The Renaissance

[wén yì fù xīng]

The Cultural Movement of Ideological Emancipation in Western Europe from the 14th to the 16th Century

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Renaissance refers to a cultural movement of ideological emancipation that took place in Europe from the 14th century to the 16th century.

The concept of "Renaissance" has been used by Italy Of Humanism Used by writers and scholars. People at that time believed that literature and art Greece 、 Rome Classical times Once highly prosperous, but in the the medieval times “ Dark Age ”However, it declined and disappeared. It was not until the 14th century that it gained "regeneration" and "revival", so it was called "Renaissance".

Voltaire On《 Custom theory 》China says that the East is the cradle of all arts, and the East gives everything to the West.^[14]

Russell It is believed that the Renaissance was a "barren" century in terms of science and philosophy, despite its dazzling achievements in literature and art.^[13]

The Renaissance began in Italy The rise of city states later expanded to Western Europe Countries reached the peak in the 16th century, opening the modern era European history The prologue of is considered as medieval times And modern times. The Renaissance is Western Europe Three major ideological liberation movements in modern times (Renaissance Reformation And enlightenment campaign ）One.

After the 11th century, with the economic recovery and development city The rise of living standard With the improvement of, people gradually changed their pessimistic and desperate attitude towards real life and began to pursue the fun of secular life Catholicism Contrary to the claims of.

In the 14th century urban economy The prosperous Italy was the first to rebel against Catholic culture. At that time, Italian citizens and secular intellectuals, on the one hand, were extremely disgusted with Catholicism Theocracy Status and its hypocrisy Asceticism On the other hand, due to the lack of mature cultural system Instead of Catholic culture, they used revival ancient Greek 、 Roman culture In the form of Cultural proposition 。 Therefore, the Renaissance emphasized that the new culture should learn from the classics, not just the classical renaissance. In fact bourgeois class The new cultural movement against feudalism.

Chinese name: The Renaissance
Foreign name: Renaissance
Alias: Regeneration of classical learning
Essence: Bourgeois anti feudal new cultural movement
Cause: bourgeois class dissatisfaction church Mind control

Rising country: Italy
guiding ideology: Humanism
representative figure: Dante 、 Da Vinci 、 Shakespeare 、 Michelangelo
Impact: For Europe capitalism Laid the foundation for the emergence of
Time of occurrence: 14th century - 16th century

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The Renaissance

Renaissance Italian : Rinascimento, composed of ri - "re" and nascere "birth", French La Renaissance is an ideological and cultural movement that took place in Europe from the middle of the 14th century to the 16th century. It profoundly affected the knowledge life in Europe in the early modern times.

It is generally believed that it originated from Florence , but there are objections.^[1] Other important centers in Italy are Venice 、 Genoa 、 Milan 、 Naples 、 Bologna , and finally, the Pope Rome 。 from Italy From the beginning to the 16th century, it spread to other parts of Europe, and its influence Art ， Architecture ， Philosophy ， literature ， music ， Science and technology ， Politics ， Religion And other aspects of intellectual inquiry have been reflected. Renaissance scholars used Humanism And look for it in art Realism And human emotions.^[2]

The term "Renaissance" can also roughly refer to this historical period, but because the changes caused by it in various parts of Europe are not completely consistent, "Renaissance" is only a general term for this period.

core

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Florence, the Heart of Renaissance

Humanism The core of the spirit of humanism is to put forward the idea that people should be the center rather than God Human value And dignity. The purpose of life is to pursue happiness in real life, advocate the liberation of personality, oppose the theological thought of ignorance and superstition, and believe that man is the creator and master of real life.

Root cause

The development of productive forces, emerging bourgeois class Dissatisfied with the church's control of the spiritual world.

essence

rising bourgeois class In the name of reviving Greek and Roman classical culture, it launched an anti feudal new cultural movement to carry forward bourgeois ideology and culture.

historical background

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Italian society and Political structure

Based on the late Middle Ages Italy Some scholars reasoned that the unique social atmosphere in Italy provided a rare cultural prosperity necessary condition 。 In the early modern times, Italy was not unified Political entities , but by some city-state And territorial composition: Kingdom of Naples , in the middle republic of Florence and Papal States , located in the north and west respectively Republic of Genoa And Principality of Milan , and the eastern Republic of Venice 。

Italy in the 15th century was Europe Urbanization level The highest area. Many Italian cities are built on The buildings of ancient Rome On the ruins of; On the surface, this brings the classicality of the Renaissance and its origin to Imperium Romanum Heartland The facts are linked together.^[3]

History and Political philosophy home quentin skinner It is pointed out that, Freising When Bishop Otto (1114 – 1158) came to Italy in the 12th century, he noticed that there was a new kind of politics and society Histomorphology And observed that Italy seems to have begun to secede Feudal system , taking merchants and commerce as its social foundation. Related to this is mural The opposition expressed in the Allegory of Good and Bad Government monarchy Thought; This famous early Renaissance mural is located in Siena , by Ambrogio· Lorenzetti Painted from 1338 to 1340; Through this painting, he expressed his strong desire for fairness, justice, republicanism and good governance. Although the Holy See and Holy Roman Empire But these City Republic Still unremittingly pursuing the concept of freedom.

Skinner pointed out that there are many local people who are trying to safeguard freedom, such as Matteo Palmieri (1406 – 1475) Florence A talented artist in art, sculpture and architecture Florence The emerging prosperity of morality, society and political philosophy "sent a compliment.

European countries

Western European the medieval times It is a particularly "dark era". Christianity The church became feudal society Of Spiritual support , which establishes a strict ranking system , regarding God as the absolute authority. Literature, art and philosophy must follow the classic of Christianity《 Bible 》No one can violate the doctrine of, Religious court He will be punished or even sentenced to death. 《 Bible 》Adam and Eve, the ancestors of human beings, violated God's injunction and ate the paradise Forbidden fruit And thus committed a great crime, and since then the crime has come to the world. " Under the control of the church, the literature and art of the Middle Ages were lifeless, and there was no progress in science and technology. Black Death The spread in Europe has also exacerbated the panic in people's minds, making people suspicious Religious theology The absolute authority of.

In the late Middle Ages, capitalism With the promotion of various conditions, such as the development of productive forces Europe Of Italy Appears first. The seeds of capitalism are commodity economy As a result of the development of a certain stage, the commodity economy operates through the market, and selective purchase, bargaining, and contract signing in the market are all voluntary acts after consideration, which is the embodiment of freedom. Of course, if you want to have these "freedoms", you should also have them Ownership of means of production The common premise of all these freedoms is human freedom. At this time, Italy called for human freedom, and the stale Europe needed a new ideological movement to promote human freedom.

The rudiments of capitalism The emergence of the movement also provided the possibility for the rise of this ideological movement. urban economy The prosperity of rich merchant , workshop owners and bankers are more confident in the value and strength of individuals, more full of the spirit of innovation and enterprising, adventure and winning, and versatile, elegant and knowledgeable people are widely respected by people. This provided a deep material foundation and suitable social environment , and talents.

stay ancient Greek and Ancient Rome The achievements in literature and art are very high, and people can freely publish various academic ideas, which is similar to the dark the medieval times It's a sharp contrast.

At the end of the 14th century, due to the belief in Islam Ottoman Empire Constant invasion Eastern Roman Empire （ Byzantium ）The East Romans brought a large number of ancient Greek The art treasures and literature, history, philosophy and other books from Rome and Rome fled to Western Europe. Some Eastern Roman scholars in Italy Florence It has set up a school called "Greek Academy" to teach the glorious history, civilization and culture of Greece. This brilliant achievement is closely related to capitalism After sprouting, the comparison of its superiority and darkness makes people pursue the same spiritual realm. As a result, many scholars in Western Europe asked for restoration ancient Greek And the culture and art of Rome. This requirement is like the spring breeze, which slowly blows through the whole Western Europe. The renaissance movement thus arose.

Development history

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origin

Most historians believe that the interpretation of the concept of Renaissance originated from the late 13th century Florence , especially in Dante (1265 – 1321) Petrarch (1304 – 1374) and Giotto (1267 – 1337). Some scholars gave a very clear time for the beginning of the Renaissance, and one of them proposed that the year 1401 Lorenzo Ghiberti and Filippo Brunelleschi These two talented sculptors compete in Florence Notre Dame Hundred Flowers Cathedral battistero The contract of the copper door is the symbol. Other scholars believe that artists and Erudite (including Brunelleschi 、 Gibelti 、 Donatello and Masaccio (et al.) The general competition for the commission of artistic creation stimulated the creativity of the Renaissance.

cause

However, there are still many controversies about the reason why the Renaissance arose in Italy and took place at that time; Accordingly, there are also many theories used to explain the origin of the Renaissance.

Most scholars believe that at the end of the 14th century Islamism Of Ottoman Empire The invasion of, Eastern Roman Empire （ byzantium ）Many scholars, with a large number of ancient Greek and Roman art treasures and literature, history, philosophy and other books, have fled to Western Europe for refuge. This statement is widely recognized by the historians.

Others said: Yes Crusaders As for the souvenirs brought back from the three expeditions (although the third one was abandoned halfway), they found these books on the way, moved them back to hide in the basement of the church, and were later found. They marveled at the art and literature of ancient Rome, and began to spread vigorously, with the intention of achieving the achievements of ancient Rome at that time.

Another one was born in 1295 by a Venetian merchant Marco Polo It was published as "The Oriental Record", which was absurd but full of temptation in European society at that time. This triggered a strong desire of Europeans to explore the highly civilized and rich eastern world, and eventually broadened their horizons; At the same time, from 1405 to 1434, the Ming Dynasty Zheng He's Seven Voyages to the Western Seas , further promoting the cultural exchanges between the East and the West led to the rapid development of literature and art.

development

In the 14th century, with Workshop handicraft and commodity economy The development of, capitalism Relations have gradually formed within the European feudal system; Politically, the feudal separatist regime has aroused widespread dissatisfaction, national consciousness At the beginning of awakening, the masses of European countries expressed their strong desire for national reunification. Thus, a new period of reflecting the interests and requirements of emerging capitalist forces began to emerge in culture and art. The emerging bourgeoisie believes that medieval culture It is a kind of retrogression, while the classical culture of Greece and Rome is a model of bright development. They try to revive the classical culture - and the so-called "revival" is actually an unprecedented liberation and creation of knowledge and spirit. On the surface, it is to restore the progressive ideology of ancient Rome, In fact, it is the spiritual innovation of the emerging bourgeoisie 。

At that time, Italy was in a state of numerous city states, and each city was an independent or semi independent country, that is, a city state. After the 14th century, each city gradually changed from republic Towards dictatorship. dictator Devoted to pleasure, and believed in innovation Platonism , hoping to get rid of religion Asceticism And vigorously protect the artist's depiction of secular life. meanwhile St. Francis Religion radicalism Trying to abandon orthodox religion Scholastic philosophy , eulogizing the beauty of nature and human Spiritual value 。 Holy See They are also moving towards corruption. The pleasure enjoyed by successive popes is more powerful than that enjoyed by secular dictators. They are also protecting artists and allowing art to deviate from orthodox religious dogmas. Philosophy and science are gradually developing towards a more relaxed atmosphere, and the prelude to religious reform is also brewing.

So the Renaissance began in Italy. Dante It was written as early as 1300《 Divine Comedy 》, opposed the papal dictatorship, but was imprisoned and died of poverty. But Dante's work has influenced Petrarch , and there are also Bojiaqiu Born in 1313. From 1338, Petrarch spent four years writing the famous narrative epic "Afrika" intermittently. This poem is modeled on an ancient Roman writer Virgil The style of writing is pure Latin Written. With beautiful language, the author The Second Punic War It gives a vivid description. In the poem Sipio , praise him for his great achievements Pompeii 、 Caesar Comparable. The epic "Afrika" made Petrarch famous in the poetry world and made him a poet laureate. Later, Petrarch Speaking everywhere, he put his own Literary and artistic thought And academic thoughts, called "human studies" or“ Humanities ”, as opposed to "theology". He loudly called for "an ancient academic - its language Literary style And the revival of moral thought ". Therefore, Petrarch is the initiator of the Renaissance and is known as the "Father of Humanism".

In 1348, Black Death popular. This prompted Boccaccio to write Decameron ， The Decameron is the first realistic masterpiece in the history of European literature; Italian modern critic Sanctis once compared the Decameron with Dante Of《 Divine Comedy 》Juxtaposition, called“ Renqu ”。 This work led to the Renaissance becoming more and more unstoppable in Italy. From the middle of the 14th century to the middle of the 15th century, only Italy produced the Renaissance, and a large number of outstanding figures appeared. But the Renaissance spread rapidly.

burst

With the spread of the Renaissance to Europe, a large number of talents emerged, which led to Age Of Wind 。

Before the end of the 15th century, there were three main trade routes from the West to the East. One is land, that is, traditional“ the Silk Road ”, from Constantinople Login via Asia Minor 、 Black Sea and Caspian Sea South bank to Central Asia , climb over again the pamirs To China. The other two are sea routes: one is from Syria and mediterranean sea East bank, via Two river basin reach Persian Gulf , another from Egypt through Crimson Sea to Gulf of Aden And then change ships to India and China. These trade routes already pass by Italy 、 arab The merchants in Byzantium, Persia and other places changed hands many times before they could deliver goods to Western Europe.

In the middle of the 15th century, Ottoman Turkish Empire Rise and occupy successively Asia Minor and Balkan Peninsula Control the traditional trade routes and impose heavy taxes on past goods, so that the quantity of goods shipped to Western Europe is not only small, but also 8 – 10 times higher than the original price. So the merchants of Western Europe noble , eager to find another way to bypass the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea and directly reach China and India New route 。

In the 15th century, the improvement of science and technology and the progress of geographical knowledge made oceangoing navigation possible New route The necessary conditions have been created. Finally, new Maritime route Europe has become a world leader with the opening up and the significant development of this period.

end

As the trend of thought of the Renaissance has taken root in the hearts of the people, it declared the completion of the transition from the Middle Ages to the capitalist era. When the capitalist revolution began, the Renaissance ended.

representative figure

Three Literary Masters (Dante, Petrarch, Giovanni Boccaccio)

Dante （Dante，1265–1321）。 A pioneer of the Renaissance, the Renaissance movement originated in northern Italy. It is generally believed that the first representative figure is Dante, whose representative is《 Divine Comedy 》。

Dante is known as the last poet in the Middle Ages and the first poet in the new era. His long poem Divine Comedy (the whole poem consists of three parts): Inferno, Purgatorio and Paradise Paradise, which clearly expressed his dislike of the Catholic Church and took the lead in criticizing it.

In this 14000 line epic, Dante firmly opposes the medieval Obscurantism , expressing the idea of persistent pursuit of truth Poetic creation It has a profound impact.

The Divine Comedy was originally called Comedy, Bojiaqiu On《 But Ding Chuan 》In order to show his respect for the poet, the Chinese writer named this work "sacred". Later versions took the title of Holy Comedy. The Chinese version is generally called Divine Comedy.

Petrarch (Petrarch, 1304 – 1374) is an Italian poet. He was born in Arezzo on July 20, 1304 and died in Alqua on July 19, 1374. He is not only Humanism The founder of Modern poetry The founder of, known as the "father of humanism.".

Giovanni Boccaccio (Giovanni Boccaccio, 1313 – 1375), the first translation of Boccaccio, an outstanding representative of the Italian Renaissance, and a humanist. Representative works《 Decameron 》Criticizing religious conservative ideas and advocating "happiness in the world" is regarded as the declaration of the Renaissance.

Shakespeare (English). It was a man of the Renaissance Literary giant In his life, he wrote more than 30 plays and many popular poems. These works profoundly criticized the feudal moral and ethical concepts and Social bad habits , which embodies the spirit of humanism, and the representative works have tragedies《 Hamlet 》, Comedy《 Merchant of Venice 》。

Three outstanding artists（ Da Vinci 、 Raphael Cenci 、 Michelangelo ）

Leonardo Di Th Piero· Da Vinci (Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci, April 15, 1452 – May 2, 1519), yes Italian Renaissance The most famous artist sculptor , architect geographer , engineers, scientists, scientific giants, literary theorists, great philosophers, poets, musicians, and inventors. Just because he is a versatile person, he is also known as "the most perfect representative of the Renaissance". He was born in the suburbs of Florence Finch Town , died in France. Fresco《 last supper 》、 altarpiece 《 The Virgin of the Rocks 》And Portrait painting Mona Lisa is the three masterpieces of his life. These three works are among the treasures left by Leonardo da Vinci for the world's art treasure house, and they are the keystones of European art.^[4]

Raphael Cenci (Raphael Cenci, 1483 – 1520) Italian painter. Born on April 6, 1483 Urbino , died in Rome on April 6, 1520. The original name is Rafaello San Gioo. His series of Madonna portraits, different from the similar themes painted by medieval painters, are all based on maternal The warmth of youth and fitness reflect the humanistic thought. The most famous one is《 Virgin with Orioles 》(Tibetan Florence Galleria degli Uffizi ）、《 The Virgin on the Grass 》(Vienna Museum of Art History) and《 The Virgin in the Garden 》(Hidden in Louvre Museum ）。 The representative works as "The Statue of Castillone" and "The Statue of a Woman in a Veil".^[5]

Michelangelo Bo that Rorty (Michelangelo Bo that Rorty, 1475 – 1564), a great painter, sculptor and architect of the Italian Renaissance Sculpture art The representative of the highest peak. His masterpiece Bakus《 Mourning for Christ 》、《 David 》Moses《 Bound Slave 》、《 Dying Slave 》, Saint Lorenzo Medici Family Tomb sculptures and The Last Judgment.

Cause

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material basis

Medieval Europe, Trade Centre Concentrated on the Mediterranean coast, Italy was the first to produce capitalism The bourgeoisie hoped to break through the shackles of church theology. The rise of commercial cities, Handicraft workshop Development and economic prosperity.

Cultural foundation

A large number of ancient Greece Ancient Rome Cultural classics Eastern Roman Empire It spread to Italy.

class basis

Emerging bourgeoisie The growth of.

Talent advantage

During the Renaissance, Italy was full of talents.

geographical position

Italy Relatively close to the East, it was accepted earlier Oriental Culture （ Papermaking ， Typography ）。

blasting fuse

Black Death It is popular in Europe.

Deep causes

church Strictly control people's thoughts, and stimulate the bourgeoisie to civilian Is dissatisfied with.

Main impacts

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Main role

1. The Renaissance is European history The first bourgeois ideological liberation movement.

2. Promote the development of world culture, promote people's awakening, and open modernization journey^[6] And made necessary ideological and cultural preparations for the development of capitalism.

3. For bourgeois revolution We have made ideological mobilization and preparation.

social influence

Capital Primitive accumulation The Renaissance, as an ideological liberation movement to promote the emerging bourgeois culture Communication process China has laid a solid foundation for the budding development of early capitalism, and also accumulated primitive wealth for the early bourgeoisie. The Renaissance was first launched in Italy, and then spread from the Mediterranean coast to Atlantic Along the coast, there are famous cities, such as Rome ， Florence ， Venice and Netherlands In a series of new cities, capitalist industry and commerce began to flourish, and capital began to flow into the pockets of the emerging bourgeoisie New route opening ， Reformation And future bourgeois revolution Or reform provides the necessary conditions.

Discovery of human nature

The Renaissance has slowly liberated people from the shackles of traditional feudal theology, and people began to slowly explore the value of man under the cloak of religion. As a man, this new concrete existence, rather than Feudal lord And the patriarchal Personal attachment And a new era of spiritual attachment. The Renaissance fully affirmed the value of human beings and attached importance to human nature, which became a powerful call for people to break through the layers of veil in the Middle Ages.

The Renaissance had a great impact on the political, scientific, economic, philosophical and theological world outlook at that time Ideology A revolutionary storm, also known as the "era of giants".

negative influence

The Renaissance over emphasized the value of human beings in the process of communication, which resulted in the expansion of personal desires, the overflow of material enjoyment and extravagance, and a series of negative effects in the later period of communication.

Literary achievements

Writers everywhere began to use their own dialect instead of Latin Carry out literary creation to drive Popular literature It injects a large number of literary works into various languages, including novels, poems, essays, ballads and dramas.

Italy

Early Renaissance“ Three outstanding writers ”。 Dante He wrote many academic works and poems in his life, among which the famous one is《 newborn 》And《 Divine Comedy 》。 Petrarch yes Humanism The originator of, known as the "father of humanism.". He was the first to call for the revival of classical culture and put forward the idea of "human studies" against "theology". Petrarch mainly wrote many poems, and his representative works are lyric sonnet poems《 Songbook 》。 Bojiaqiu It is the founder of Italian national literature and a collection of short stories《 Decameron 》It is his masterpiece.

France

The Renaissance formed two schools, one of which was based on“ Seven Star Poetry Club ”Represented by optimates The other is based on Rabelais Represented by Democrats 。 "Seven Star Poetry Society" Longsha And Du Belle Poetic theory To make contributions. They first proposed unification national language And promoted the French national language and nation The development of literature 。 However, they rejected folk poetry and served only a few nobles. Rabelais is after Boccaccio Humanism Writer, yes French Renaissance A representative of the democrats. He spent 20 years creating《 Biography of Giant 》It is a realistic work interwoven with reality and fantasy Literary history and history of education It occupies an important position.

britain

Representatives include Thomas More and Shakespeare 。 Thomas Moore is a famous humanist thinker Utopian socialism The founder of. He wrote it in Latin in 1516《 Utopia 》It is the first work of utopian socialism. Shakespeare is a gifted dramatist and poet Homer Dante Goethe Together, they are known as the four epoch-making European writers. His works are complete in structure, vivid in plot and rich in language, Character personality Highlight such as:《 Hamlet 》、《 King Lear 》They collectively represent the highest achievements of European Renaissance literature and have a profound impact on the development of European realistic literature.

Spain

The most outstanding representatives are Cervantes and Vega 。 Cervantes is Realism Writers, dramatists and poets. He has created a large number of poems, plays and novels satiric novel 《 Don Quixote 》It is most famous for its great influence on the development of European literature. Vega is a dramatist, novelist and poet, and the founder of Spanish national drama, known as“ Spanish Drama Father ". He is a rare prolific writer in the world. He has created more than 2000 plays in his life, and more than 600 of them have been handed down Religious drama 、 Historical play 、 Mythical play , Pao Jian Opera, Pastoral Opera and other forms, which deeply reflect Spain's social reality It is deeply loved by the masses. The most outstanding representative works are《 Fuenteovejuna 》。

Fine Arts

Italian painters in the Renaissance mainly include Giotto di Bondone 、 Masaccio 、 Paolo Uccello , Dominico Kirandao Sandro Botticelli 、 Leonardo da Vinci , Rafael Sanzio, Titian Vicelli and Michelangelo 。

Giotto di Bondone (Giotto di Bondone, ca Italian Renaissance He is known as the "father of European painting". His representative paintings are《 Judas Kiss 》, the Final Judgment and《 Mourning for Christ 》。^[7]

Masaccio^[8] (Masaccio, December 21, 1401 – autumn 1428), formerly known as Tommaso Cassai, whose full name is Tommaso di ser Giovanni di Mone Cassai, was the first great painter in the 15th century Italian Renaissance. His murals were the earliest milestone of humanism, and he was the first to use them Perspective The painter of Vanishing point The figures in his paintings have natural postures that have never been seen in history. His representative paintings include "Three Consecutions of the Altar of Cassia", "The Virgin, Santa Ana and the Child"《 Donation 》Adam Exiled from the Garden of Eden《 Holy Trinity 》。

The Sistine Madonna

Mink Girl

Christ was taken off the cross

List of famous paintings in the Renaissance

Dashu

Paolo Uccello (Paolo Uccello, 1397 – December 10, 1475), formerly Paolo di Dono, an Italian painter, is famous for his pioneering artistic perspective. Its representative paintings are described《 Battle of San Romano 》Three piece oil painting set of^[9] 。

Domenico Ghirlandaio^[10] , 1449 – January 11, 1494) was an Italian Renaissance painter, and Michelangelo was his apprentice.

Sandro Botticelli （Sandro Botticelli^[11] , March 1, 1445 – May 17, 1510), formerly known as Alessandro Filipepi, is an early European Renaissance Florentine school artist. His representative paintings are《 Three Doctors Coming to Korea 》Spring, Ode to the Virgin《 Venus And Mars 》、《 The Birth of Venus 》、《 Notre Dame receiving newspaper 》, Defamation, The Mysterious Birth of Christ《 Pallas and Kendalus 》。

Raffaello Sanzio (April 6, 1483 – April 6, 1520), Italian painter. His representative paintings are《 Athenian school 》, The Virgin and Child《 The nymph Galatea 》、《 St. George's War Dragon 》, The Virgin and the Child, The Virgin of Conners《 The Alba Madonna 》, Madonna and Child in the Chair, Sistine Madonna《 Christ was taken off the cross 》, Fable, Portrait of a Gentleman《 Baptism in St. John's Desert 》, Pope Julio II, Portrait of Perugino《 The Virgin on the Grass 》Christ Crucified《 The Virgin of Frino 》, The Holy Mother of Anxi Emperor《 Saint Catherine of Alexandria 》Pink Virgin.

Tiziano Vecelli (about 1477 – August 27, 1576) was a great painter in the late Renaissance of Italy, Venetian School of Painting On behalf of.

Michelangelo (Michelangelo, March 6, 1475 – February 18, 1564), whose full name is Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni, was born in Florence Gabriel Town in 1475. He is a sculptor, architect, painter and poet. His representative paintings are Vatican Sistine Chapel Of《 Genesis 》 Zenith painting , murals《 Final trial 》, oil painting "Burial", "Portrait of the Virgin"《 Tondo Doni 》。

music

Renaissance classical music His works were mainly produced from 1400 to 1600 AD. The end of this period is more clearly defined than the beginning, unlike other art categories. There was no obvious change in the music performance at the beginning of the 15th century, so it can be said that the music characteristics of the Renaissance were gradually changing.

Early Renaissance Musical works It mainly depends on the third interval as harmony. Since the 12th century polyphony Throughout the 14th century, it became more detailed and independent of voice expression. At the beginning of the 15th century, music tended to be simple, and the sound was devoted to smoothness.

By the end of the 15th century, polyphony Religious music It began to become complicated again, and in a sense, it was related to the extremely developed painting at that time; By the early 16th century, music had begun to be simplified again.

In the late 16th century, music, especially ditty, tended to be more complex and Chromatic scale The vogue of. At this time in Florence, musicians also began to turn to the classical school, and they tried to restore the dreamlike ancient Greece through the form of elegy Musical form 。

astronomy

poland astronomer Copernicus Published in 1543《 Celestial motion theory 》, in which it is proposed to Ptolemy Of Geocentric theory Different heliocentric systems. Italian thinker Bruno In "On Infinity, the Universe and All Worlds", "On Cause, Origin and Unity" and other books, it is claimed that the universe is infinite in space and time, and the sun is just solar system Not the center of the universe.

Galileo It was invented in 1609 Astronomical telescope In 1610 and 1632《 Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems 》。 German astronomer Kepler By treating their teachers Denmark Astronomer Tycho's observed data In the study of the New Astronomy in 1609 and the Harmony of the World in 1619, three laws of planetary motion were proposed, which judged that the planets revolved around the sun in an elliptical orbit and that such motion was unequal.

mathematics

Algebra During the Renaissance, important development was made, and the solution of cubic and quartic equations was found. Italian Caldano Published in his book Dashu Cubic equation But the discovery of this formula should be attributed to another scholar Tatalia 。 Quartic equation The solution of Kardano's Ferrari It is also recorded in Dashu. Bombelli In his book, he explained the irreducibility of cubic equation, and used imaginary number , and also improved the popular algebraic symbols at that time.

Symbolic algebra was developed by French mathematicians in the 16th century Weida Established. He published it in 1591《 Introduction to Analytical Methods 》, systematized algebra, and consciously used letters for the first time to express unknown numbers and Known number 。 In his other book, On the Identification and Correction of Equations, Weida improved the solution of cubic and quartic equations, and established the relationship between the roots and coefficients of quadratic and cubic equations, which is called Weida's theorem in modern times.

Trigonometry During the Renaissance, it also achieved great development. German mathematician Regmontanus Of《 On various triangles 》It is the first trigonometric work independent of astronomy in Europe. In the book, the plane triangle and spherical trigonometry A systematic exposition is made, and there is also a very precise trigonometric function table. Copernicus students Reticus Redefining trigonometric function More precise trigonometric function tables are made on the basis of.

French Descartes In 1637, he founded Coordinate system After that, we successfully created the resolution geometry 。 Fermat Established the requirement tangent , Ask maximum value and Minimum And definite integral method Calculus Has made significant contributions. It will Indefinite equation The study of number theory was limited to the range of integers, which led to the beginning of the mathematical branch of number theory. In communication with Pascal and in writing probability theory Of basic principle —— Mathematical expectation The concept of.

physics

In physics, Galileo Through many experiments Free fall The three laws of "throwing objects", "throwing objects" and "shaking" have given people a new understanding of the universe. His students Torricelli It has been proved by experiments air pressure , invented the mercury column barometer ； French scientists Pascal Discover the law of pressure propagation in liquid and gas; British scientists Boyle find gas pressure Laws.

Descartes Engaged in optical research with his coordinate geometry, and for the first time Law of refraction The theoretical deduction is put forward. He also made it clear for the first time Law of conservation of momentum : The total amount of matter and movement remains unchanged forever. Descartes to collision and centrifugal force Such issues have been preliminarily studied, which created conditions for Huygens' success later.

Physiology and Medicine

Belgium doctor Visalius Published the book Human Body Structure Galen The "trinity" theory of. Spanish doctors Sylvit Blood finding Minor cycle System, proving that blood from right ventricle Flow to the lungs and arrive by zigzag route Left ventricle 。 British anatomist Harvey Through a large number of animal anatomy experiments《 de motu cordis 》He systematically explained the laws of blood movement and the working principle of the heart. He pointed out that the heart is the center of blood movement and the source of power. This great discovery made him the ancestor of modern physiology.

geography

Navigation technology Has produced a revolutionary leap, Portugal 、 Spain 、 Italy The explorers of. Columbus and Magellan The discovery in geography by et al Earth circle theory Provides strong evidence.

Typography Rediscovery in Europe, and papermaking compass Gunpowder (Chinese Four Great Inventions ）, prompting Scientific thinking The rapid spread of.

architecture

Renaissance Architecture It was born in Italy in the 14th century with the cultural movement of the Renaissance architectural style 。

Based on the medieval Theocracy With the supreme criticism and affirmation of humanitarianism, architects hope to reshape the harmonious order of the ideal classical society with the help of classical proportions.

In general, Renaissance Architecture It is particular about order and proportion, with strict facade and plane composition and Classical architecture Column system inherited from. Have a strong pursuit for the proportion of buildings, for example, it must be a multiple of 3 and 2, use symmetrical shape, and restore "nature" in a centralized way to Drawing with ruler and gauge Drawing in circles and square Mainly against Gothic architecture 。

Psychology

After the Renaissance, in the 17th century Psychology Continue to develop.

In the 19th century (1879)“ Modern Psychology Father Vont Create psychology. Since then, psychology has developed as an independent discipline.

Historical influence

The essence of the Renaissance

The original meaning of the term "Renaissance" refers to "the rebirth of Greek and Roman classical culture".

Western European countries at that time Emerging bourgeoisie The Cultural Revolution Movement of the Communist Party of China includes a series of major historical events, including:“ Humanism ”The rise of, Utopian socialism Of appears, Modern Natural Science The beginning and development of, the application and science of printing Cultural knowledge And so on. This series of major events is not so much "the rebirth of classical culture" as "the beginning of modern culture"; It is not so much "rejuvenation" as "innovation".

The Renaissance human civilization The history of development marks a great turning point. It was a new culture, a new politics new economy The demand reflects the anti feudal struggle of the emerging bourgeoisie in the ideological and cultural fields. In short, the essence of the Renaissance is the bourgeois ideological liberation movement.^[12]

The core idea of the Renaissance

The core idea of the Renaissance is Humanism 。 Humanism originated in Italy in the second half of the 14th century, and later spread throughout Western Europe. Humanists oppose "divinity" with "humanity" and oppose "human rights"“ Theocracy ”。 They proposed“ I am a human being. I have all the characteristics of human beings ”The slogan of. They are very dissatisfied with the church's control of the spiritual world. They demand that people should be the center rather than God. They praise the wisdom and strength of people, praise the perfection and loftiness of human nature, and oppose the arbitrary rule and Feudal hierarchy , advocating individual liberation, equality and freedom, advocating the development of human personality, demanding worldly happiness and human happiness, and advocating scientific and cultural knowledge. Therefore, the idea of humanism focuses on "people", is the exertion of "people"'s instinct, and is the driving force for "people" to pursue truth, goodness and beauty.

The historical role of the Renaissance

Engels He spoke highly of the progressive role of the Renaissance in history. He wrote: "This is the greatest and progressive change that mankind has never experienced. It is a change that needs giants and has produced giants Thinking ability In terms of enthusiasm and character, the era of giants in terms of versatility and erudition. " (Giant refers to Three heroes of the Renaissance ）

First of all Human discovery 。 In the Middle Ages, the ideal person should be self abased, passive and inactive, and the significance of man in the world is not praiseworthy. The Renaissance discovered the greatness of man and man, affirmed the value and creativity of man, and proposed that if man wanted to be liberated, his personality should be free.

(1) Attach importance to human values, require people to develop their intelligence and creative potential, and oppose negative inaction Life attitude And promote a positive spirit of adventure.

(2) They attach importance to the present life and despise the illusory myth about the afterlife or heaven, so they pursue material happiness and sensual satisfaction and oppose religion Asceticism 。 In literature and art, it is required to express people's feelings and oppose hypocrisy and affectation. For example: Petrarch Of《 Songbook 》、 Bojiaqiu Of《 Decameron 》。

(3) Attach importance to scientific experiments and oppose Apriorism ； Emphasize the use of human reason and oppose blind obedience; It requires the development of personality and opposes the imprisonment of human nature; stay Morality They demand indulgence and oppose self-restraint; Advocacy“ Civic morality ”, think that success in career and getting rich is moral behavior 。

(4) Advocacy optimism Our attitude towards life. These cannot be suppressed Thirst for knowledge And the spirit of searching for the bottom, and the optimistic and enterprising spirit of striving to create worldly happiness Christian theology It was under the guidance of this spirit that the bourgeoisie created the modern capitalist world.

Second, the Renaissance broke religion Mysticism The situation of ruling the whole country strongly promoted and influenced the religious reform movement, and provided important support for the movement. The Renaissance advocated attaching importance to worldly life and opposing authority, which aroused suspicion and antipathy to Catholicism and theology among contemporary people. Humanists in the Renaissance satirized and exposed the corruption and ugliness of the Catholic Church through literature, art and other forms.

Third, the Renaissance broke the theological Scholastic philosophy The unified situation has cleared the way for future ideological emancipation and progress, and has led to the rise of various secular philosophies. Among them are British empiricism Materialism （ Bacon ）。 It also promotes Political doctrine The development of Machiavelli for the later enlightenment campaign Laid the foundation, Hobbes, Locke and a large number of other thinkers developed“ natural rights ”、“ social contract ”、“ People's sovereignty ”And“ Separation of powers ”And so on.

Fourth, it denied feudal privileges. In the Middle Ages, feudal privileges were natural, Pedigree concept ingrained. The Renaissance made these things lose the weight of the past on the scale of measuring people. People's nobility is endowed with new connotation. Petrarch said: "The real nobility is not born, but for themselves." civil life In China, talent, means and money have replaced family background and become people of any origin to climb the social ladder.

Fifth, dispel superstition and emancipate the mind. The Renaissance restored the values of reason, dignity and thought. Although the Renaissance achieved little in philosophy, it destroyed the rigid scholastic philosophy system and advocated scientific method And scientific experiments“ Knowledge is power ”, creating a new atmosphere of exploring people and the real world. People firmly believe in their own eyes and minds, and believe that experiments and experience are reliable sources of knowledge. This pragmatic attitude Mode of thinking And scientific methods laid a solid foundation for the great development of natural science from the 17th to the 19th century.

Sixth, the Renaissance created a large number of attractive and exquisite works of art and literary masterpieces, which have become priceless treasures in the art treasure house of mankind. In the Middle Ages, Bible legends filled the art world, suffocating the life of art. The Renaissance not only turned the Virgin into a human woman（ Rafael ）, turned the image into a eulogy of the human body, and started the daily life and real people's Direct description 。 Anatomy, perspective and other sciences are also integrated into art for the first time. Western European modern realism art began from then on.

This extensive and lasting ideological and cultural movement broke through the shackles of feudal autocracy and religious theology in the ideological field, freed people's minds, promoted the prosperity of European cultural and ideological fields capitalist society The emergence of laid the ideological and cultural foundation.

European Representative

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Representative of the Renaissance in Western Europe
country	Outstanding development	representative figure
Italy	Italy Florence As the birthplace of the Renaissance, it has made outstanding achievements in poetry, painting, sculpture, architecture and music. The famous Medici family in Florence was the most important art patron at that time.	Raphael, Michelangelo and Da Vinci, the three famous artists, were all born in Italy. poet: Dante 、 Petrarch Philosopher: Marcelio· Ficino , Pico de la Mirandola historian : Leonardo Bruni, Lorenzo· Vara Machiavelli Quisiadini Writers: Dante Bojiaqiu 、 Petrarch 、 painter: Da Vinci 、 Rafael , Titian Botticelli sculptor: Michelangelo architect: Brunieleski musician: Palestrina 、 inhaul cable
Spain	In the second half of the 16th century and the early 17th century, the Spanish Renaissance entered the "golden age", and made remarkable achievements in novels and dramas.	writer Cervantes 、 dramatist Lob de Vega
Germany	In Germany, the main achievements are peasant 's war 、 Satirical literature And scientific and technological inventions.	Dürer etc.
France	In France, liberal and sceptical ideas are quite developed.	an essayist: Montaigne Novelist: Rabelais etc.
britain	In Britain, poetry and drama have enjoyed unprecedented prosperity.	Author: Shakespeare Philosopher: Thomas More Among them, Shakespeare 、 Dante 、 Vinci , known as the "Three Giants of the Renaissance"
Netherlands	--	Erasmus 、 Bosch

important contribution

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medieval times Many of our achievements have contributed to this era of rebirth. One of them is to restore interest in learning. Oxford The first college was founded in 1264. In 1400 years, there were more than 50 universities in Europe. Reason arab The preserved ancient documents were translated into Latin Through these ancient documents, the atmosphere of education and debate can be encouraged. Europeans in the Holy Land Sicily and Spain And other places have contacts with Arabs and rediscovered many treasures through them, ancient Greek mathematician Euclid As an example, the works of Mathematics textbook 。 The Arabs also spread the new digital system decimal point And zero, and these ideas are India Developed. Around 1450, the spread of knowledge accelerated with the invention of the printing press.

The second important contribution is the improvement of living standards, especially in Italy Large Commercial city 。 crusade It opened the eyes of Europeans to see the wealth of the East, especially silk, spices and cotton. Venice 、 Genoa 、 Florence And businessmen from other cities, all competing to gain Europe and the East mediterranean sea Trade between. After accumulating surplus wealth from commercial activities, these businessmen began to beautify their hometown and city with art. Carving, painting, architecture, music, poetry and literature find new Expression Show interesting themes, which have been occupied since the Middle Ages leading role Of Religious themes 。 They generally depict daily life knight Stories and adventure plots make European culture more humane and religious elements decrease accordingly.

The development of technology has also been updated, and more effective goods and services have emerged. Manufacturing, farming, trade and Navigation technology Have been improved and developed, greatly surpassing the achievements of ancient times. The desire for profits encourages creativity and exploration. As declining aristocrats continue to disappear, middle class The merchants and craftsmen of Economic power Equal political power 。

By the 1500s, European countries had led the world in many important technologies. Through the exploration and search of the world, Europeans Trade routes The Protestant religious reform and the continuous political competition in Europe have also released vitality, which has made this region occupy a pivotal position in several centuries.

It is generally believed that the Renaissance originated in Italy in the 14th century (the word Renaissance comes from the Italian Rinascimento, meaning regeneration or renaissance), and since the late 15th century, it has expanded to Western Europe Countries reached their peak in the 16th century. In 1550, Vasari In its《 Biographies of celebrities in Yiyuan 》It is officially used as the name of the new culture. This word was transcribed as Renaissance in French, and became common in European countries after the 17th century. In the 19th century, western historians further regarded it as the general name of Western European culture from the 14th to the 16th century. Western historians once thought it was ancient Greece Roman culture The revival of art.

Idea of works

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Works of the Renaissance Humanism Thought: advocating the liberation of personality and opposing the medieval Asceticism and religious view of life ； promote scientific culture , against Obscurantism , get rid of the shackles of the church on people's thoughts; Affirm human rights, oppose divine rights, and abandon all authority and traditional dogmas as the basis of theology and scholasticism; support centralization The main idea of humanism is to oppose feudal separatism. Among them, representative works include: Dante Of《 Divine Comedy 》、 Bojiaqiu Of《 Decameron 》、 Petrarch 《 Songbook 》Machiavellian《 Monarchy theory 》、 Rabelais Of《 Biography of Giant 》Etc.

Renaissance art praises the beauty of the human body, advocates that the proportion of the human body is the most harmonious proportion in the world, and applies it to architecture. Although a series of paintings and sculptures still take religious stories as the theme, they all represent the scenes of ordinary people, pulling the gods to the ground.

Humanists began to use research Classical literature Of method study The Bible, will Bible Translation The language of Cheng nationality led to the rise of the religious reform movement.

Humanism praises the secular world and scorns heaven, flaunts rationality to replace divine enlightenment, affirms that "human" is the creator and enjoyment of worldly life, and requires literature and art to express human Thoughts and feelings Science works for people's welfare. Education needs to develop people's personality and liberate people's thoughts, feelings and wisdom from the shackles of theology. Advocating freedom of personality has played a great role in the historical development.

Educational development

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The European Renaissance generally refers to the historical period from the middle of the 14th century to the end of the 16th century when the Renaissance took place in Western Europe.

During this period, in Western Europe, with the decline of the feudal system, the germination of capitalist production, and the development of exchanges between the East and the West, a new bourgeoisie and a new aristocracy emerged. For their own sake economic interest and political status To revive Ancient Greece The form of Roman culture set off a movement against feudal culture and created a new bourgeois culture.

The Renaissance originated in Italy in the 14th century; After the middle of the 15th century Netherlands , Spain, France, Britain, Germany, etc.

During the Renaissance, progressive thinkers advocated the humanistic culture of anti feudalism and anti theology, advocated the "human" as the center, required the liberation of personality, attached importance to modern life, and advocated rationality and knowledge. Its ideological core is the bourgeoisie Individualism Its theoretical basis is the bourgeois "theory of human nature". But it attacked feudalism The religious theocracy imprisons people's ideology and spirit, which has promoted the religious, economic, political and educational reforms in some Western European countries.

At that time, some humanists opposed feudal education and parochial education , pay attention to ancient times Educational ideology And educational materials.

Italy

original Humanistic education Thinker P P. As early as the eve of the 15th century, Wejerius wrote On Gentleman Manner and Liberal Education based on ancient literature, requiring the implementation of education that conforms to the value of free people, so that Educated Get good physical and mental development. In 1411, Guarino published Plutarch On Children's Education. In 1417, the humanist scholar Poggio found M F. Quintilian Of《 Principle of oratory 》Original. Five years later, it was found in Lodi Cicero Of《 rhetoric 》。 Since then, other works or books on ancient education have also appeared.

By the 16th century, not only all the major classical works on education had been familiar to humanist scholars, but also some teachers, educational thinkers and publishers had published many books on "new education". What they want to cultivate is no longer monks and clergy They are mainly social, political, literary and commercial activists and adventurers. They are required to train new people who are physically and mentally healthy, knowledgeable and versatile Educational ideal Carry out educational innovation.

The widespread spread of humanistic educational thought had a general impact on feudalism system of education , broke the church Right Schooling As a result, many types of new schools have emerged and educational objects have been expanded. Some humanist educationists run schools except for education Princes and nobility In addition to the children of rich businessmen, they also take in some children of civilians.

In order to get rid of the church's control over education, Italian humanists, with the support of some princes, nobles and local rulers, established new Palace School 。 The most famous one is Vitorino Hosted by Mantova It's called suburban“ Happy Home ”And Guarino Ferrara Court schools. These two schools are very important for the early Humanistic education Has had a great impact. These schools employ famous scholars and recruit students from all over Europe liberal education 。 When foreign students returned, they spread Italian humanism widely.

At that time, Netherland, where capitalist production developed rapidly, was the first country to accept the influence of the Renaissance. Since the 14th century, the education in Netherland has been relatively developed, and the most successful one is“ Civilian Life Brotherhood ”Hosted schools. By the 16th century, these schools had been innovated according to the humanistic education thought.

France

As early as 1458 University of Paris Set up research Greek literature Lectures of. But because conservative As a result, humanism spread slowly. By the end of the 15th century, the trend of thought of the Renaissance had gradually spread in France.

Research roman law G. Bide, a famous scholar of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, once vigorously promoted humanistic education. At his initiative, the king Francois Ier In order to promote the new humanistic learning, in 1530, it established a wide range of disciplines and enjoyed great popularity Freedom of thought Of College de France 。 In France in the 16th century, not only F. Rabelais and M E. D e Montaigne and other outstanding humanistic educators, and became the center of the Renaissance in Western Europe.

britain

The trend of thought of the Renaissance spread to England relatively late.

It was not until the beginning of the 16th century that a group of humanist scholars, such as T. Moore, J. Collett, W. Lilly, and others, who were influenced by Italian neologism, found London It carried out activities to promote humanistic culture and education, and was supported and encouraged by the royal family and important officials. Long term University of Cambridge D. Erasmus, who teaches, promotes the new humanistic learning in Britain Oxford And Cambridge University and Grammar school And the development of public schools.

Humanist politician T. Elliot combines the Italian humanistic education thought with the specific situation of Britain, and advocates cultivating aristocratic gentlemen with new humanistic ideas Educational objectives 。 He translated many books, among which The Book of the Ruler, published in 1531, was the first monograph on education in Britain. Because his educational thought was more consistent with that of Britain at that time ruling class The interests and needs of“ gentlemen education ”And pushed British humanistic education New aristocracy The direction of the doctrine.

Germany

The renaissance trend of thought was introduced to Germany from the beginning when humanist scholar P. Luther returned from Italy in 1456 to teach new learning in Heidelberg, Leipzig and other universities. In 1476, after studying in Italy, the famous Netherland scholar R. Agricola also went to Heidelberg University Teaching. By the early 16th century Wittenberg 、 Jena And other universities have also established new schools. At the same time, new types of Liberal Arts Middle School 。

Especially since the 1940s, due to the influence of J. Stuart, a humanist educator Strasbourg The influence of the educational reform of liberal arts middle schools has promoted this kind of liberal arts middle schools.

Opinions of all parties

The term "Renaissance" was first proposed by Michelet, a French historian, in 1855, to summarize the "exploration of the world and mankind" in the 16th century; Since then, historians have had many different opinions on its interpretation.

Most people believe that the Renaissance originated in the 15th century Italy And then expand to Europe as a whole. The Renaissance represents the connection between the classical culture of the West and the ancient (pre medieval) world arab The absorption of knowledge (especially mathematical knowledge).

The Renaissance made people focus on the world Quality of life (e.g Humanism ）。 The Renaissance is also the result of knowledge due to printing and the application of new technologies in the fields of art, poetry, architecture, etc knowledge explosion 。 These new technologies have caused fundamental changes in the format and content of art and literature. During this period, the view was that, with the rise of exchanges and exploration, the Renaissance represented the transformation of Europe from a backwater for a long time to a turbulent river. Therefore, the Italian Renaissance is often regarded as the beginning of modern times.

Marxism Historians believe that the Renaissance was a "pseudo revolution" in art, literature and philosophy. These changes only affect a small number of wealthy people, while most of the European population lives relatively the medieval times Basically unchanged. Therefore, they did not recognize the Renaissance as an important event.

Today most historians believe that the Renaissance represents Rational thinking And great changes in thought, not in material. Perhaps the most important view of the Renaissance is that those living in the Renaissance believe that they are living in a new era, an era that has completely broken away from the Middle Ages.

Johan Huizinga (1872 – 1945) acknowledged the Renaissance, but questioned whether it brought about beneficial changes. He believed that the Renaissance was an era of decline from the Middle Ages and destroyed many important things. For example, it was used by the church and other people at that time Latin , from Classical times Since then, it has made great progress and is a living language. However, people who were obsessed with classical purity in the Renaissance believed that Latin contradicted its classical form, so the natural evolution of Latin stopped. Robert S. Lopez believed that the Renaissance was an economic depression. However, George Sarton and Lynn Thorndike believed that the Renaissance slowed the pace of scientific progress.

Related concepts

In the history of European history and philosophy, humanism is mainly used to describe the more advanced ideas in the 14th and 16th centuries than in the Middle Ages. Generally speaking, today history He called the changes in culture and society during this period the Renaissance, and the change movement in education humanism.

The word humanism actually appeared very late. It comes from the Latin humanitas, an ancient Roman writer Cicero I have already used this word. Germany enlightenment campaign Philosophers of the era collectively called mankind Humanitt, and humanists at that time called themselves humanista.

The word Humanism didn't appear until 1808.

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