Languages throughout China and overseas Chinese areas
synonymNew Mandarin(The new standard pronunciation issued by the Ministry of Education of the National Government in 1932) generally refers to modern standard Chinese
Modern Standard Chinese(Modern Chinese can be divided into standard language and dialect)[1]It is a common standard commonly used throughout China and overseas Chinese areaslanguage。Cantonese is spoken in Hong Kong and Macao due to historical reasons.It is currently the official language standard of China, one of the official languages in Singapore and other countriesSoutheast AsiaAnd other common spoken or written languages widely used by overseas Chinese groups;As one of the six official working languages of the United Nations, it has become the main reference for international people to learn Chinese.
Since Westerners came to China and tried to learn Mandarin, they naturally need to create a phonetic system to record the pronunciation of Chinese characters.Over the years, many Pinyin systems have been launched.In the 19th century, the firstWade-Giles romanization , named after its inventor.
1906, StandardPostal Spelling System It is also an irregular system, which is mostly used for place names.
The above two systems are still in use, but graduallyChinese PinyinInstead, most of them only appear in old textbooks or history books.
In the 20th century, some Chinese linguists proposed severalTranscriptionSystem, and one of them is a new Pinyin system:Chinese phonetic symbolsSo far, the most successful transcription system is Hanyu Pinyin, which is the scheme launched by the Chinese mainland government in 1958.The United Nations and other international organizations now partly use Chinese Pinyin.
Yale spelling is not popular and outdated, but it can represent the phoneme of Mandarin better.
Before the founding of New China
The standard language of modern Chinese inherits from the system of "Mandarin", which originated in the Northern Song Dynasty and was destined for the Yuan and Ming dynasties.
In 1909, the Qing government set up the "Mandarin Editorial Committee", officially naming the then common Mandarin asMandarin。This is the first time that Chinese has been officially named.
New and old national accent
In 1911, after the founding of the Republic of China, in February of the following year, the "Chinese Phonetic Unification Conference" was held in PeipingFormulated a historical titleOld MandarinThe national accent system of "Beijing accent as the main voice, giving consideration to the north and south" hasthe entering tone。At the same time, the first form of phonetic alphabet was formulated.
In September 1919, he edited and published the Republic of China Phonics Dictionary.
In 1920, due to the contradiction between the pronunciation standard of Guoyin Dictionary and that of Peiping“Beijing State Dispute”。In the same year,Nanjing Normal UniversityHead of English SectionZhang ShiyiThe issue of the Unification of the National Language was published and it was believed thatNational Phonetic Alphabettogether withNational accentThey all need to make fundamental changes, do not agree with the national accent, and advocate taking Beiping as the national accent standard.National Federation of Education AssociationsAnd the Jiangsu Provincial Federation of Primary Schools Affiliated to Teachers' Colleges and Universities successively made a resolution to determine Beiping as the standard voice, and finallyCommittee for Updating Mandarin DictionaryIt established the national accent as "the standard pronunciation is Peiping", that isNew Mandarin。，And began to promote it in schools across the country.
The formation of "national language" In May 1932,Ministry of Education of the Republic of ChinaThe official publication and publication of the Glossary of Common Words in Mandarin provides a model for the establishment of the standard of Mandarin and the first system of modern Chinese standard - Mandarin system.
After 1932, the national language broadcasting took the form of "Common Words of the National Voice" as the standard, and the national language standards in various regions were unified.
status
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Politics
In Taiwan, China, the National Government enforced the policy of promoting Mandarin and restricting dialects (i.e“campaign to promote the national language”）However, it has been abolished. As a result of the official policy of restricting dialects implemented in primary schools around the country, the seeds of ethnic hatred have been implanted in many primary school students.
In mainland China“popularize the common spoken Chinese”It is regarded as one of the important policies and even written into the Constitution;The use of dialects is restricted.At the end of the 20th century, the Chinese mainland once restricted the use of dialects in public. Except for Cantonese, which is of united front value, dialects are generally prohibited from being used in television media.Over the years, this restriction has been relaxed, and dialect programs have emerged in various local TV stations. Many cities have dialect news programs and TV dramas, but most of them are entertainment oriented, such as Shanghai TV sitcoms《Old Uncle》, from SuzhouSuzhou dialectThe news "The Classic of Mountains and Rivers", "In a nutshell" of Nantong Radio,Guangdong TV StationOf《Foreign Daughter in law Local Lang》Red Men and Green Women from Jilin TV Station and Hunan TV Station《The whole family rushes forward》Etc.The Ministry of Education has also carried out the campaign of "Putonghua becomes the language on campus", which has led to the prohibition of students from speaking dialects in some schools in some provinces.In some areas, the one-sided popularization policy has made it impossible for children born in the 1990s to use dialects fluently, and there is a gap between the inheritance of dialects and local culture.Compulsory popularization has been criticized by network public opinion.In Shanghai, Xiamen and other cities, the government has a certain understanding of dialect inheritance.
Taiwan, China:Democratic Progressive PartyThe government has adopted the promotion of mother tongue (localization policy), but Mandarin is still the main official language, and its popularity is far higher than that of Mandarin in mainland China.Due to the strong role of mass media, including news stations, parent-child stations, Xinzhi, entertainment, variety shows, cartoons and other types of programs and TV advertisements are still dominated by Mandarin, and the survival of other parties is threatened.Over the yearslocalization The implementation of the policy has increased local dialect teaching in primary schools.In addition to idol dramas and foreign dramas with dubbing (such as Korean dramas, Hong Kong dramas, etc.), which are still pronounced in Mandarin, many of the dialogues in the series at 8:00 pm are in Minnan dialecthakka tv Also launchedhakka dialectDramas, programs and aboriginal TV stations are the same, but they all target the elderly.Although Taiwan's news stations have native language news, they are often criticized as non-standard;Moreover, Taiwan's ethnic groups live in vague areas. Most schools at all levels can only teach in Mandarin, and most school teachers are unable to teach in dialects.From this we can know that there is a certain crisis in the inheritance of dialects.
in the islandMinnan dialectCompared with other dialects, there is no crisis in the inheritance of Chinese dialect. Most Taiwanese can understand it, and a certain number of young people and children use it as a dialect. However, many Taiwanese (especially young people) have significantly reduced their ability to speak Chinese dialect. It is also common for parents to use their mother tongue when talking with their children, but they use Mandarin extensively;The inheritance of Hakka, one of Taiwan's three major dialects, is in crisis (many young Hakka people cannot understand Hakka), while the indigenous language is in crisis of extinction;In addition, although Taiwan's literacy rate is close to 100%, the proportion of Han people who are proficient in dialects or indigenous people who are proficient in their own language is only 10% or 20%.
Chinese Mainland:Before the reform and opening up, few people were used to speaking Mandarin, and people often used local dialects to communicate in their lives.Over the years, this phenomenon has undergone great changes.About "whether to popularize（popularize the common spoken Chinese）”The proposition of "whether to restrict the use of dialects while popularizing" and "whether popularizing will inevitably result in the atrophy of dialects" has always been debated among the people in mainland China.In immigrant areas, such as Shenzhen Special Zone, Mandarin has replaced local dialect（Hakka、Circumlocution）To become the first communication term with the local powerful dialect (Cantonese);Cantonese and Hakka have almost completely withdrawn from local public places and are on the verge of disappearing.It is difficult to simply use local Cantonese or Hakka.
In many specific places, such as large institutions, government departments above prefecture level, colleges and universities, it is generally stipulated that Mandarin is the only common language, and it is strictly prohibited to use non Mandarin in these placesChinese dialects 。
In many northern areas (mainly popularzhongyuan mandarin 、Jin In some areas of the city, it has emerged that local young people cannot speak the local dialect, but can only speak Mandarin;In some southern cities, children can hardly speak dialect;In other regions, urban youthdialectIt has also been influenced by Putonghua, and its dialect expression ability has been greatly degraded compared with that of the previous generation.
Southeast Asia, Hong Kong and Macao:The local Chinese are mainly in Minnan dialect and Cantonese.Over the years, Mandarin and Mandarin have become popular in these areas, and gradually become one of the common commercial languages, but there is still a long way to go from daily communication.
Singapore:There are four kinds of Chineseofficial languageOne is that most Singaporean Chinese people come from Fujian and Guangdong, and the Chinese language promoted by the government is not from Fujian dialect at home (localMinnanThe official Chinese is Mandarin, and dialects are not allowed on TV.However, the younger generation is used to having a strong accentSingapore English。
phonetic system
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The following will take Putonghua as an example to introduce the voice system of Chinese standard language.
The phonetic system of Mandarin basically followsPeking Mandarin The main difference between the two systems is that zh, ch and sh are more pronounced in Beijing dialect than in MandarinCocky tongue sound；Taiwan Mandarin avoids rolling tongues.The tone of Putonghua also largely inherits the system of Beijing Mandarin, namelythe high and level tone55，the rising tone35, up 214, down 51, and softly;Taiwan's national language is 21.Single tone MandarinFour tonesIn Mandarin, only the flat tone has Yin Yang separation, and there is no entering tone, so there are four tones except the neutral tone:
Yin Ping (marked with "-", tone value 55)
Yang Ping (marked with "ˊ", tone value 35)
the falling-rising tone("Shang" is pronounced sh ǎ ng, marked with "ǎ", and the tone value is 214)
In addition, there is a soft sound (marked with "·" or not), which can be used in thesyllableUsed in words and sentences.Whether the neutral tone should be called tone or not is controversial in academic circles.
(ma) Four tones of a single tone The tone of Mandarin is the same as that of PutonghuaValue adjustmentThere are some differences (21 in the upper voice).
Ancient ChineseThe entering tone of is divided into various tones in Mandarin.This is different from mostchinesedialectDifferent.
Supersyllabic
When reading words and sentences in Mandarin, the pronunciation of words will change to some extent.Tone sandhi、Soft voice、InfantilizationIs an example.
Tone sandhi
1. WhenTwo Shangsheng charactersWhen linking, the tone value of the first word becomes 35, which is equal to the tone value of Yangping.Tone sandhiValue adjustmentIt's 214-35.For example, "mouse" (l ǎ o sh ǔ), both tones arethe falling-rising tone, but pronouncedthe rising tone, Shangsheng, similar to the pronunciation of "prison rat" (l á o sh ǔ) (but different, "half Shangsheng").
2. WhenThree Shangsheng charactersIf it is continuous, it is more complicated, and the specific situation should be analyzed.
When the first two words of a word aredisyllable, and the third word isMonosyllabicWhen the first two words are pronounced Yang Ping Sheng.For example, the pronunciation of b ǎǎǎǎǎǎǎǎǎǎǎǎǎǎǎǎǎǎǎǎǎǎ.When the first word of a word is monosyllabic and the last two words are disyllabic, the first word loses the key of 14 and becomes 211;The second word reads Yang Ping Sheng.For example, the pronunciation of "general custody" (z ǒ b ǎ o gu ǎ n) is Shangthe rising tone, but first wordthe falling-rising toneJust "half up".3. If the upper tone character is followed by a non upper tone character, that isthe high and level tone, Yangpingthe falling toneWhen it is not at the end of a sentence and is not stressed, it is often pronounced as a half tone.In Mandarin, 21 is read after the upper tone character followed by the non upper tone character, regardless of other conditions.
1. On goingsyllableBefore, "one" read Yang Ping Sheng.For example, "definitely" (Yangping, Quo).
2. Before the non sound removal festival, "one" reads the sound removal.For example: "One day" (go, cloudy), "One year" (go, sunny), "Together" (go, upper).
3. Between words, read "one" softly.But when it means ordinal number or in other cases, "one" reads the originalthe high and level toneSound.
4. "No" only exists whenthe falling toneBefore syllableTone sandhibythe rising toneSound.Between words, "no" is pronounced softly.The characters in soft tone Mandarin are read in soft tone under the following circumstances:
The rate of children in the north is much higher than that in the south, and many southerners do not even use children.
Spelling system
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The Chinese standard has many sets of spelling systems.The famous ones arePhonetic symbols, Weitoma spellingChinese Pinyin, Phonetic Two StyleUniversal PinyinEtc.Except for phonetic symbols, other spelling systems adoptlatin alphabetAs a literal form.At present, Pinyin is the legal pinyin of Putonghua in mainland China.In Taiwan, China, phonetic symbols are commonly used, while in English translation, the Vitomar spelling is often used.Western published books used to use the Witoma spelling, but since the 1980s, more and more publications have used Chinese Pinyin. After 2000, almost all academic books have changed to Chinese Pinyin.
Internal differences
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Mandarin, Chinese
There are differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary among Beijing dialect, Putonghua and Southeast Asian Mandarin.
Chinese standard language with accent
There are also differences between "standard accent (no accent)" and "non-standard accent (with accent)" in Mandarin and Chinese.From this point of view, Chinese standard language constitutes a major category of "dialects" in Chinese.
There is no strict boundary between standard and non-standard accents.Take Putonghua as an example:
The most strictly defined "standard accent" is CCTVCCTV NewsPronunciation of.According to this standard, the majority of Chinese speakers in mainland China, including many broadcasters, have accents in their Putonghua.In fact, many people occasionally violate the "Chinese National Language Standard" in terms of pronunciation and accent, but they can still be regarded as standard Putonghua.
Mandarin, which is obviously influenced by dialects or other languages, is generally regarded as having an accent.For example,toneThe system is too different from the tone system of Putonghua, or there are too many words with incorrect pronunciation.
Whether Putonghua, which is influenced to some extent by dialects or other languages but does not affect communication at all, is regarded as having an accent varies from person to person.For example, a certain degree of "Beijing flavor", "Northeast flavor" Mandarin.
