boundary wall.In the first and second centuries AD, Roman goods have spread all over the Germanic tribal areas, especially in BohemiaRhineAndWeser RiverThe vast area between them is the main part of Roman culturerecipient。
The introduction of Roman culture promoted the integration of the Rhine andthe danubeThe development of regional economy also accelerated the Germanic tribesmaterial cultureDevelopment of.Germanic tribal dignitaries, military leaders and close soldiers passed the peaceImperium RomanumThey began to organize production and life according to the model of the Roman world, and became the rich and privileged class in the Germanic tribesclan communeThe system gradually disintegrated.
Franks are hereClovis (Clovis)CatholicismDoctrine, laterBurgundy People are here againSigismond(Sigismund), converted to Catholicism.Before that, no major Germanic people believed in Catholicism.The reason why they chooseArius factionThe reason for not accepting Catholicism is not clear.Continental EuropeThe last letter changeChristianityThe Germanic people ofScandinaviaAll nations did not accept Christianity until the 10th century.EnglandIt became a Christian country in the 7th century.
legend
becauseGermanicPeople generally have the characteristics of blond hair, blue eyes and tall white people. These white people characteristics are oftenNazi PartyThe basis for considering Germanic people as excellent people.The Nazi Party also used these white characteristics as a standard to measure whether a nation belongs to an excellent nation. In history, these remarkable white characteristics have gradually derived legends about Germanic people.
In the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century, Germanic people in German speaking areas were often represented as "supermen". The main reason for this image isTacitus、CesarAnd so on.In their works, they describe the Germanic people as blond giants with superhuman strength.
Through the research on the bones left behind and the bodies preserved in the marsh, it is proved that the Germanic people are indeed higher than the Romans. In addition, they do have considerable physical strength. Most Germanic people do have blonde hair.Generally speaking, germans are one head taller than romans.
Religion
Some data show that in 476Western Roman EmpireBefore the collapse, none of the powerful Germanic peoples living outside the borders of the Roman Empire believed in Christianity;However, the Germans, who had entered the provinces of the empire 476 years ago, converted to Christianity within 30 or 40 years.The Vandals probably lived inSpainThe Burgundians who converted to Christianity in the territoryGaulThe eastern part accepted Christianity. The Ostrogoths lived inPannoniaThe province became a Christian believer.All these germans are christianArius factionThe doctrine of.In 496, the FranksClovis (Clovis) formally announced acceptance of Catholic doctrine.
myth
In the era of Caesar, the gods of the Germanic people were mainly the sun god, the moon god, and the god of fire.
Germanic languages
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The earliest records of Germanic people came from classical writers in the first two and first centuries.From about 200 years ago, Germanic people began to use one of their own characters.Prior to that, history only passed through archaeology and linguistics（Comparative linguistics）The method of textual research.Through the analysis of various Germanic languages (Old Germanold English）A careful comparison between Germanic languages and other Indo European languages,linguistThe Germanic language can be basically reconstructed (also known as "pre Germanic" or "pan Germanic").The main results of these comparisons are:
Germanic is an Indo European language, in which it belongs to the western branch.
In Indo European languagesCelticIt is closest to the ancient Italian language.These three languages are composed togetherOld European languages。In the first three or two millennia, that isBronze AgeIn the early days of the 20th century, the ancient European language was the language of Central Europe.However, its exact location and time have not been verified today, or it is controversial.
Germanic languages are very similar, which probably indicates that they have a long time of co evolution.Most linguists set the time when the former Germanic language separated from Celtic and ancient Italian as the first half of 2000 years.
After the separation of Germanic language, it still has contact with Celtic language.Some Celtic words are borrowed from Germanic.In addition, Germanic pairsFinnishIt also has an impact.Some Germanic words appear in Finnish (such as King, Kuningaz in Germanic, Kuningas in Finnish, Ring, Ringaz in Germanic, Renas in Finnish, etc.).
The word "Germanic" was first used by Greek historiansBohidoni。He first used the word about 80 years ago.Maybe he heard this word when he contacted a small ethnic group in Central Europe that cannot be verified today and used it to address all Germanic ethnic groups.It is possible that the name of such a small ethnic group later became the name of the entire ethnic group.It is very unlikely that the Germans themselves will call themselves Germanic.
First 51 yearsCesarIn his《Gallic War》The German name is used in.Caesar here willRhineThe nationalities in the east are collectively called Germanic.Before that, the Romans wouldWestern EuropeIs calledCelts, andEastern EuropeThe people ofScythian。Only then did Rome realize that the Germanic people were not Celts, but an independent ethnic group.
Sol, the German god of thunder.His hammer is thunder and lightning.Painted by M ∨ rten Eskil Winge, circa 1872.
Roman historianTacitusIn his《Germanic Records》The Chinese term "Germanic" is a relatively new term.At first, there were only qualified people（Tungrer）It was called the Germanic people, and later all the Germanic nationalities were called as such.Tacitus said that Gauls called the people east of the Rhine "Germanic".Later, these nations themselves called themselves Germanic.According to this statement, the word may come from Celtic.
Tacitus listed in his book every Germanic ethnic tribe from Rhine toVistula River , from the Danube to the North Sea andthe BalticThe place of residence between.
Seriously, only from this time can people call these nations Germanic.In the past, many studies have passedarchaeologyResearch to deriveStone AgeAnd the ancient Germanic people of the Bronze Age.the Second World WarThis research was once completely abandoned.
Today, similar research is restarted in a very careful academic scope, with the goal of using archaeological and linguistic research to obtain an internal and non contradictory overall image.According to this studyBronze AgeIt is almost certain that our people are Germanic.The relationship between the so-called Tomahawks (2800-2200 BC) and the Germans is still controversial.
According to the latest theory, through the study of rivers and place names, the Germanic people were born in the north of the mountains in central Germany today.But most scholars are skeptical of this theory.
In the past, scholars thought that the Germanic language was formed around 500 years agoPhonetic Changes of Germanic LanguageSeparated from other western Indo European languages.In this phonetic transition, for example, k becomes h through ch, or p becomes f, and t becomes th.
New research suggests that this change took place very late, probably in the first century.The main evidence isSimbrianThe ethnic name of.The Simbrians andTeutonicThreaten northern Rome together.The hometown of these two nations is today'sDenmark。stayLatinThe name of the Middle Simbri people iscimbri, notchimbriorhimbriLater, the name of the Germanic peopleLatinUse ch to write, such aschatti。Therefore, most scholars today believe that this phonetic transfer has not been started or completed in the late second century.Some place names handed down in the early days show that this theory is correct.
This insight has very important consequences for Germanic linguistics.Thus, the language so far known as "pan Germanic language" was formed in the first two to the first century, and by the first century it had split into many of its own Germanic languages.The Germanic language was similar to the Indo European language before. This older language has not been passed down, but its basic structure can be reconstructed.
Germanic languages
language
Number of native speakers
English
360 million to 400 million people
Deutsch
100 million people
Nederlands (Dutch)
23 million
Svenska (Swedish)
9 million 200 thousand
Afrikaans
7 million 100 thousand
Needersassch
6 million 700 thousand
Dansk
5 million 500 thousand
Norsk
5 million
∨ 路 路 路 路 (Yiddish)
1 million 500 thousand
Scots
1 million 500 thousand
L è mburgs
1 million 300 thousand
Frysk
500 thousand
L ë tzebuergesch (Luxembourg)
400 thousand
Í slenska (Icelandic)
300 thousand
F ø royskt (French)
70 thousand
Regime form
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Gentile system
Germanic settlementCentral EuropeLater, the clan organization was maintained.With the evolution of production and lifestyle, the continuous expansion of group population and more complex affairs determine the need to establish a core power.The status and role of tribal chiefs, military chiefs and retinue captains have been significantly improved.They began to break away from production, occupy good land and acquire more wealth.As a result, such inequalities as privileged figures and the distribution of rich and poor, which occupy a high position among tribal members, have gradually emerged.This indicates that GermanyGentile systemPositive disintegration;The Roman Empire's war against the Germanic tribes greatly accelerated this process.
Patriarchal clan system
according toCaesarAs described, there is no sign of autocratic rule among the Germanic nationalities.The leaders of various clan groups are only responsible for mediating disputes among clansmen, and this function of resolving disputes is limited to the same clan and cannot go beyond the scope.At that time, there seemed to be no arbitration group or other organizations.In fact, in peacetime, they do not have a centralized authority department, which can issue orders and exercise authority to manage the affairs of all clans.During the war, according to the records in Caesar's works, the Germanic nationalities had to elect several joint commanders. They were collective leaders, and their power was limited to wartime.
In the time of Tacitus, a new military chieftain system emerged among the Germanic people.Only those recognized members of the so-called "royal family" are eligible for this position.These "royal families" used to exist among the first century Cherusians and Batavians.It also appeared in the 6th centuryHeruli(Heruli).Any member of these royal families is qualified to be elected as military leader, but this position cannot be inherited.Such leaders selected from the royal family are responsible for religious affairs andMilitary command, serving for life.But he can be deposed by the Assembly of Chiefs, and his suggestions to the Samurai Assembly will also be rejected.Generally speaking, the role that such leaders can play depends on their personal talents.
A primitive form ofJudiciary。The samurai assembly elects some leading figures to serve as judges, who are responsible for touring villages and hearing private casesLitigation case。Each judge has 100 attendants to implement his/her judgment.If the judges decide that a person is guilty, that person must give a certain number of horses or cattle to compensate for his guilt,livestockThe amount depends on the seriousness of the crime.However, in many cases, such as homicide, injury and theftdeferred trial, by the clan of the partyAuthoritative personThe blood feuds caused by those clans may be handed down from generation to generation and cannot be solved.Even after the Germans converted to Christianity for a long time, their rulers also found it difficult to completely quell the blood feud between clans.
monarchy
As far as later generations know, only one German king ever established his own autocratic rule over the people.The name of this person is Maroboduus.Around the Western Yuan Dynasty, he ledMakomaniLeave them inMaine RiverHomeland in the basin, moving toBohemianSettle down.Based in Bohemia, he conquered the scattered placesElbe RiverAndvistula river Among many Germanic ethnic groups, including the SamnonsLombardy People and Lugii.However, in 17 AD, the Cherusians and some Makomanis cooperated with each other to launch an attack on Marobodus, overthrow his rule and expel him to the Roman Empire.It is recorded that during this period, all the leaders of all other ethnic groups who tried to establish monarchy ended in failure.
monarchyThe official establishment of the Germanic world began after they became allies of the Roman Empire and settled in the empire.Ostrogoths Leaders inItalyEstablished a kingdom,Visigoths Leaders established kingdoms in Gaul and Spain, and Vandal leadersAfricaWhen a kingdom was established, national leaders like these became the first German kings.During this period, other famous German kings such as Athanaric and Alaric（Alaric）, or because they live inImperium RomanumOutside the border, or because the nation did not conclude an alliance with Rome and promised to be responsible for guarding the border of the empire, its people also failed to settle in the provinces of the Roman Empire as allies. Their personal authority seemed to be no less than those of the leaders mentioned by Tacitus.
Countries Built
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From the 4th to the 6th century AD, there were groups of Germanic people (alsoSlavic、HunsThe migration to the Roman Empire is known as the Great Migration of Nations.During the great national migration, the Germanic people in France, Italy, northern Africa, Spain andBritainMany short kingdoms have been established.These kingdoms are ephemeral phenomena.In their new hometown they mingle with the local people of the past.
The Kingdom of Visigoth
At the beginning of the fifth century,VisigothsIn the leaderAlaricLed by him, he appeared in northern Italy and captured the capital Rome in 410 with the cooperation of tens of thousands of uprising slaves.In 419, the Visigoths enteredGaulIn the south and Spain, establish theThe Kingdom of Visigoth。
Vandal Kingdom
Driven by the great migration of ethnic groupsOder RiverRiversideVandal, via Pannonia (todayHungary）, Gaul and SpainNorth Africa。In 439, the Vandals rebelled against slavesLi NongWith the support ofCarthageCity, establishingVandal Kingdom。In 455, the Vandals crossed the sea to invade Rome, burning, killing, looting and looting“Vandalism”Became synonymous with barbarism.In 534, Vandal Kingdombyzantium Is extinguished.
Kingdom of Burgundy
In the middle of the 5th century, a Burgundy country appeared in the southeast of Gaul.BurgundianOriginally located at the Oder estuary, it reached Worms at the beginning of the 5th century and then went southRhoneOne Belt, established in 457 toleonBurgundy Kingdom at the center.At the beginning of the 6th century, the Kingdom of BurgundyFrankish KingdomDestruction.
Kingdom of England
Living in the middle of the 5th centuryJutland PeninsulaAnd what is now northern GermanyAngles The Saxons and the Jutes crossed the sea into Britain and established many small kingdoms.partBritainPeople avoid the Amoric Peninsula in the northwest of Gaul, which was later called Brittany.King Wessex, 829EgbertUnifying all kingdoms, it was called England.
Ostrogothic Kingdom
In 476, the demise of the Western Roman Empire shocked Byzantium.They were instigated to be deeply influenced by RomeOstrogoths kingTheodoricLed troops to invade Italy, occupied Ravenna in 493, and established in northern and central ItalyOstrogothic Kingdom 。In 553, Donggoth was destroyed by Byzantium.
Frankish Kingdom
In 486, Clovis, the king of Franks, led his army to defeatRoman armytoSuvason, occupied most of Gaul and establishedMerovian Dynasty, with Paris as the capital, the local Gaul Roman aristocracythe roman catholic church, slave farmers, slaves and diasporaFree farmerIt still exists and gradually integrates with the Franks.In 751, Gong XiangPiping(dwarf) usurped the throne,Merovian DynastyDestruction.Piping's sonCharlieDuring his reign, he expanded outwards on a larger scale. In 800 AD, Charles was crowned emperor and becameCharlemagne Empire 。In 843, it was divided into three parts, namely, the embryonic form of France, Germany and Italy later.
Lombardy Kingdom
germanic people
In 568, Lombards invaded northern Italy and establishedLombardy KingdomIs the last scene of the national migration.Lombardy people originally lived at the mouth of Yibei River, and later movedPannonia。They occupied it under the leadership of leader AlboeingPo RiverThe valley, which established the Lombardy Kingdom centered on Ravenna, was called Lombardy from then on.Lombards ruthlessly suppressed the resistance of Roman nobles, calling it God's punishment.After Alboeing's death, Lombardy Kingdom declined and was destroyed by Frank in 774.
In the new Germanic kingdom, many Roman nobles were killed and their land was confiscated, but some people kept their power and formed a newFeudal lordClass.At the same time, the status of slaves and slave farmers improved, and the number of small farmers increased due to the existence of rural communes;Later, the slaves disappeared completely, and the slave peasants and the small peasants who went bankrupt one after another due to the burden of military service formed a new serf class.The feudalization process was completed, and this process was more fully studied in the Frankish Kingdom.
