metaphysicsIt refers to the study of the nature of the world, that is, the study of all beings and all phenomena (especiallyabstract conception）The reason and origin of.Originally byAristotleBuilt, called“First philosophy”"The first science".
Metaphysics, a category of primitive philosophy, refers to the guessing of the nature of the world when empirical evidence cannot prove it.[1]
It originally studied "existence"OntologyThe theoretical principle of the system isPlato"World duality".
Since the 13th century, it has been used as a philosophical term to refer to the knowledge of studying things beyond experience (soul, free will, etc.).
staymodern scienceBefore we started,scientific problems It is studied as part of philosophy and is callednatural philosophy。The term "science" originally only“knowledge”(knowledge).However, withscientific methodThe extensive application of natural philosophy gradually transformed into a kind ofexperimentandmathematicsIs reliableMethodology, diverging from other fields of philosophy.
At the end of the 18th century, it began to be called "science" to show its difference from philosophy.Therefore, basic mathematics is often considered as a special case where metaphysics is applied to the existence of numbers.[1]
fromepistemologyOn the basis, metaphysics is similar toBasic MathematicsIt is also non empirical. For questions that cannot be answered directly through perception, it is based on a priori condition hypothesis (similar to mathematical axioms), through rational analysis and rigorouslogical thinkingTo deduce the answer without contradiction.[4-5]
In the history of metaphysics, only one application served theology.[6]
On the relationship between metaphysics and theology,philosopherSartreSaid: Although Leibniz was sureThe existence of GodI deny its existence, but he is no more a metaphysical philosopher than I am.[1]
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Interpretation of Chapter II of Metaphysical Entries in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, AncientGreek periodThe old metaphysics mainly includes ontology.It refers to the study of the nature of the world, that is, the study of all beings and all phenomena (especiallyabstract conception）Its purpose is to determine the true nature of things, that is, to determine the meaning, structure and principle of existence.[1-2]
The main problems of metaphysics include: what is the origin of the world, whether there is a soul, free will,causal relationshipEtc.[1][3]
The metaphysical entry of Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy mentioned at the beginning that "it is difficult to define clearly what metaphysics is", and further explained that, for two reasons, it is no longer possible to define metaphysics in the ancient and medieval ways.firstA philosopher denies the existence of things that were once regarded as constituting the subject of metaphysics ("primary cause" or "unchanging things"),It is believed that the metaphysical assertion is formed from this。secondlyMany philosophical problems are considered to be metaphysical problems (or at least part of metaphysical problems), which have nothing to do with "primary causes" or "unchanging things", such as free will problems, or moral problems.New problems are constantly entering the scope of metaphysical research, which raises the question whether there is a common feature that unifies the problems of contemporary metaphysics?[1]
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, which has been reviewed by peers, is a well-known content in the international philosophy community[1]None of them can list the common characteristics of metaphysics to define "metaphysics", but only list the contemporary philosophical problems that are considered metaphysics.
etymology
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The word "metaphysics" is translated from English metaphysics, ancientGreek τ ὰ με τ ὰ τ ὰ φ νσ I κ ≤, Latin metaphysica.
The word was originallyAristotleThe name of a work, which was written more than 200 years after the death of Aristotle byAndronicoHe compiled his works on objects other than research experience, such as the essence of things, soul, and freedom of will, and listed them in a volume after Physics, which studies the changes of specific forms of things, and named them《Subsequent volumes of physics》。ancient GreekWen is removedarticleThat's itLatinThe prefix "meta" means "after", "beyond" and "basic".This term isLatinAnnotatorComprehended as "Hyperphysical Science"The problems discussed in Aristotle's book have become many basic problems of metaphysics.
The word "metaphysics" did not appear in Aristotle's time, it was in 60 BCAndronicoWhen compiling Aristotle's posthumous works, the chapters of the so-called "Metaphysics" were placed after the "Physics" and collected in one book, named Metaphysika, namely "Metaphysics".[7]
"Metaphysics"Chinese translation“metaphysics”Is based on《I Ching·In "Tie Ci"“Metaphysics is called TaoThe word "from the shape to the bottom" was used by Japanmeiji period Famous philosophertetsujiro inoue Translated.[8]
Metaphysics is ancientSpeculative philosophy, YesidealismThe foundation of.In theHegelAfter the beginning of modern philosophy as a starting point, the West began to generally question metaphysics, began to open up new roads, carried out a revolution against tradition, andPhilosophy of scienceIn the 19th century, metaphysics gradually declined in the West.
In the 1980s, Alfred North Whitehead and his philosophy were introduced in the book "Modern Metaphysical Alchemy: Huaidehai" published in Taiwan.The book points out that "metaphysics" has gradually declined in the West in the 20th century.Many of the recent English speaking worldRelated researchIt also further shows that although it can't be said that "metaphysics" has become unpopular, in general, compared with its importance in the western philosophical tradition in the past, it should not be excessive to say that it is in a state of relative decline.[9]
According to the literature, "an examination of the contemporary debate on all metaphysics and its criticism has concluded that there exists a defense between theminseparableThe general trend of the connection of ", and further analysis, in these debates, the vast majority of debate participants believe that any response to metaphysics, no matter how strong or radical, will inevitably fall into the metaphysical tradition.The dominant contemporary view is that criticism is actually still linked with metaphysics, or even will eventually return to the form of metaphysics.This view confirms the persistence of a typical model, namely, the circular relationship between metaphysics and its criticism.[10]
It is mentioned in the introduction to the metaphysical entry of Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, for example, many philosophical problems are now considered metaphysical problems (or at least part metaphysical problems), which have nothing to do with "primary causes" or "unchanging things", such as "free will problems" or "moral problems"[1], new problems continue to enter the scope of metaphysics.
From the metaphysical papers appearing in philosophy journals, we can see that metaphysical research is an interesting topic.This can also be done fromHarvard UniversityAccording to the research directions of 23 professors (July 2020, available on the Internet) in the Department of Philosophy, there are 5 people whose research includes metaphysics, 8 people whose research includes Epistemology in metaphysics, but only 5 people whose research includes philosophy of language and analytic philosophy (school of criticism of metaphysics).
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Terminology
name
introduce
Ontology
exploreobjective existenceThe so-called ultimate reality beyond all phenomena.For example, ontology can study the nature of an arbitrary object in any world.
Explore the generation, change and space-time structure of the universe.Ancient cosmology has long been replaced by modern cosmology.
metaphysics
useNon scientificMeans to conjecture the origin, evolution and essence of life, as well as the relationship between life and the universe, the ultimate reality.For example, the often said "harmony between man and nature" belongs to this category of discussion.
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The part of metaphysics that explores the fundamental principles of all things in the universe focuses on: what is the origin of the world, the generation and evolution of all things in the universe, the essence of time and space, the laws of nature, whether the soul exists, the relationship between man and the universe, free will, etc.In short, existence, nothingness, the universe, soul, and free will are among the ancient metaphysical topics.
What is existence?What is a physical object?What are the basic properties of objects?Its core view is that there is an ultimate noumenon beyond all phenomena, which dominates everything in the nature. Everything in the world is derived from this eternal and ultimate noumenon.
Note: New issues continue to enter the scope of metaphysical research. At present, there is not enough to list the common characteristics of metaphysical issues to define "metaphysics", but only the contemporary philosophical issues that are considered metaphysics.[1]
Relationship with science
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The core of metaphysics isOntology（ontology）。The latter is aimed at“being”("Shi Lun").“Ontology”It has long been translated as "ontology" in mainland China,Hong Kong and TaiwanUsually translated as“ontology ”。according towestern philosophy Traditional mainstream, especiallyParmenides、PlatoSince the understanding of "being" is beyond the changeable and unreal sensory experience world, not in the specific time and space, it is not concrete but abstract, not "many" but "one".In this sense, it can also be said that "being" is static.[9]
When philosophyancient GreekbecomeForms of knowledgeLater, due to the formation ofBeing is the formalization of beingAlthough Plato once warned us to pay attention to the role of ideas,AristotlestillSubjectively attribute existence to form。
Aristotle's method of separating physics from philosophy led to the separation of metaphysics from physics, and also made metaphysics constantly accept criticism from physics.
WhenThe RenaissanceProducedPositivist philosophyLater, metaphysics began to be used as a philosophical form of distinguishing science.From then on, philosophy was separated from the encyclopedic philosophy of ancient Greece and became metaphysics,physicsIt is also separated from this encyclopedic philosophynatural science。
Due to the continuous progress of natural science, when natural scienceNewtonThe success of the physics system and laterphysical experiment The technological means ofproductivityAt that time, the thought of scientific rationality was stimulated.
Metaphysical analysis is widely used in theological research[12-13]However, theology does not delve into the contradiction between belief hypothesis and scientific practice.metaphysics。In the philosophical framework of metaphysics, its hypothesis is also the object of research and debate.Although its hypothesis may not be verified by scientific practice, it must not contradict scientific practiceReligious theologyThe philosophical framework of is different.
This kind of rational analysis and meticulous metaphysicslogical thinking, which has had an impact on theology, making fewer and fewer people believe in secular religious gods.[14]
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The fate theme of metaphysics is as old as its connotation theme.Kant He has long pointed out that "how metaphysics becomes possible" has always been an unfulfilled problem, and he hopes to find a place to settle for metaphysics with the help of "criticism".Metaphysical research includes causality[1], in response to Hume's unprovable question about causality,Kant In his《Critique of Pure Reason》"Four" in the introduction of.theoryAnalytical judgment and comprehensive judgment",[4]Put forward and analyze the conclusion that mathematics is also a priori comprehensive proposition within the framework of metaphysics, expand metaphysics to include cognitive theory,[15-16]The study of cognitive theory is connected with metaphysics.[11]
However, at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, some people believed that metaphysics, instead of finding its promised land, was more doomed.Some modern thinkers (such as Nietzsche orVienna SchoolChinese) from differentDirectional focusOn a question completely opposite to Kant's orientation, namely, "how metaphysics becomes impossible" - anti metaphysics has become an important starting point of modern philosophy and a voice of western philosophy in the first half of the 20th century.[5][17]
The criticism or controversy of western philosophy on metaphysics, the dominant contemporary view is that criticism is actually still linked with metaphysics, or even will eventually return to the form of metaphysics, confirming a typical modelpersistenceNamely, the circular relationship between metaphysics and its criticism.[10]
Kant's Criticism and Development of Early Metaphysics
Kant It is easy for us to recognize the natural tendency and endowment of our subjective ideas as absolute objective principles.This is an insurmountable natural impulse, which urges us to always regard our own limited experience as something perfect, that isThing itselfTo express.So, asirrationalThe metaphysics of is in our ordinary people's daily thinking.[18]
The premise of the critique of "metaphysics" is the reflection of "knowledge", or the critique of the premise of knowledge production.Metaphysics believes that knowledge comes from apriori rather than experience, and it is completely the product of subjective thinking.[19]
He not only criticized metaphysics mentioned above, but also developed metaphysics[4], expand it to includeepistemology。[15]
Hegel's Criticism and Development of Metaphysics
After passingPlatoreachKant After a long period of philosophical thinking, Hegel used the freedom and selfishness of formDialecticsThey unified and criticized the old metaphysics at that time.
On the basis of Kant's criticism of intellectuality, Hegel believes that the abstract method of the metaphysics of intellectuality makes intellectuality become isolated and static, so this is a limited method.It is often extended to mean that metaphysics is "an isolated, static and one-sided view of thingsMode of thinking”This statement.[20-21]And KantFinitenessSumming up the inevitability of subjective thinking, Hegel believes that its finiteness is the nature of intelligence itselfAbstract identityHegel attempted to useAbsolute idea（Absolute spirit）The dialectical development relationship of internalized concrete identity has reached the noumenon, which has made a breakthrough in overcoming the existence formalization of western philosophy.
According to the literature metaphysics, Hegel tried to establish a new metaphysical system.Hegel regards metaphysics as a set of rational deduction system embodying reality, which is a dialectical system composed of theme, antithesis and combination, includinglogic、natural philosophy、Spiritual philosophyThree major parts.Its system regards metaphysics as the study of superempirical objects.Hegel's dialectics, in fact, was put forward on the basis of criticizing the old metaphysics, which itself cannot be verified by empirical evidence, but also belongs to metaphysics;For example,Jilin UniversityProfessor of PhilosophySun ZhengyuIn his article ("Dialectics: Hegel, Marx andpost metaphysics ”）Dialectics is called "post metaphysics", and it is explained that Hegel transformed metaphysics with dialectics and realized the "confluence" of dialectics and metaphysics.[22-23]
On the way from philosophy to the life world of real people,Marxist philosophyIt ended the abstract and speculative metaphysical philosophy, took the realistic man as the starting point of philosophical research, took the realistic man's survival situation and development fate as the theme of philosophical research, and took the liberation of man, the full play of man's ability and the freedom of everyoneComprehensive developmentAs pursuedvalue goal 。[25]
Heidegger's Criticism and Development of Metaphysics
martin heidegger The problem of metaphysics is to turn the dynamic existence into the static one.In order to find the ultimate basis and reason of various beings, metaphysics traces back to existence, but it does not understand existence as a dynamic process of origin, but as an eternal and unchanging ready-made essence.Therefore, it does not show existence, but covers it.[26]
Heidegger "clearly knew that,metaphysicalLearning and its developmentmodern scienceThey are all fateful things that human beings cannot reject.We can reflect on the drawbacks of metaphysics and science, but we cannotreject metaphysics And science "[26]。
Although Heidegger regarded his own things as "metaphysics" in What is Metaphysics?, this "metaphysics" is fundamentally different from traditional metaphysics (Section 2 of What is Metaphysics[26]）。earlyFreiburg At that time, Heinz had clearly distinguished himself from traditional metaphysics through the method of "form guidance".Heidegger's new metaphysics is summarized in his works《Introduction to Metaphysics》[27]Medium.Heidegger criticized the traditional ontology based metaphysics, and developed metaphysics with his theory.
Criticism and Reflection of Analytical Philosophy on Metaphysics
Logical positivists in the 20th century opposed some metaphysical issues.They believe that most metaphysicsThe question itself is meaningless,seeWittgensteinIn the earlier stage《Logical philosophy》The view of.
Wittgenstein is modernAnalytic philosophyOne of the most important founders is also the initiator of the analytical anti metaphysical tradition.His early representative works of philosophy《Logical philosophy》AsLogical positivismThe backboneThe Viennese school of thought had exerted great influence.In this book, Wittgenstein first expressed his anti metaphysical thought, thinking that the fundamental mistake of metaphysics is to try to "say what cannot be said", but the result is that he raised some "meaningless questions and propositions".Wittgenstein's criticism of traditional metaphysics is based on his theory of linguistic images, in which he first raised the question of the boundaries of language and thus showed the mistake of traditional philosophy.[28]
Academics believe thatPhilosophical proposition, we must take them from ourlanguage systemFirst of all, we should draw a boundary for language.When philosophical propositions are removed from language, only natural science propositions remain.Wittgenstein said that we should not say anything except the propositions of natural science, because“The sum of all true propositions is the whole natural science”。[29]
The above introduction to Wittgenstein's criticism is just his early《Logical philosophy》The view of.But his later thinking returned to the fuzziness of real life from the pure and simple logic of his early philosophy, and no longer held the above views.[30]WittgensteinLater in its《Philosophical research》Preamble[31]Described in, inFrank Ramsey With the help of, he realized that his early work "On Logical Philosophy" had made serious mistakes.However, he also said that he would compare the earlier and later works and understand the later philosophy with the earlier works as the background.[32]
Vienna SchoolLogical positivismIt is one of the most resolute and fiercest schools of thought against metaphysics in the analytical trend of thought. The representative Carnap resolutely put forward the slogan of "rejecting metaphysics".Vienna SchoolBy Wittgenstein's Logical Philosophyempiricism、LogicismHe directly inherited his basic anti metaphysical view that "metaphysics is meaningless statement".However, their theoretical basis is different in the specific demonstration of this view.《Logical philosophy》Is fromLanguage Image TheorySet out to explain the non meaning of metaphysical propositions, while the Vienna School is mainly based onVerifiabilityThe principles put forward their slogan of "rejecting metaphysics".
The so-called principle of verifiability means that the primary question of a proposition is not whether its content is true, but whether it is meaningful. This principle believes that a proposition must first be meaningful, and then its truth can be discussed.To judge whether an analytical proposition is meaningfulAccording to logicIn order to judge whether a comprehensive proposition is meaningful, we must fundamentally look at itWhether it is possible to be verified by experienceSex, or whether we can point out the way to prove it through experience.If such an empirical method exists, then the proposition is meaningful, otherwise, it is meaningless.[33]
Whether based on the principle of verifiability orPrinciple of verifiabilityThe metaphysical propositions are regarded by the critics as meaningless statements. They believe that the metaphysical propositions on the surface have comprehensive propositionsGrammatical formIn fact, it is impossible to get any empirical verification or validation. In other words, they appear to be stating some facts, but there is no fact corresponding to them. Therefore, they are not meaningful comprehensive propositions but just meaningless statements.[33]
In the 1970s,Logical positivismThe movement died out(See Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy[34]Chapter 5 begins with "Logical positivism,then, is dead, or as dead as a philosophical movement ever becomes.”）。QuineThesis of[35]Considered to beLogical positivismIdentification of the failure.canPrinciple of confirmation"S" itself is neither an analytical proposition, nor can it be verified by experience;According to the principle of verifiability, it is meaningless.The verifiable principle of logical positivism is self defeating.
Dispute over Chinese translation
"Metaphysics refers to the Tao, while metaphysics refers to the implement." "Metaphysics" only exists in China and is the essence of Chinese thought and wisdom.A considerable number of people think that the translation of "metaphysics" is not appropriate. However, some people think that "metaphysics", as a branch of philosophy, can be regarded as the realm of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in language translation by using the name of "metaphysics".The discussion of the origin of the world itself is indistinct, just like the Tao of Chinese Taoism.But what Taoism saidDobbyThe metaphysics of metaphysics should be broader.I hope there will be a better definition to explain this difference in the future.
