world outlook Generally speaking, it means "viewing the world", which is people's overall view and fundamental view of the world. Methodology is people Know the world 、 Transform the world The general method of "is how people observe things and deal with problems". To sum up, world outlook mainly solves the problem of "what is the world", and methodology mainly solves the problem of "how to do". The application of certain worldview principles in the process of cognition and practice is manifested as methods. Methodology is the theory about these methods. There is no isolated methodology separated from the world outlook; There is no pure world view without methodological significance. Generally speaking, there is a world view of what kind Philosophical Methodology 。 Materialism The world outlook requires people to proceed from reality and seek truth from facts in their understanding and practice. idealism The world view starts from something spiritual. Objective idealism The world outlook requires people to follow some objective spiritual principles or religious doctrine , inspiration from gods, etc. Subjective idealism The worldview believes that people can act according to their own feelings, experiences, wishes, subjective will, etc. Dialectical worldview requires grasping things from their universal connection and eternal movement, analyzing their own contradictions and resolving these contradictions. metaphysics The world outlook urges people to study things in isolation, statically and mechanically. Philosophical methodology is based on a certain world view, which obtains the value of existence by its guiding significance for people's cognitive methods and practical methods. Philosophical methodology cannot be separated from the world outlook, Natural Science Methodology Must also be View of nature and Scientific outlook Is the premise. Specific scientific research method In the final analysis, it is also restricted by a certain world outlook. This restriction is mediated by different levels of methodology. Methodologies at all levels are not directly unified, and there are some differences between them. The consistency between the world outlook and methodology is not simply the same. Understanding the world outlook does not mean mastering methodology. Methodology is the theory of applying world outlook, but applying world outlook and mastering methodology need special research. And historical materialism
Historical materialism Correct solution social existence and social consciousness Basic principles of relationship (i.e Social existence determines social consciousness ）Is the fundamental starting point of all social sciences. Society is a special part of the material world. Without understanding its particularity, it is impossible to treat the general Materialism Principles and Dialectics Apply ideas correctly to Social history The process of cognition. Historical materialism reveals that labor human society The decisive role in the formation and development, pointing out that the material relationship of society Political relations The decisive role of the relationship between social existence and social consciousness Historical view The fundamental problem of the social sciences has laid a foundation for materialism epistemology The fundamental principle of. Historical materialism explains social consciousness from social existence, production relations from productive forces economic base Explain the superstructure, and from the perspective of productivity Production relations and Superstructure Description of the relationship between Law of social development Of Know the route , Yes civil life Research in all fields has universal guiding significance. Only by following this cognitive line can social sciences correctly summarize Experience materials And draw scientific conclusions. History of Chinese Philosophy There were many discussions on the methods of seeking knowledge, and expressed various opinions on the methods of understanding from different angles, forming a Chinese Cultural tradition The theory of cognitive methods. Confucius Explain the method of seeking knowledge. He emphasized that Learning and thinking Equal emphasis and clear proposal“ Learning without thinking is labor lost; thinking without learning is perilous ”。 This is the acquired source of knowledge. He advocated "erudite", "knowledgeable" and "seeing more". However, it is opposed to being satisfied with obtaining a lot of disorderly knowledge, and requires that all knowledge be penetrated with the principle of "consistent". "Consistency" is achieved through thinking, which is also the methodological principle of thinking. According to this principle, Confucius also put forward such methods as "taking one corner and opposing it with three corners", "knocking at both ends and exhausting it". He also stressed that "no intention, no need, no firmness, no self", that is, he opposed the speculative, arbitrary, stubborn and subjective way of thinking. stay Confucius in the future, Mozi Focusing on practical verification or application Empirical method 。 Laozi Zhuangzi The method of advocating intuition without emphasizing experience requires meditation to directly understand the essence of the universe. Mencius Be conscientious and advocate introspection Interior seeking It is also an intuitive method. a pre-Qin philosopher Combining the observation of things with the practice of Tao requires us to recognize the law of "Tao" in the observation of things, and make analogy according to the Tao, so as to obtain universal knowledge of all things in the universe. Xunzi also advocated "emptiness and quietness" and "deconstruction", which is the way he proposed to correct his thinking to obtain true knowledge. In the thought of name debate in ancient China, Huishi 、 Gongsunlong The arguments of others reflect General and individual 、 Relative and absolute They have separated the relationship between individual and general, relative and absolute from different aspects. In the later period, Mohism and Xunzi paid attention to the combination of them, and this discussion was of great significance for promoting the development of ancient Chinese ideological methodology. From the Song Dynasty to the Ming and Qing Dynasties, philosophers also paid more attention to the discussion of methodology, Cheng Zhu School Claims“ Daoism ”, paying attention to "learning from facts" Integrated approach It is believed that knowledge is inherent in people, but must be based on things, "that is, things are poor in reason". school of Lu Jiuyuan and Wang Shouren Then asserts that“ Respect virtue ”That is to say, we should pay attention to the heart, and think that all true knowledge comes from the heart, so long as we work hard on the heart. Qing Dynasty Wang Fuzhi 、 Yan Yuan 、 Dai Zhen Both pay more attention to the method of cognition. Among them, Wang Fuzhi breaks down the previous theory of "seeking knowledge from things" into two parts: "seeking truth from things and experience", that is Induction ； Knowledge is a method of speculative reasoning, that is Deductive method 。 Moreover, he believes that the two are complementary and cannot be separated. "If you don't know something, nothing will be cut, and playthings will be discouraged; if you don't know something, you will know what is not used, and you will use your wisdom to enter evil. If you combine the two, you can't be different". Chinese philosophy The tradition also pays special attention to providing guidelines and methods for people to correct their behavior and improve their morality. In Chinese philosophy, ethics and moral cultivation 、 Moral practice The methodology of cognition is included in the methodology of ethical practice. in ancient times Chinese philosophy and ancient Greek Rome In philosophy, there is no special branch of methodology of consciousness. The development of methodology and the development of modern large-scale industry and natural science are Indivisible Of. capitalism And the development of industry and commerce Modern Natural Science The rise and development of Scientific Methodology The urgent need of. At this time, the significance of philosophy as a methodology was highlighted. The founder of modern methodology is the British philosopher Bacon. He advocates science and opposes containment of science Religious theology and Scholastic philosophy 。 Bacon in《 New instrumentalism 》The experience of scientific experiments is summarized, and a new cognitive method, namely empirical induction, is proposed. Bacon armed science with his methodology and promoted the development of science. French philosopher R Descartes The rational deduction methodology is proposed. Like Bacon, he opposed scholasticism and advocated the development of science. Descartes was dissatisfied with scholasticism, which was based on the doctrine of the Bible Deductive method , thinking that no reliable knowledge can be obtained from it. He values rationality《 On Methods 》Four methods are proposed in the book: ① General suspicion, remove all suspicious knowledge, leaving something that can never be doubted;
② Turn complex things into the simplest things, such as Spiritual entity Simplify it into thinking Physical entity Simplify to Extensive extension ； ③ Use synthesis From simple things to complex things, he said: "Give me extension and movement, and you can create a world"; ④ The more comprehensive the accumulation, the more thoughtful the review, the better, so as to ensure that nothing is missing. He used this rational deduction method to infer the existence of God from the concept of analyzing the perfection of God. He advocated clarity and called it "the light of nature", namely reason. Descartes especially emphasized mathematics and advocated that all knowledge should be like geometry So, from a few“ No evidence Derived from the axiom of "natural", this kind of knowledge is the most reliable knowledge. British J. Locke and D. Hume further developed empiricism Methodology. Locke proposed Sensationalism Of epistemology 。 Hume put forward criticism Rational knowledge Of Skepticism 。 Continental Europe B. Spinoza and G W. Leibniz further developed Rationalism Methodology. In particular, Spinoza imitated geometry in the way of rational deduction Axiomatic method , has established its own philosophy system. At this time, methodology has been taken as the philosophical basis of the cognitive process. Before the 19th century, the whole natural science was still in the stage of collecting materials, and only mathematics and mechanics were fully developed Mechanistic theory and metaphysics The way of thinking is dominant. 1. Kant was the first to break the gap of metaphysical thinking method. He came from Corpuscle The contradiction between attraction and exclusion solar system The formation and development of Mechanical materialism Bankruptcy of methods. At the same time, he built a huge transcendental idealism System, trying to turn the whole philosophy into methodology. Kant's Critical Investigation Rational thinking And it Know the world The critical methodology of transcendental idealism was formed. Kant criticized Leibniz's rationalism, saying that he blindly believed in the reliability of reason and totally denied the necessity of sensory experience; And criticized Hume's empiricism He rejected the role of reason in cognition and denied universality and Inevitability , denied scientific knowledge 。 Kant combines Leibniz's rationalism with Hume's empiricism and believes that there is no perceptual intuition Material, rational thinking is empty; No, Logical category Concept, perceptual intuition is blind. However, in Kant's view, the category of logical concepts does not come from perceptual experience, but is inherent in human cognitive ability, thus denying the logic objectivity 。 G.W.F. Hegel Criticized Kant's critical methodology. He insists on logic objectivity However, we regard the historical development of the whole world as Absolute idea The development of dialectical logic. In Logic, Hegel emphasized the idea Dialectics As a general method of cognition and a general method of mental activity, his logic is also its Dialectical idealism Methodology. Materialist dialectics It was Marx and Engels who Materialism Transform Hegel on the basis of Idealistic dialectic , the only scientific methodology created. It is a summary of each department Specific science On the basis of positive results, the methodology with the most universal significance is derived from the most general laws of nature, society and thinking. Materialist dialectics is right objective law It requires people to do everything in their cognitive and practical activities Proceed from reality , seek truth from facts and consciously apply objective world The dialectical law of development should strictly follow the objective law. Materialist dialectics believes that all phenomena in the world are Universal connection The most essential form of universal connection between things and eternal movement and the most profound reason for the development of movement are the unity of contradictory opposites. Therefore, the metaphysical thinking method of looking at problems in isolation and still is wrong Contradiction analysis Is the most important way of understanding. Materialist dialectics believes that practice is the basis of the unity of opposites between subjectivity and objectivity, and separation from practice will inevitably lead to the deviation of subjectivity and objectivity subjectivism Therefore, we must adhere to practice to maintain the consistency of subjectivity and objectivity. In the process of understanding, we should use Practical test People's understanding should be good at correctly using a variety of scientific experiments and typical experimental methods. Materialist dialectics believes that the whole objective Material world And every thing and phenomenon is the unity of diversity. Each has its own structure, including different levels and elements, forming a system; Every thing, phenomenon and system has its own personality; At the same time, there are some commonalities between them, which exist in individuality. Diversity and unity Generality and individuality Are the unity of opposites. This led to the induction and deduction in cognition analytical method And comprehensive method perceptual concreteness To thinking abstraction and from thinking abstraction to Thinking concretely And so on. These different methods are also the unity of opposites. Therefore, we should not unilaterally elevate one method and belittle the other, but put them in an appropriate position. We should not only oppose empiricism, which places one-sided emphasis on induction, but also oppose empiricism, which places one-sided emphasis on deduction Rationalism 、 Dogmatism And dogmatism, we should dialectically combine induction and deduction. Every thing and phenomenon in the world has its own production, development and destruction Historical law We must also implement Historical method and Logical method Unification of. Lenin once summarized the basic logical method of understanding things: ① Strive to overall We must grasp and study all aspects, connections and intermediaries of things; ② Observe things from their development, movement and change; ③ All human practices must be included in the complete "definition" of things; ④ Attention must be paid Concreteness of truth 。 As people's understanding of objective laws continues to enrich and develop, so will Marxist methodology. Marxist philosophy The most important feature of methodology is that it is not only Theoretical knowledge It is also the tool of the great revolutionary practice in the communist movement. It is a unified, complete and scientific methodology of theoretical cognition and revolutionary practice. It plays an increasingly important role in social practice and spiritual life. Guided by the methodology of Marxist philosophy, Mao Zedong put forward the specific revolutionary practice Leadership methods and Working methods The theory of. He said, "No matter what work we Communists do, there are two methods we must adopt. One is Combination of general and individual The second is the combination of leaders and the masses. " "It is the basic method of leadership to concentrate from the masses and stick to the masses to form correct leadership opinions. In the process of concentration and adherence, we must adopt the method of combining general call with individual guidance, which is an integral part of the former method" (Selected Works of Mao Zedong, Vol. 3, pp. 852, 855). Since the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century Physics revolution Since then, all sciences have developed by leaps and bounds. The proportion of methodology in scientific knowledge is increasing day by day, and the role of methodology in scientific development is also increasingly significant. This is inseparable from the characteristics of the times of scientific development. Specifically, ① scientific research on nature and society is becoming more and more extensive and in-depth, which makes scientific research in Intuitiveness The degree of abstraction is increased and the degree of logical thinking Necessity of highly developed methods. ② The further differentiation and synthesis of science has produced some Emerging disciplines and Marginal discipline , promoting scientific research entirety And comprehensive enhancement, resulting in system theory And other new disciplines with methodological significance. ③ modern science Found a series of original science Theoretical system New facts that cannot be explained and explained have emerged paradox , which destroyed the original principles of the scientific system and the consistent logical rigor of thinking, and produced modern science Categorical system At the same time, many fundamental changes have also promoted the development of logical methods. ④ The complexity and comprehensiveness of scientific research topics are increasingly strengthened, and the accompanying scientific research means are increasingly complex and sophisticated. Scientific research is increasingly becoming a collective and comprehensive undertaking. Therefore, it is necessary for different aspects and levels of scientific research topics to cooperate and coordinate with each other, and it is also necessary for methodologies to coordinate different aspects and levels of scientific research. The characteristics of scientific development Philosophical Methodology A series of problems need to be solved, such as the relationship between observation and experiment Scientific facts and Causality The relationship between explanation, induction and deduction, analogy and generalization, hypothesis and theory certainty and Uncertainty The relationship between imagination and scientific discovery, the relationship between system and structure, the relationship between structure and function, the relationship between system and elements, the relationship between control and information, the relationship between law and prediction, and the relationship between theory and practice; The development of science also raises a series of questions about the form of methodology, such as the analysis of scientific language scientific theory The analysis of the formal structure, the formation and development of scientific theories and their logic Effectiveness And so on. Logical empiricism Philosophy attaches great importance to the research on the form of methodology, and has made some useful contributions. However, the philosophy of logical empiricism denies the necessity and possibility of the existence of the world outlook science, and dismisses all problems concerning the philosophical world outlook as "metaphysical" delusions. logic Empiricist One sided exaggeration of the form of methodology is often limited to static analysis of scientific theory logic analysis , ignore and belittle the objective content of experience, and obliterate the revolutionary change in the development of scientific knowledge. Since the 1920s, most scientific philosophers have established their own programs on the basis of the assumption that "the knowledge content of any natural science has a definite logical structure and can be expressed by a formal proposition system". This formal method and axiomatic method has played a positive role in the development of science, But if we ignore the objective nature and true content of the things concerned, it is wrong to reduce the study of things only to the method of relationship and the method of tracing back to some set axioms. Since the 1950s Philosophy of science A new Development trend It is mainly manifested in breaking through the static logical analysis of scientific theory and linking the research on methodology with the history of scientific development. For example, K R. Popper, T S. Kuhn and later Lakatos And P K. Feyerabend and others tried to explain the revolution and development of scientific theory from the perspective of methodology. Popper regards the development of science as a series of falsification processes. He emphasized deduction, denied induction, praised falsification, and belittled confirmation. He even said: "We can't know, we can only guess." Kuhn proposed that scientific development is achieved through Conventional science and scientific revolution By the alternate development. The scientific revolution is the replacement of "paradigm". He believes that“ New theory It is difficult to rise without destructive changes in beliefs about nature ". What he called "destructive change" is the product of an irrational activity. He denied the inheritance in the scientific revolution. Lakatos absorbed the advantages of Popper's and Kuhn's thoughts and overcame Popper Naive Falsificationism On the basis of scientific research program Only on the basis of putting forward and realizing a certain order can science be developed. Feyerabend He believes that all methodologies have their own limits. Through the analysis of historical examples of science, he tried to explain that science under the rule of a certain theory is stagnant, and proposed a method to overthrow an established theory, which is "anything goes", that is, scientists can freely try any program they like. They all criticized logical empiricism and regarded scientific development as simple Knowledge accumulation Process perspective. However, their common characteristics are one-sided exaggeration of knowledge Relativity And deny the absolute objective content of knowledge, thus moving towards skepticism. Philosophical methodology is a methodology with universal significance applicable to all specific sciences. Modern natural science The development of "has not only developed the special methodology of each specific science itself, but also bred some scientific methodologies that only reflect a certain aspect of the world but have universal significance, such as Mathematical method 。 Historically Mathematics is almost as old as philosophy. From the beginning, mathematics has the meaning of scientific methodology. Although, at the beginning, mathematics was only used in such fields as astronomical phenomena, calendar Land survey , machinery and a few other sciences play the role of methodology, but everything in the world has two aspects: quality and quantity, and quantity determines quality, Law of mass reciprocity It is a universal dialectical law. Therefore, mathematics and its methods should be universally applicable to any science. Marx believed that only when a science successfully uses mathematics can it be truly perfect. The development of modern science increasingly shows this point. Mathematic methods have increasingly become social sciences 、 Science of Thinking And other indispensable methods for all scientific departments. However, mathematical methods only involve the quantity side of things, so mathematical methods alone cannot reveal all aspects of things and achieve a comprehensive and complete understanding of things. At the same time, the correct application of mathematical methods and the healthy development of mathematical methods themselves cannot be separated from the guidance of correct philosophical methodology, so mathematical methods cannot replace philosophical methodology. About understanding the world and Transform the world The method of theory. Methodology can be divided into philosophical methodology, general scientific methodology and specific scientific methodology at different levels. Scientific methodology, including Bacon's experimental methods and Inductive logic 、 Descartes The mathematical method and Deductive logic , and Bertalanffy's general system theory method and China Zeng Bangzhe The systematic logic of "Structure Theory". About Understanding the World, Transforming the World, Exploring and Realizing Subjective world and objective world The consistent most general methodology is philosophical methodology; It is of general significance to study various specific subjects. The methodology applicable to many related fields is general scientific methodology; The methodology of studying a specific discipline and involving a specific field is the specific scientific methodology. The relationship between the three is a unity of opposites that is interdependent, interactive and complementary; In a sense, philosophical methodology plays a decisive role. It is the generalization and summary of various scientific methodologies, the most general methodology, and has guiding significance for general scientific methodology and specific scientific methodology. Marxist philosophy It is a scientific philosophical methodology, which is not only a weapon to understand the objective world, but also a weapon to transform reality. The philosophy content in our textbook "Principles of Marxist Philosophy" is not all Marx's initiative, but most of the views agreed by Marx, such as Dialectics Theory. Marx's important contribution is Historical materialism 。 
