Ottoman Empire

Empires in West Asia and Europe from 1299 to 1923

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Ottoman Empire; 1299^[1-2] - 1923^[3] ）, Yes turk The multi-ethnic empire was founded by Osman I It gets its name. The rulers are Ottomans who originated from the nomadic tribes of Turks in Central Asia,^[4] Mehmed II Time fixed capital Constantinople 。^[5]

The Ottomans were originally a Turkic Tribes,^[6] First residence Central Asia , move to Asia Minor And later became increasingly prosperous. The Ottoman Empire has been destroyed since 1453 Byzantine Empire Later, the capital was established Constantinople ，^[5] And the heir of the Roman Empire to the east claimed himself. So the Sultan, the monarch of the Ottoman Empire, inherited Eastern Roman Empire And Islamic culture, so East and West civilizations can be integrated in it. sixteenth century Suleiman the Great During his reign, the Ottoman Empire became increasingly prosperous. Its territory reached its peak in the 17th century. stay Barbarossa Hayreddin Under its leadership, its navy took more control of the Mediterranean Sea.^[7] The Ottoman Empire was the only challenge from the 15th to the 19th century Europe National Islam Power, but in 1699《 Karlovitz Treaty 》The signing of the Agreement marked the stagnation of the expansion of the empire. By the beginning of the 19th century, the empire tended to decline.^[8] Final on the First World War Defeat in Entente The Ottoman Empire was divided.^[9] In 1922, Kemal Defeat European forces. In 1923, Republic of Turkey The Ottoman Empire was founded.

At the height of the Ottoman Empire, its territory reached Asia, Europe and Africa.^[10] It owns the Balkan Peninsula Middle East and North Africa Most of the territory, Sida Strait of Gibraltar , arriving from the east Caspian Sea and Persian Gulf , north and present Austria And Slovenia, South and Present Sudan And Yemen 。

The Ottoman Empire is located at the intersection of eastern and western civilizations, and has mastered the land transportation lines of eastern and western civilizations for six centuries.^[11] With the outward expansion, it promoted the third great spread of Islam in the world. He became the leader of the Islamic world in the 15th and 19th centuries. During its existence, Islamization and modernization The reform has made the boundaries between eastern and western civilizations increasingly blurred.

Chinese name: Ottoman Empire
Foreign name: Ottoman Empire
Abbreviation: Ottoman, Turkey^[12]
Capital: Seute Bursa 、 Edirne 、 Constantinople （ Istanbul ）^[13]
major city: Bursa 、 Baghdad 、 Damascus 、 Cairo 、 Mecca etc.
National anthem: Hamid March, Rashad March, etc^[14]
Country code: OTT
official language: Ottoman（ Turkish ）
Currency: Akche
Time zone: UTC+2

Political system: Absolute monarchy
National leaders: Osman I 、 Mehmed II 、 Suleiman I 、 Abdul Majid I etc.
population size: About 23.8 million (1914)
Major ethnic groups: turk 、 Greek 、 albanian 、 bulgarian 、 Serb 、 romanian 、 arab 、 Kurds etc.
Major religions: Islamism
land area: 5.5 million square kilometers (1683)
First Sudan: Osman I (1281-1326)
The Last Sudan: Mohammed VI (1861-1926)
Time of existence: 1299-1923

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Sudan, the founder of the Ottoman Empire Osman I The name of is the country number. The Ottoman Turkish name is "دوویهثمنیههههنیهههنههنههنهنهنهنههنهه", which; Turkish The name is "Osmanl 305ı mparatorlu ğ u"; English The name is "OttomanTurks" or "TurkishEmpire"; Arabic The name is "دَوَََََِْيّهُٔثمَنِیّهههدؤُُنِییهههدووي, ي ّثمني disk".

chinese In terms of translation, it is called "Ottoman Turkish Empire" according to the English name, or "Ottoman Empire" for short;^[15] The mainland of China is called the "Ottoman Turkish Empire" according to the Ottoman Turkish language, or "Ottoman Empire" or "Ottoman Empire" for short. Some books in Taiwan are transliterated as "Osman Empire".

Since there is no "θ" sound in Ottoman Turkish, it is replaced by "t" sound. When the Ottoman power expanded to Eastern Europe, germanic people Further, the word "ثمننن" (othman) is falsely read as "ottoman" and converted into "Ottoman". Qing Dynasty This is the translation name of the period, and the corresponding country name is "Otuman". After the founding of the Republic of China, it continued to use the ancient translation (taking the Latin "ottomano" as the translation standard). However, when instructing the founding monarch of the same name, the translation of "Ottoman" can be used; There are also translations of "Osman", "Altman", "Altman" and "Altman".

The early flag of the Ottoman Empire (1453 years ago)

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Rise and expansion

Empire establishment

Main term: The rise of the Ottoman Empire

The Turks are Turkic speaking people,^[16] It's the original Seljuk Belonging to Roma Sultanate A small Turkic tribe.^[17] This tribe is in Turkey Anatolia The peninsula gradually settled, and the Byzantium- Greece Most nationalities have fusion and war. Through the Byzantine Empire and other Anatolia The Turks are increasingly prosperous due to the migration and struggle of the Turks, which is the source of modern Turks. Since the fall of the Sultanate of Roma in 1308 Black Sea and mediterranean sea Anatolia split into several independent countries, collectively known as Anatolian Beyliks.

Turks originally lived Amu Darya The basin is actually today Uzbekistan Khwarazm region belongs to the Kai tribe of Turks. At that time Khwarazm Dynasty His courtiers. Since ancient times, he has been engaged in nomadism and lived by water and grass. In the 13th century, Mongolian They began to expand westward, forcing them to move. Initially they were attached to Seljuk Turkman The established Roma Sultanate,^[18] In the Byzantine Empire and adjacent to the Sakhalia River to get a fief. In 1290, after the death of the tribal chief Eltogrour, his son Osman I (1258-1326) succeeded his father as tribal leader. In 1299, Turkey officially declared independence while the Sultanate of Seljukm was divided,^[19] The title "Ghazi" laid the foundation of Turkey.^[20]

1326, son of Ottoman Orhan (1326-1360) After assuming the throne, he changed his name to Governor, established a standing army, and annexed most areas of the Roma Sultanate.^[19] In March 1331, he wounded the emperor of the Byzantine Empire and occupied the largest city of the Byzantine Empire in Anatolia nicaea , and moved its capital here. In 1337, it was captured Nicomedia , with its capital in Bursa 。 In 1338, it occupied Yustrydar 。^[21]

The map of Ottoman and Byzantine expansion territory

Expansion of the Balkans

In 1354, Turkish Olkhan led the army through Dardanelles Strait , occupied Gallipoli Peninsula And use it as an attack Balkan Peninsula The bridgehead.^[22] Olkhan established a national administrative organization internally and the central government established it Divan , Appointment Vizier (i.e., ministers), send military chief executives and Kadi Casting unified coins and becoming the real founder of Turkey.

1360 Ottoman monarch Murad I (reigned from 1360 to 1389) Southeast Europe The expansion has made decisive progress. In 1362, launched a large-scale military attack to occupy the important town of the Byzantine Empire Adria Fort , and change its name Edirne , its capital is here.^[23] In 1371, he defeated some princes of Bulgaria and Serbia, then annexed them, and the army expanded rapidly. In 1387, Murad I captured the central city of Thessaloniki in Macedonia. Under the strong pressure of the Ottoman army, more and more princes surrendered. After 1381, the Byzantine emperor also submitted to the Ottoman Marquis in exchange for political assistance and national security. In Anatolia, the Ottoman Marquis also annexed Jeremiyan Marquis and Hamilton Marquis.^[95-96] In 1389 Battle of Kosovo Defeat Serbia, Bulgaria Hungary coalition forces. This victory shook the rulers of European countries. In order to save Byzantine Empire , sent reinforcements.^[24]

Murad I's expansion into the European Balkans

Ottoman monarch Bayazit I (reigned from 1389-1402) In the next year after his accession to the throne, the Ottoman Marquis's army, the Byzantine army under his command, and the armies of Serbia, Bulgaria, Albania and other dependent countries formed an expeditionary force, which wiped out the Salhan Marquis, Eden Marquis, and Mente š e Marquis in Anatolia. In 1393, the Ottoman army conquered the Bulgarian capital, Great Ternovo, and made an expedition to Varachia, killing the Bulgarian king. Bulgaria was brought under the rule of the Ottoman Empire in 1396 and became an important part of the territory of the Ottoman Empire. In 1394, Bayazid I surrounded Constantinople, intending to strengthen his rule over the Balkans.

1396 Battle of Nicopolis And defeated Hungary France 、 Germany Allied forces from other countries occupied most of the Balkans. Nearly 10000 Crusaders In addition to 300 noble knights who were redeemed with huge sums of money, almost all of them were killed.^[25] Bayazid I continued to annex the Kalaman Marquis and eliminated the Kadi Bukhandin regime of the Mongolian system centered on Sivas. Since then, Europeans can only watch the expansion of the Ottoman Empire helplessly, and the Byzantine Empire is in danger. But at this time Turkic people Timurid Empire They became stronger and began to expand to Asia Minor.^[26]

Rejuvenation

In 1402 Battle of Ancyra The Ottoman army was defeated by Timur Army, the monarch Baysett was captured. Bayazid I became a prisoner and soon died, and the Ottoman Marquis was dissolved.^[95-96] This event temporarily saved the Byzantine Empire and made it barely exist for a period of time. Because the war for the throne started between the four sons of Bayazit. Countries ruled by the Turks revolted one after another to break away from the Ottoman Turkish Empire, and had to postpone Europe Expansion of.^[27]

In 1413, Mohammed I came to power in a succession dispute that had been in chaos for many years. Muhammad I (1413-1421) End the division and recover the territory lost by Timur Empire during the war.^[28] In 1421, Mulad II ascended the throne and the Ottoman Marquis was reunified. In 1424, the Byzantine Empire again agreed to pay tribute to the Ottoman Marquis, and ceded part of its territory. In 1425, Mulad II made an expedition to Anatolia, and the princes of Anatolia in Xi'an rebuilt with the support of Timur Empire were successively annexed.

In 1430, Mulad II recaptured Thessaloniki, which was occupied by the Byzantine Empire after the Battle of Ankara. In 1438, the Ottoman Marquis made another expedition to Serbia and captured the capital Smederevo. After that, it made another expedition to Albania and brought it into the region under direct rule. From the banks of the Danube to Anatolia, Murad II basically restored the area reached by his grandfather Bayazid's expansion. In 1440, the Ottoman army failed when it attacked the Danube River under Hungarian control and tried to reach Sibelgrad.^[97]

In 1444, Murad II (1421-1451) Battle of Varna The counterattack of Hungary and Poland in Europe was repulsed, and the Polish King Yageluncik and Archbishop Tsesalini were killed in battle.^[29]

The expansion of the Ottoman Empire in the 15th century

Establish a new capital

Turkey's history from 1453 to 1683 can be roughly divided into two periods: the period of territorial, economic and cultural expansion before 1566 and the period of relative military and political relaxation after that.

In 1451, Mohammed II died and formally ascended the throne.^[97] In the same year, Muhammad II led his army to build a fortress in the city of Anadoli Sisal, forming a siege of Constantinople. In April of the next year, Mohammed II led 200000 troops and 300 warships to completely besiege Constantinople. In 1453, 21 year old Mehmed II Less than two years after succession, he led 80000 troops to attack the capital of the Byzantine Empire Constantinople ，^[30] After 53 days of fierce fighting, the Byzantine Empire was conquered on May 29 and its capital was moved here. Mohammed II renamed Constantinople Istanbul , which means "go to the city" in Turkish.^[31]

In the thirty years after the conquest of Constantinople, Muhammad II led the army on 26 expeditions, fighting almost every year, so he was famous for "Fatih" (meaning conqueror). In the early period of Muhammad II's rule, he captured Serbia, Greece (including Thrace, the Aegean Sea and the Peloponnese Peninsula) and Bosnia in the Balkans; stay Anatolia Destroyed the kingdom of Trabzong and the Marquis of Kalaman. In the second half of his reign, Muhammad II also opened the door to Aries Dynasty (The Persian Empire established by the Turkmen) and the war against Venice. Murad II built a new fleet and captured the Macedonian capital Thessaloniki from Venice. He also hired Genoese to train sailors, expanded the number of warships to 60, controlled the islands in the northern Aegean Sea and the Gulf of Anez, and completely squeezed Venice out of this area. By 1470, the Ottoman Navy had 92 sail warships. A few years later, the Navy had more than 500 ships of all kinds. Muhammad II wiped out many semi independent dependencies and places dominated by Italian city states, and brought them into the direct jurisdiction. In the newly conquered areas, the Ottoman Empire carried out tax investigation in turn, and implemented the Timaar system. Most of the territory under the direct rule of Muhammad II established the territory of the Ottoman Empire before the 19th century.^[98-100]

Mohammed II and his army entered Constantinople

The Ottoman Empire, taking conquest as its basic national policy, continued to expand westward and gradually occupied the territory of the Christian world in Eastern Europe; To the east, it competed with the Safavid dynasty of Islamic Persia and to the south with the Mamluk dynasty of Egypt. Bayezid II (1481-1512) and his descendants Selim I Continue the conquest of our ancestors. In the spring of 1516, Selim I launched his third eastward expedition. The Ottoman army marched into Maladia, and officers from all over Mamluk defected. On August 24, 1516, Selim I defeated the army of the Mamluks in the Battle of Dabic Grassland to the north of Aleppo, Syria, and successively occupied Aleppo, Damascus, Jerusalem, Gaza and other places. In January 1517, Selim I captured Cairo in only three days, destroyed the Mamluk Dynasty in Egypt, captured the puppet caliph Mutevakkil, a descendant of the Abbasid royal family under the control of the dynasty, and obtained the position of the caliph from him, occupying most of Egypt and Syria. Since then, the Ottoman Sultan has become the leader of Islamic orthodoxy. Istanbul, the capital of the Ottoman Empire, has become the center of the Islamic world after Medina, Damascus, Baghdad and Cairo.^[100-101]

Since Selim I, the Ottoman Sultan has claimed to be the "caliph" of the Islamic world, but has not been recognized by the Islamic world. To this end, the hereditary ruler of Mecca, Sharif, made a special trip to Cairo to present the key to the holy city to Selim I as a token of his submission. The imams of the mosques in the imperial territories began to add prayers and blessings for Selim I in the "Hutubai" ceremony held every Friday, calling him "the master of two places (i.e. the territory of the Ottoman Empire in Asia and Europe)", "the sultan of two seas (i.e. the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea)", "the servant of two holy places (i.e. Mecca and Medina)" and "the victorious king". Syria, Hijaz, Palestine and Egypt under the control of the former Mamluk Dynasty until Nubia in the south were all incorporated into the Ottoman territory, and the Ottoman Turkish Empire became a great empire spanning Europe, Asia and Africa.^[101]

The land expansion of the Ottoman Empire mainly relied on its powerful centralized system, military innovation and iron military discipline, and the Ottoman navy also played an important role in its conquest activities, competing and guaranteeing in the hands of Italy and Portugal Black Sea 、 aegean sea 、 mediterranean sea 、 Crimson Sea and the indian ocean The long voyage route of. As Turkey holds the main land trade routes between Europe and Asia, the economy of the empire flourished. The Ottoman Empire's monopoly on trade between Western Europe and Asia is often cited as the Queen of Spain Isabella I support Christopher Columbus The main reason why Western Airlines is looking for Asian sea routes.^[32]

Step into the peak

The Ottoman Empire flourished under the rule of some wise monarchs. Selim I During his reign, he was committed to the construction of domestic economy at home and expansion to the east and south abroad. In 1514 Battle of Chaldiran Defeat Ismaili I^[2] Persia under administration Safavid dynasty ，^[33] Obtained Azerbaijan Part of the region.

In 1517, the Ottoman Empire destroyed Egypt Mamluk Dynasty Its naval power also expanded to Crimson Sea 。^[34] Since then, the Ottoman Empire and Portuguese Empire It has become the most dominant force in the region. Subsequent Suleiman I The pace of conquest did not stop. In 1521, Turkey fell Belgrade ； Occupy in 1522 Rhode Island 。^[35] 1526 Battle of Mohacs The Ottoman Empire defeated the Hungarian monarchy at one stroke. And then conquered Kingdom of Hungary And established Ottoman Hungary in Hungary and Central Europe.^[36] In 1526, the Ottoman Empire The first battle of mohachi And launched in 1529 Siege of Vienna ，^[37] But due to the coming of winter, they were forced to retreat. In 1532, Ottoman raised more than 250000 troops to attack Vienna again, but Kesseg to the south of Vienna was repulsed.

In 1543, Ottoman continued to advance, Habsburg Dynasty The ruler of Ferdinand I In 1547, the Ottoman Empire officially recognized its suzerainty over Hungary.^[38] Under Suleiman I, Transylvania 、 Varachia Both Moldova and the capricious Moldova have become Ottoman dependencies and must pay tribute to Ottoman. In the east, Osman Persian Grab in hand Baghdad , be in control Mesopotamia And the Persian Gulf.

At the end of Suleiman I's reign, the Ottoman Empire had a total population of 15 million. During the period of Selim I and Suleiman I, Ottoman had a strong naval force and could control most of the eastern Mediterranean. Admiral of the Ottoman Empire Barbarossa Hayreddin Under Suleiman I, he led the Ottoman navy to defeat the navy of Christian countries for many times, including those who conquered Spain Tunisia and Algeria 。^[7] Ottoman Navy Assistance Muslim and Israel In Spain Inquisition They fled Spain and escorted them to the Ottoman Empire.

Suleiman I

In 1543, the Ottoman Navy occupied Holy Roman Empire Of Nice ，^[39] This is by the French King Francois I Facilitated. France and Ottoman became a powerful alliance at that time because of the hostility between France and the Habsburg Dynasty in Central and Southern Europe. It was a military and economic alliance. The Ottoman Empire allowed France to trade within the empire without taxes. In fact, Ottoman was an important and accepted political system in Europe at that time France 、 Kingdom of England and The Netherlands Conclude military alliance and confrontation Hapsburg Dynasty in Spain , Italy and Duchy of Austria 。^[39]

With the development of the 16th century, Ottoman's naval power was challenged by the emerging Western European forces, especially in the Persian Gulf, the Indian Ocean Malacca Strait and Moluccas The region is threatened by Portugal, and the forces of the two sides fluctuate, and Turkey has the upper hand in this period Atjeh 、 Sultanate of Malacca All became the sphere of influence of the Ottoman Empire.^[40] As Ottoman blocked the sea routes to the south and east, European countries had to find another route. On land, the Ottoman Empire was troubled by the Austrian war and the Persian front. The resources, logistics supplies and communications needed to maintain the war became difficult because of the distance, which made the navy unable to maintain.

During Suleiman I's reign, the Ottoman Empire had a vast territory (about 4.5 million square kilometers) and a population of 14 million. At that time, Spain had only 5 million people and England had only 2.5 million residents. Istanbul, the capital of the Ottoman Empire, had a population of more than 500000 in its heyday (1600 years), which was larger than any European city.

The expansion of the Ottoman Empire to West Asia and Africa

Asian African expansion

The Ottoman Empire Islamic countries In 1520, the Turkish pirate Haledin, nicknamed Barbarosa (It is not Red Beard, here it is the same name of Barbarossa the pirate and the king of the Holy Roman Empire.) When he claimed to be the king of Turkey, he conquered Algeria. Since 1533, the Turkish central government has sent a local bureaucrat to Algeria, Belle Bey. In 1534, the Turks first tried to conquer the Tunisia , even occupied Tunisia, but the next year the place was occupied by the Spanish, but soon the Turks defeated the Spanish and completely occupied the country. Turkey occupied Tripoli (today's Libya) around 1551.^[41]

Turkey's expansion also affected the Arabian Peninsula. In 1547, Turkey occupied Yemen , occupied in 1550 Bahrain In 1557 Oman Muscat Defeat the Portuguese and control Oman. Soon, the Turks conquered Eritrea And Somalia. next, Mosul Became a Turkish Iraq A new starting point for promotion. The century old struggle between Turkey and Persia for Iraq ended in Turkey's victory. After Iraq, the Turks conquered Hasa along the Persian Gulf.^[41] In this way, almost all Islamic countries were conquered by Turkey in only a hundred years Morocco and Oman It is still independent from Turkey and exists as a vassal state. In the next 300-400 years, these Arab countries suffered from Turkish military oppression. Until the 19th and 20th centuries, it was replaced by heavier oppression by European countries.^[41]

Islamic countries have different degrees of attachment to Turkey. North Africa Maghreb Algeria, Tunisia and Tripoli (today's Libya) in the region are in the form of remote provinces of Turkey. In fact, they became independent from the Turkish government in the 17th and 18th centuries. Yemen became independent before the middle of the 17th century. On the south coast of the Persian Gulf, portuguese After losing almost all the colonies in the military confrontation, he came back as a businessman at the end of the 16th century, pushed the Turks out with trade advantages, and reestablished some strongholds until he was expelled by the Safi dynasty of Persians at the beginning of the 17th century. Even in Turkey—— Pasha The authority of the central government in Syria, Palestine, Egypt and Iraq, where we are sitting, is often challenged by local bureaucrats. Sometimes the Pasha plotted against Sudan, and sometimes the local Arab feudal lords rebelled against the Turkish Pasha. The powerful people's uprisings came one after another, shocking the entire Ottoman Empire.^[41]

Decadent crisis

After the death of Suleiman I, Turkey's territorial expansion gradually slowed down. The growth and development of maritime power in Western Europe, the sea route from Europe to Asia and the New World have damaged Turkey's economic development. The past effective military and bureaucratic system has been changed due to the mismanagement of Sudan. Although the Empire faced these difficulties, it was still the main expansion force in Europe until 1683 battle of Vienna The war in Vienna marked the end of Turkey's continued expansion in Europe.^[42] European countries began to deal with Turkey's control of land trade routes.

Western European countries bypassed Turkey's trade monopoly and established their sea routes to Asia. The influx of silver from the New World led to the devaluation and inflation of the Turkish currency, which had a serious negative impact on all sectors of Turkish society. Selim II During the period, the great vizier Sokoru Mohamed Pasha began to develop Suez and Volga waterways to save the economy, but these plans were later cancelled. After burning Moscow on the Eastern European Plain in 1571, the Crimean khan Dorat Gley I, supported by Turkey, planned to conquer Tsar Russia. The following year, the Crimean army was defeated at the Battle of Morodi. At that time Crimean Khanate Undoubtedly, it was a powerful force in Eastern Europe until the end of the 17th century.

In southern Europe, Philip II The Catholic League under the leadership challenged the Turkish navy in the Mediterranean Battle of Lepanto Defeat the Turkish fleet and strike at the undefeated posture of the Turkish navy. This battle was the largest naval battle in the early modern history. The victory of the Battle of Lebanto triggered the uprising against the Ottoman rule in Greece and Algiers.^[43] Today's historians believe that the symbolic significance of the Battle of Lebanto is more important than the military. Within six months after the defeat of the Turkish navy, a new fleet of about 250 warships, eight of which were equipped with modern three masted sail equipment, was built. At the wharf of Constantinople, ships were built every day during the peak of shipbuilding. During the discussion with the Venetian minister, the Turkish Grand vizier said: "When we captured Cyprus, we removed one of your troops, and you defeated our fleet, which was just a layer of bread." The amazing resilience of the Turkish navy enabled Venice to sign the peace treaty in 1573, and Turkey was able to expand and consolidate its position in North Africa.

Battle of Lepanto

The borders of the Habsburg dynasty were not changed much, and only small battles for individual fortresses were fought many times. This is due to the development of Star Fortress in Europe, which is a kind of low fortress built by Austria on the border. This fortress can be broken only after a long siege. Turkey had no way to deal with such fortresses, and the artillery used by the Empire in the past had become ineffective. This also reflects its geographical constraints. During the war season from early spring to late autumn, the Turkish army marched from Constantinople, and Vienna was the farthest point of the Turkish army. In addition, Turkey must also deploy military forces on the front line. On the one hand, it must guard against the Austrians, and on the other hand, it must fight against Persia Shiite Muslim Safavid dynasty 。

On the battlefield, Turkey was gradually overtaken by the military technology of the European continent, and the growth of religious and intellectual conservatives stifled Turkey's military innovation. The changes in strategy and armaments made by the European military revolution have made the past frightening Sipahi The threat of cavalry weakens. In the long war against the Habsburg Dynasty, the empire needed a large number of infantry equipped with firearms, so the recruitment policy was relaxed, which greatly increased the number of new Turkish troops, but it caused problems such as military discipline and the quality of soldiers. The government even had to deal with the mutiny of soldiers.

The spears, muskets and linear tactics developed in Europe to promote the use of muskets were fatal to the Turkish army. The Turkish army recruited some irregular snipers to deal with the war. After demobilization, some snipers became bandits in the Gerari rebellion Anatolia At the end of the 16th century and the beginning of the 17th century, it fell into anarchy. By 1600, the population of the Ottoman Empire had reached 30 million, and the demand for land shortage also put pressure on the government.

Civil strife is rampant

Women's Rights Period in Sudan (1648-1656) was a period when the Turkish harem had a great influence on politics. The Empress Dowager exercised power on behalf of her son, which was not unprecedented.^[12] Sultan Schrem In the early 1530s, she inherited the Sultan Lubaneu and became the Queen Mother of the Sultan. She was described by Venetian Baro Andrea Jeridi as "an extremely kind, courageous and intelligent woman". Because Ibrahim I was unable to govern the country and Mohammed IV As soon as he ascended the throne, government affairs were handed over to the imperial harem for governance. The most famous woman in this period was the Cosham Sultan and his daughter-in-law Duhen Hattige. The Cosham Sultan caused her political enemies to kill her in 1651 because of her regency.^[44]

Then the Ottoman Empire entered the Copyrus period (1656-1703), during which the empire was occupied by members of the Copyrus family Grand Vizier 。 On September 15, 1656, Kopruru Muhammad Pasha, who was 80 years old at the time, was assured by Duhem Khatige that the Imperial Palace would not interfere in his handling of government affairs. Coprulu Mohamed Pasha was a radical conservative law enforcer who restored the central power and the military strength of the empire. His son and successor Coprulu Faqir Ahmed followed his father's line. The achievements of the Kepulu family in revitalizing the military power can be seen in the recapture Transylvania , conquest of Crete in 1669, expansion to southern Ukraine in 1676, occupation of Kodin Kamenetz Podoliski And Potoria.

In May 1683, the newly revitalized military force of the Ottoman Empire was destroyed again, and Kara Mustafa Pasha raised his troops again to attack Vienna The Turkish army was defeated by the Polish king John III The Habsburg Dynasty, Germany and Poland led by him defeated, and about 20000 people were killed during the siege.^[45]

The Battle of Vienna in 1683

《 Karlovitz Treaty 》The signing of ended the Great Turkish War and made the Turkish army cede the European territories under its control for the first time, including Hungary in the Ottoman Empire.^[46] Since then, Turkey has been unable to pursue an expansion policy towards Europe and has had to defend on the European front. The Ottoman Empire tended to decline at the beginning of the 19th century with the Treaty of Karlovitz as the main symbol. During this period, only two monarchs could exercise effective political and military governance over the empire. Murad IV Recapture Yerevan As well as Baghdad, the central authority was once again valued.

Mustafa II In 1695-1696, they fought back against the Habsburg Hungary, but in Sanda they were Prinz Eugen Defeat.

Stagnate reform

During the stagnation of the Ottoman Empire, many Balkan territories of Ottoman fell into Austrian Empire Egypt Tripoli (now Libya) Tunisia and Algeria In fact, it had gained independence and later became a colony of Britain, France and Italy. In the 18th century, the Ottoman central government gave local rulers and leaders different degrees of regional autonomy.

From the 17th century to the 19th century, it rose in eastern Europe Czar Russia A series of wars for territory, territory and hegemony broke out with the Ottoman Empire, which rose in western Asia and expanded to southeast Europe and northern Africa. Historians believe that Turkey's long-term stagnation is an era of reform failure. Turkey carried out scientific and educational reforms during this period, including the establishment of higher education institutions, such as Istanbul University of Science and Technology. Turkey's science and technology are in the middle ages. Turkish scholars have integrated Islamic philosophy and mathematics, Chinese gunpowder and magnetic compass knowledge. During this period, the influence of science was much less than before. Some writers' trade unions criticized the printing press as "the invention of the devil". Hesperian Movable type printing In 1450 by Johannes Gutenberg Invented by Spanish in 1493 Sephardi Jews After the introduction of Ottoman, Safadi Jews fled from the Spanish Inquisition and moved to the Ottoman Empire.

During the Tulip Period, the monarch Ahmed III They are named after their favorite flowers. Tulip also symbolizes their peaceful rule during their tenure.^[47] The empire's policy towards Europe changed at that time. In 1712, the Ottoman Empire The Third Russian Turkish War After the victory and the signing of the Pact of Passarowitz in 1718-1730, the region was in a state of peace.^[48] The Ottoman Empire strengthened the fortifications in the border towns of the Balkans to prevent the expansion of Europe. Some initial reforms began to be implemented, such as reducing tax rates to try to improve the image of the empire. Private investment and entrepreneurs began to appear in China.

The War between the Ottoman Empire and Austria from 1716 to 1718

Turkey's military reform Selim III (1789-1807) Since he took office, he was the first monarch to try to modernize the military along the European route.^[49] However, these reforms were hindered by the reactionaries. The resistance came from religious leaders and the Turkish New Army, the then Turkish New Army Yeniseri They have lost control and effectiveness, and their dissatisfaction with poverty and opposition to change triggered rebellion.^[50] Selim III's reform eventually led to death. His successor Mahmoud II In 1826, a shocking and bloody massacre was carried out against the Turkish new army, which suppressed the rebellion. However, the Ottoman Empire in the 18th century was not only in the stagnation period of expansion and development, but also in a period of adapting to new things and new systems. It was the transition stage of the Ottoman Turkish Empire from military expansion to modern reform.

Mahmoud II

Modern Decline

The decline of the Ottoman Empire is considered by historians as the period of empire modernization. The empire lost a lot of territory on the front line, and the weakness of the central government led to unstable governance Tanzimat The period tried to reform and reorganize the empire.^[51] During the Tanzimat period, Turkey had to deal with foreign invasions, and the empire could not support itself alone, so it began to ally with European countries, such as France, the Netherlands, and Britain. In 1853-1855 Crimean War During the period, Turkey united with Britain, France and other countries to resist Russia.^[52]

A series of constitutional reforms in the Tanzimat period included the establishment of a modern army, the reform of the banking system, and the replacement of trade unions with modern factories.^[53] In 1856, the Hart Ay Yumayun Act guaranteed that all citizens of the Ottoman Empire, regardless of race and belief, enjoyed equal status, further expanding the contents of the Hart Ay Sharif Act of 1839. Christian Milet enjoyed privileges. For example, the Armenian National Constitution of 1863 was a law approved by Devan, including 150 articles, which were drafted by Armenian intellectuals and the newly established Armenian National Assembly. One is called Canning El Shasi (The Ottoman Turkish is interpreted as "the Basic Law") The reform period reached its peak by Young Ottomans It was compiled by the members of, and released on November 23, 1876, establishing the concept of freedom and equality for citizens. This is the "one-time constitution" of the Ottoman Empire.^[54] The constitutional period was very short, but its ideology (Ottomanization) had an impact on the reformist New Turks, who had received education in Western universities. They believed that constitutional monarchy could solve the problem of imperial social instability.^[55]

A military coup in 1876 deposed the Turkish monarch Abd al-Aziz ， Murad V In succession, Murad V was deposed again within a few months of taking office due to mental problems. On December 23, 1876, as expected Abdul Hamid II Announce implementation Constitutional monarchy However, the parliament under the constitutional government was banned by the monarch after only two years of operation, but it was not abolished. Later, under pressure, the parliament was reconvened. However, the effectiveness of Canning El Shasi was minimized.

The Ottoman Empire in 1848

Independence trend

Main term: The division of the Ottoman Empire

In the 19th century, nationalism The rise of the Ottoman Empire swept across many countries. The growth of national consciousness and civic nationalism led to the introduction of western nationalism into the Ottoman Empire, which had to deal with nationalism at home and abroad. Many revolutionary parties have sprung up in China. The rise of nationalism had a profound impact on the empire in the 19th century and also on the national policy of the empire in the early 20th century. Many Ottoman Turks questioned the national policy at that time, and some believed that ethnic conflicts originated from the outside and had nothing to do with administration. The empire did not achieve much at that time, and its ability to cope with nationalism was also questioned.

In 1798, he was napoleon i The occupied Egypt was recaptured by the Ottoman and British allied forces in 1801. In 1882, the British army occupied Egypt under the pretext of rectifying public security. Legally, Egypt and Sudan were still Ottoman provinces in North Africa until 1914. In 1829, under the interference of Britain, France and Russia, Greece Greek Revolutionary War Then declared independence.^[56] The reform failed to restrain the Danube Grand Duchy and Greater Serbism Rise, the two places have been in a semi independent state. In 1875, Serbia Montenegro 、 Varachia and Moldova Declare independence from the empire.^[57]

1877-1878 Russo-Turkish wars The independence of Serbia, Romania, Montenegro and Bulgaria was officially established.^[58] Bosnia was Austro Hungarian Empire Occupied, other parts of the Balkans are still under the control of the Ottoman Empire.^[59] In this wave of anti colonization, Juda Alekale, a Serbian Jewish, advocated Palestine Establish a Jewish state. The Turks are Russo-Turkish wars Failure, the Ottoman Empire Cyprus In exchange for British support at the Berlin Conference.

stay the First World War , the Ottoman Empire joined Allies Britain annexed Egypt and Sudan. Between 1830 and 1912, the Ottoman Empire lost all its provinces in North Africa, namely Algeria (occupied by France in 1830), Tunisia (occupied by France in 1881) and Libya (occupied by Italy in 1912). The empire failed to repay the national debt to the European banks, which led to the establishment of the Ottoman public debt management, the Ottoman national debt institution. At the end of the 19th century, the empire was not completely occupied by western forces because of the concept of power balance. Austria and Russia both hoped to increase their influence and expand their territory through the decline of Turkey, but Britain tried to restrain them and worried that Russia would dominate the eastern Mediterranean.

The loss of the Ottoman Empire's African possessions

The decline and fall of the empire

Main term: Turkish Revolution 、 the First World War

After the Turkish Revolution (1908) and Sudan's announcement of resuming the 1876 Constitution and restoring parliament, the Ottoman Empire entered the second constitutional period, which played an important role in the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire.

During this period, government affairs were controlled by the Joint Progress Committee. The Austro Hungarian Empire was annexed in 1908 while the Ottoman Empire was trapped in the domestic struggle Bosnia and Herzegovina 。 In 1911 Italian Turkish War The Ottoman Empire was defeated and lost Tripoli and Cyrenaica 。 With the rise of nationalism in Southeast European countries, Balkan League At the end of 1912, the Ottoman Empire declared war on the Ottoman Empire Balkan Wars Li lost everything except Dong Thrace and Edirne Outside the Balkans.^[60]

The Ottoman Empire at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century

German controlled Baghdad Railway It became the source of international tension and one of the causes of the First World War. Turkey is chasing Goeben And the Breslau, and formally participated in the war after intervening in the Middle East front. At the beginning of the war, the Ottoman Empire won many important victories, such as Gallipoli Battle And Kata. The Ottoman Empire also suffered many setbacks, such as Battle of the Caucasus Lose to Russia.

1916 Arab Revolt Let the good situation of the Ottoman Empire on the Middle East front be reversed, so that the Arabs, the second largest Muslim group in the empire, can break away from the empire.^[61] Minister of the Interior Mohamed Talat Armenian establish The Fifth Column May express concern and order arrest Armenia Leaders, demand the implementation of Tesilfa, start mass deportation and massacre of Armenians, and forcibly bring thousands of people to Syrian Desert The incident turned into genocide. During the war, it was estimated that 1.5 million Armenians died of hunger, water shortage, exposure to the sun, and looting by thieves, which was the Armenian genocide. The Armenians responded with the resistance war in Van and the establishment of the Armenian government. The Turkish government accused the Armenians of Anatolia The Russian army in the west colluded with the invasion, and there were Armenian volunteers in the Russian army.

By 1918, Yemen and Medina It's Turkey the arabian peninsula The only remaining territory.^[60] After the signing of the Mudros Armistice Agreement, Turkey was forced to surrender Yemen and Medina Russian Revolution Post Turkish Georgia 、 Armenia and Azerbaijan All must be handed in together.

《 Treaty of sevres 》The division of the Ottoman Empire was established by the treaty of.^[62] At that time, there were 40 new countries (including the controversial Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus ）。 After the war, the farmers in Anatolia were only 40% of those before the war, and Turkey suffered heavy casualties in World War I. Occupation of Istanbul and Occupation Izmir Stimulating the establishment of the Turkish National Movement Mustafa Kemal Atatuk Under the leadership of Turkish Revolutionary War win victory.^[104]

Kemal reviews the National Army

On November 1, 1922, the sudanese system was abolished and the last monarch Mohammed VI He left Turkey on November 17. The newly established Turkish Grand National Assembly signed the《 Treaty of Lausanne 》International recognition.

On October 29, 1923, the Loya Jirga announced that Republic of Turkey Establishment.^[63] On March 3, 1924, the caliphate system was abolished. The Ottoman royal family was listed as undesirable and deported. Fifty years later, in 1974, the Grand National Assembly allowed descendants of the Ottoman royal family to obtain Turkish citizenship.

territory

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The fief inherited by Ottoman, the founder of the Ottoman state, is located in the northwest corner of the Anatolian Plateau, and its center is Seute, which is north of the city of Eskishear, Turkey. The fief is small in area and is located in the border area of Seljuk Turkic Kingdom. Between 1300 and 1320, the territory of Ottoman reached Esquishere in the south, Ulu Mountains in the west and north, and close to the Marmara Sea. Olhan, the son of Osman, occupied Nicaea and Nicomedia in 1337. From 1338 to 1345, the Turks completed their conquest of Asia Minor. At that time, the territory of the Ottoman country included the whole northwest Asia Minor from the Aegean Sea to the Black Sea. During Orhan's reign, it also expanded eastward to control the area near Ankara. Murad I led his army to capture Adria Fort and invade the Macedonian plain. In 1384, he captured Sofia and soon took control of the whole Bulgaria. The Ottoman Turks also conquered Macedonia in the Balkans and parts of Serbia.

In Asia, Murad I captured Ankara and nearly doubled the territory of the original Ottoman countries in Anatolia. Bayezid I then led his army across the Danube, invaded Thessaly, and occupied parts of Macedonia and Bulgaria. In 1396, Bayezid I seized the victory and occupied Thessaly and Konya, invading Hungary.^[94] In 1446, he invaded Greece and captured Corinth. So far, Albania, Greece, Romania and Serbia belong to the territory of Ottoman countries.^[93]

Between 1459 and 1475, Muhammad II conquered Dispotat in Serbia, and then occupied the duchy of Athens, the principality of the Peloponnese Peninsula; Conquer the Greek kingdom of Trabzong (the southern shore of the Black Sea) and Bosnia. Capture the Genoese colonies in the Black Sea; After the annexation of Crimea, the Black Sea became the inner lake of the Ottoman Empire.

From 1478 to 1481, Muhammad II conquered Albania, incorporated Albania and Herzegovina into the empire, and conquered most of Greece and the Peloponnese Peninsula. By the time of Sherim I, Azerbaijan and Kurdistan were captured from the Persians, and the northern part of the two river basin was conquered. In 1516, he captured Damascus and conquered Syria; The conquest of Egypt in 1517 extended the territory of the Ottoman Empire to the Red Sea, the Eastern Mediterranean and North Africa (as far as Algeria).

From 1566 to 1683, the Ottoman Empire conquered the southwest coast of the Arabian Peninsula and reached Yemen. It controls the Caucasus to the east and the southern coast of the Persian Gulf to the southeast. In 1683, the territory of the Ottoman Empire reached its maximum. At that time, the empire's territory roughly included Turkey, Iraq, Kuwait, Syria and Lebanon in present-day West Asia, Israel, Hanzhi region in Saudi Arabia, western Yemen, Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan; Romania, Bulgaria, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Macedonia, Greece, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Slovenia, Albania, Hungary, Moldova in Europe, Crimea in the south of Ukraine and its surrounding areas; Egypt in Africa, northern Sudan, northern Libya, northern Algeria, Tunisia, and Crete and Cyprus in the Mediterranean cover an area of about 5.3 million square kilometers.^[93]

In the heyday of the Ottoman Empire, the country was divided into 31 provinces and 250 counties, all of which belonged to Sudan The Empire headed by central government All are granted to military landlords on condition of military service.

The Ottoman Empire in the 16-17th Century

Politics

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Theocracy

The Ottoman Empire implemented a military and political system of government, which simultaneously Sharia regime The color of Islamism One of the political systems recognized by law. The state power must conform to the spirit of Sharia, the head of state (i.e. Khalifa, Sudan, Amir, etc.) The country must also be governed by the Islamic Shariah.

To defend Islamism The holiness, purity and continuity of righteousness were later put forward by the jurists Caliph The doctrine stipulates a series of principles on the caliph's qualifications, functions, methods of formation, etc., and believes that as a "public servant of Allah", the caliph must respect the Islamic Shariah law and can only exercise his power within the limited range allowed by Sharia. These powers are mainly administrative legislative powers, including issuing decrees, formulating administrative regulations, determining the administrative system of the country, appointing and removing officials, etc. However, all these administrative legislations are theoretically regarded as an application and supplement to Saria, which cannot go against the spirit of Saria. In history, feudal monarchs often issued administrative regulations based on this, such as the famous Ottoman Empire Regulations. In modern times, government decrees and regulations are often issued to restrict the jurisdiction And revise the entity of the teaching law in the form of administrative legislation.^[64]

Sudanese system

Main term: State organs of the Ottoman Empire

At the end of the 13th century, Osman was the tribal leader, whose authority was limited to the power of the military leader of the tribal alliance. At the assembly, all clan and tribal leaders are equal. When dealing with the internal affairs of tribes, each tribe is handled by its own leader according to its own tradition, without any interference from the Ottoman leader. Most disputes between tribes are settled according to the customs and laws of the tribe. With the expansion of the Ottoman ruling region, Ottoman successors began to call themselves Sudan, and the Ottoman country developed from a small border principality to an empire.^[102-103] The Ottoman Empire adopted a monarchy, and the power of the Sudan followed the principle of inheritance of the Ottoman family. The Sultan of Istanbul is superior to his subjects, as if he were the ruler and protector of his subjects, and the object of their loyalty. The Sudan is regarded as a herder, and the subjects called Laia are sheep obedient to the Sudan. The Ottoman Sultan is a symbol of the Ottoman Empire. Without the Ottoman family, there would be no Ottoman Empire. However, the Middle East under the Ottoman Empire is not the so-called eastern water conservancy society, as Karl Weiteff said, and the Sultan in Istanbul is not an absolute monarch with absolute power.^[65]

The size and duration of the Ottoman royal family is unprecedented in the Islamic world. The Ottoman royal family has Turkish origin in race, but because the royal family intermarries with people of different races, the Ottoman royal family is not dominated by pure Turks.

Islamism The highest status in the—— Caliph (Successor of the Prophet Muhammad) It was also adopted by the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire as the caliph of the Ottoman Empire, in addition to the three orthodox caliphs for many years. The Sultan of the Ottoman Empire is the only regent of the empire and can be regarded as the embodiment of the government, although the Sultan will not fully exercise its power. The Imperial harem is a very important authority in the Ottoman imperial court, which is in the charge of the empress dowager, the empress dowager. She has absolute power and high status in the harem. Sometimes, the empress dowager of the sultan would interfere in politics and use her influence to weaken the power of the sultan. From the beginning of the 16th century to the 17th century, the empress dowager of the Sultan held the power of the country, which is called the Sultan Feminist Period. The successor sultan is chosen by the sons of the former sultan. Outbreak in 1908 Young Turk Revolution Later, the Ottoman Empire became a constitutional monarchy, but Sudan did not Real power , a parliament was established, and representatives of the parliament were elected by the provinces. These representatives formed the Ottoman imperial government.

administrative organ

The administrative structure of the empire was divided into the central and provincial levels. The main department of the central administrative body is the State Council. The State Council is one of the highest administrative organs of the empire. Its members include the military leaders of the vizier, Rumelia and Anatolia, the finance minister, the foreign minister, the chief clerk, and the Grand Mufti. Other parliamentary participants include the secretary of the State Council, the administrator of the handwriting, the civilian officials and the recorder of the meeting. The Sudan presided over the early state affairs meeting and made resolutions. In the later period, the Sudan elected one of the many viziers to preside over the meeting on behalf of the Sudan, become the leader of the State Council, and coordinate the relations between the Sudan and other viziers. The Ottomans called him Shadar Azam, and in the West called him the Great vizier, equivalent to a prime minister. Olkhan began to set up the State Council, the central government, and national policies were discussed and decided by the vizier who participated in the State Council. Under the State Council, the old Seljuk ruling system was retained for the local administrative organs of the provinces in the areas under direct rule. Orhan also assigned administrative and military chiefs and judges (Kadi) to various regions to forge unified coins, and set up the post of vizier in the conquered provinces and assume economic responsibilities. All the viziers were awarded the Bayi rank. After the Ottomans conquered Byzantium, they inherited Byzantium's fiefs, taxes, etiquette, officials and managers, as well as Byzantium's management methods. From the 14th century to the 15th century, Ottoman court etiquette and central administration were influenced by the Byzantine way.^[102]

Another important department in the central administrative organ is the Ministry of Finance, which is the highest government organ parallel to the State Council, and they have no subordinate relationship. The Ministry of Finance is independent from the treasury of Sudan, and its responsibility is to manage the finance of the whole empire. The Ministry of Finance was set up by the Grand Vizier Kandari Kara Harirpasha during the reign of Murad I. The head of the Ministry of Finance is known as the chief financial officer. In addition to managing the financial revenue and expenditure of the empire and leading provincial finance ministries, he is also responsible for managing the sale and transportation of official goods such as salt and tobacco; To be responsible for the management of wharves for import and export; Responsible for the opening of various mineral resources. The Ministry of Finance has the Office of the Chief Financial Officer, which governs four departments: the first is the registry, which is responsible for managing the records of financial expenditure; The second is the accounting department, that is, the accounting department; The third is the Audit Department, which is responsible for checking the financial records and keeping the salary list of officials; The fourth is the Fixed Assets Department, which is responsible for registering various revenue and expenditure records. The Ministry of Finance is well organized, and the financial departments of each province are under the jurisdiction of the Central Ministry of Finance. The Ottoman Empire has always been ahead of other European countries in the financial management.^[102]

In 1876, the Ottoman Empire held the first imperial parliament

legal system

The judicial system of the Ottoman Empire was only willing to adopt most of the Islamic Shariah laws that did not conflict with the legitimacy of its regime and organize a regional legal system. The empire has three court systems, one for Muslim and one for non Muslim, one for non Muslim including religious communities under the jurisdiction of Jews and Christians, and one for trade courts. The whole system is governed by the Karon regulations. In addition, the Karon regulations are laws that do not belong to any sect, so as to supplement Saria Regulations "Shortcomings" of.^[66] The classification of these courts is not entirely specialized. For example, the Muslim court, the main court of the empire, can deal with trade disputes between litigants of different religious backgrounds. Even though it could exert influence through regional rulers, the Ottoman Empire tended not to interfere with the legal system of non Muslim religions. Sharia laws of Islam have gathered the Koran 、 Hadith (Prophet Mohammed Comments) It was formed by the Muslim public consultation and operated by a system called Qiyas. These systems are taught at law schools, mainly in Constantinople and Bursa.

The Tanzimat reform had a thorough impact on the legal system. In 1877, the Civil Code was included in the Magira Code. Later, the Meguira Code included commercial law, criminal law and civil procedure law.^[67]

military

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Conscription

The first military organization of the Ottoman Empire was organized by Ottoman I in the tribes in western Anatolia at the end of the 13th century. With the expansion of the empire, the military system became more and more complex, with a complex system of recruitment and fiefdom. In order to meet military needs, a militia system must be established among the local people, which is Jerbent (meaning "road guard") a guard unit.

The vassal army of the vassal state played an irreplaceable role in the conquest of Ottoman Turkey: from the second half of the 14th century to the early 15th century, they even constituted the main force of the Ottoman army. By the middle of the 15th century, Turkish talents were in the south Balkans Forced the establishment of direct and effective administrative military rule, while the local Christian princes, facing the wave of European crusades, launched rebellions for many times, which has also made Sudan untrustworthy. Many of the sons of feudal princes served in the Mutflika Cavalry Regiment in Istanbul, which also absorbed the descendants of the Turkish nobility and was the establishment of the Kapikuru army. Mutflika lives on salary, has uniform and receives orthodox Islamic court education, and plays the role of hostage while serving.

Eastern Anatolian Kurds It is the autonomous vassal closest to the heart of the empire. They were originally associated with the Persian Safavid dynasty Alliance and jointly deal with Ottoman Turkey, but after the battle of Kaldiran (1514), Sherim I led his army to defeat Ismayi, the Kurdish tribal elders turned to the Ottoman Empire. Since then, the empire set up a special Hukumeit Sanjak here, which was managed by the hereditary Bey, and transferred the Yeniseri Legion to garrison in the central town. The Kurds are brave and valiant. They are nomadic at ordinary times. When they are summoned in Sudan, they will go to war with Yeniseri and undertake important tasks. For example, during an expedition in 1596, the Kurdish cavalry of Diyarbakir (located in the eastern part of Turkey today, the capital of Kurdish region) served as the rear of the Ottoman army.^[68]

other Middle East The autonomous regime of the vassal of Lebanon Maloney Christians and Druze Muslims, while Mamluk Egypt and Iraq, the Arabian Gulf coast and Eritrea It is in a semi autonomous state. In the central towns of these places, there are Yeniseri military camps, marking the sovereignty of the Ottoman government. In addition to military service, the natural resources of these vassal areas also played an extremely important role in the Ottoman Turkish Empire, such as Moldavia, Transylvania and Varachia for supplying wood, firearms, war horses, tin and rope; Kurdistan 、 Iraq and Lebanon Asphalt, sulfur and nitrate are provided.^[69]

Urban Cannon

land force

The main forces of the Ottoman Empire include the Turkish New Army Sipahi , Atkins and the military band. At that time, the Ottoman Empire army was the most advanced combat army in the world and the first to use muskets and Cannon Our army. Under siege Constantinople The Ottomans began to use falcons, which were short and wide cannons. High speed and high mobility light cavalry use bows and arrows, short swords to ride on Turkmen horses and Arabian horse Fighting without heavy armour, strong and disciplined Heavy cavalry All men and horses are covered with heavy armour and launch a powerful attack against the enemy at the most critical moment.

Its operational mode and Mongol Empire Similar, such as pretending to retreat, surrounding the enemy with a crescent formation and launching a surprise attack. In the middle of the 17th century and after the Great Turkish War, the performance of the Ottoman Imperial Army declined. In the 18th century, the Ottoman Imperial Army did not achieve much in the war against Austria, and was forced to retreat and lose territory by the Russian army in the north.^[70]

The modernization of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century began with the military. In 1826, Sultan Mahmoud II abolished the Turkish new army and established a modern army, which was named New Order. The Ottoman Imperial Army was the first organization to hire foreign experts and send officers to study in Western Europe. Those relatively young, newly trained people returned to Turkey and started the Young Turks Movement.^[70]

Ottoman Army

navy

The Turkish navy contributed a lot to the expansion of the empire in Europe. The navy conquered North Africa in 1517, including Algeria and Egypt. After the fall of Algeria and Greece, Turkey's maritime power and control over overseas areas weakened. The Turkish monarch Abdulaziz tried to rebuild a powerful navy, which is the largest after Britain and France. The shipyard in Barrow, England, built the first Ottoman Empire in 1886 submarine 。^[70]

However, the collapsed economy of the Ottoman Empire failed to support its navy. Sudan Abdul Hamid II distrusted the navy and believed that large-scale and expensive navy Russo-Turkish wars It's useless, so most of the warships are locked in Golden Horn Bay The warships gradually rotted in the following thirty years.^[70]

After the Young Turks Revolution in 1908, the Joint Progress Committee wanted to develop a strong navy. The Turkish Navy Fund was established to collect public donations to buy ships.

Ottoman naval fleet in Golden Horn Bay

air force

The Turkish Air Force was established in June 1909, which was the first flight fighting organization in the world. On July 3, 1912, Turkey set up an air force academy to train pilots and air force officers. The establishment of the Air Force Academy has accelerated the process of the expansion of the Air Force and enriched more personnel.

In May 1913, the Air Force Academy conducted the world's first special reconnaissance training program and established the first reconnaissance department.

In June 1914, a new Naval Aviation Academy was established. When the First World War broke out, the modernization process stopped abruptly, and the Turkish air force participated in the war on the front line Galicia , east to the Caucasus, south to Yemen 。

Ottoman Air Force

Economics

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Agriculture

The Ottoman Empire belongs to a typical agricultural society. The vast majority of the population lives in the countryside. Self sufficient agricultural production forms the basis of the economic life of the Ottoman Empire. Land is undoubtedly the primary source of wealth, and the small-scale peasant economy has long dominated. As for nomadic economic activities, they are mainly distributed in the plateau, mountain and desert areas on the edge of the world; Most nomads follow traditional kinship organizations.^[71] Farmers generally follow the farming techniques of fallow and crop rotation, and adopt the traditional way of family farming, with simple farm tools, backward technology, extensive management and self-sufficiency. The typical crop of traditional agriculture in the Ottoman Empire is grain based crop. Winter wheat constitutes the most important food crop, which is sown in autumn and harvested in spring.^[72]

Village community leaders and tribal elders control the distribution of water sources and the use of cultivated land, and exercise the duties of collecting taxes and arbitrating disputes within a certain range, which constitutes an intermediate link between the state and farmers. As land cultivators, farmers are attached to village leaders and tribal elders and under the protection of village communities and tribes. The sharing system is a long-standing way of renting land in the Middle East. Landlords and farmers divide crop yields according to the five elements of farmland, water, labor, farm tools and seeds. Peasants mainly pay in kind land rent and undertake some labor, while monetary land rent is rare. The land system of state ownership, as well as the joint possession of land by village communities and tribes, excludes the individual right of farmers to control land.^[72]

foreign trade

Once the Ottoman Empire was established, it controlled the passage of Asia Minor along the trade routes between the East and the West. Every time the Ottoman Empire settled down, it greatly reformed the local economy, making it the center of new politics and economy. Because merchants and workers were particularly important for creating a metropolis, Mohammed II and his successor Bayeset II encouraged Jews from all over Europe to move to Istanbul or other cities, such as Saronica.

During the development of the Ottoman Empire, it exported goat hair, leather products, animal skins and carpets. Because Ottoman carpets were very popular in Europe, Latin merchants often bought Ottoman carpets from Antalya in the south of Asia and Balat in the west for sale in Europe. Mineral products are also one of the important commodities in the foreign trade of the Ottoman Empire. Asia Minor has silver, iron, copper, salt and celestite deposits. Sinope was famous for producing copper in the Middle Ages. Lead was exported to the West and Egypt; Copper was also sold to the Genoese. Of course, gold and silver are also included in the trade. While exporting metals, the Ottoman Empire also imported metals, such as iron and tin, which were necessary for casting artillery.^[4]

Alum occupies a unique position in the foreign trade of the Ottoman Empire. Before the discovery of alum ore in southern Rome in the second half of the 15th century, Asia Minor was always the main source of alum for the West. Among the commodities traded, horses are the most valuable livestock assets of the Ottomans and other Turks. The horses of the Ottoman Empire are very good, which is inseparable from the good pasture on the Anatolian Plateau.^[4]

currency

Drawing on the monetary system of the Arab Empire and the Ilkhanid (today's Iran), Ottomans used silver and copper coins to levy taxes. From the first day of the establishment of the empire to the 15th century, the Akche silver coins have always been the basis of Ottoman imperial coins. Silver coins were used more and more widely in the Ottoman Empire, from cities to villages, from government administrative agencies to grassland nomads. The reform of the tax form (from the material object to the collection of silver coins) and the luxury demand of the nobility made silver coins become the "commodity" most desired by the Ottoman sultans. In the later period of Muhammad II's rule, the Ottoman Empire began to spend more than it could afford because of its militancy and war spending. Taking money from the people's pockets naturally became the "top choice", so the content of base metals in the Aike silver coins increased significantly. The credibility of the silver coins of Ike was damaged, and some regions began to abandon the silver coins of Ike, including the Balkans, Egypt, Persia, Crimea, and Maghreb (the coastal areas of Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya today), all began to mint silver coins themselves.^[73]

In 1690, after silver, the Ottoman Empire began to learn from the West, set up an imperial mint, and began to cast a silver coin called Kurus. Its weight was fixed at six times the weight of the silver coin of the Dirham commonly used by Muslims in the Arabian Peninsula at that time, weighing about 19.2g, containing 60% silver, 40% copper, and equivalent to 30 Paras in nominal value And 90 Ikes - yes, Ike has degenerated into the smallest monetary unit at this time.

In the 19th century, with the transmission effect of the industrial revolution in Western Europe, the Ottoman Empire tried to learn from Western European countries and vigorously developed the banking and paper currency system. In 1840, the Ottoman Turkish Empire issued notes of 1000, 500, 250, 100 and 50 kurus.^[73]

The silver coins of kurus and zarot in the 18th century

Culture

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language

Ottoman Turkish language yes Turkish Variants of farsi and Arabic Impact. Turkish, Persian and Arabic are all influential languages for the Ottoman Empire. For example, one of the reasons for attaching importance to Arabic is that it is the Koran The written language of. Ottoman officials, especially the Ottoman court, communicated in a Turkish language in the late period, and borrowed words from Arabic and Persian. Even if the basic grammar is Turkish, Ottoman Turkish, which uses Arabic or Persian borrowings, is incomprehensible to those who are not proficient in Arabic and Persian.

In the two centuries before the fall of the empire, French and English began to become popular languages, especially in the Christian community in the Levant area. The elite showed their upper class status by learning French and using European products. During the Ottoman Empire, the use of Turkish rose steadily, but Arabic and Persian remained. Later, Persian was only used as a literary language, while Arabic was purely used in religious ceremonies. At that time, many Persian poets appeared.^[74]

Ottoman Turkish writing

music

Ottoman classical music (see entry Turkish music ）It is an important part of Ottoman elite education. Some Ottoman empires Sudan He is a skilled musician and composer, such as Selim III 。^[75] Ottoman classical music is mainly composed of Arabic music 、 Persian music And Byzantine music. In structure, Ottoman classical music passes through a rhythmic and melodic system called Ursul Muqam Organize, Ursul is similar to western rhythm Mukam is very similar to western mode 。 In terms of musical instruments, Anatolia, Central Asia (Baglama Trichord, Sazi, Kamancha) and Arabic instruments（ Ude 、 Tambul 、 xlr 、 Nai ）Mainly, western instruments later appeared（ violin 、 piano ）。

Due to the geographical and cultural differences between the capital and other regions, there were two distinct musical styles in the Ottoman Empire: Ottoman classical music and folk music. There are many different kinds of folk music in the region, among which there are areas with famous music styles, such as Balkan Thrace folk music, Northeast folk music aegean sea Folk music, folk music of central Turkey and Caucasus Folk music. Some unique styles include New Army music, Gypsy music Belly Dance And Turkish folk music.

Religion

The Ottoman Empire allows Christian and Israel (The Koran says "people with scriptures") maintain their original beliefs, but do not accept polytheism, which is related to Saria Regulations agreement. The Ottoman Empire would levy a Gizia tax (protection tax) on non Muslims. stay Millet system Next, non Muslims and Muslim They are all subjects of the empire, but they are not bound or controlled by Islamic beliefs and laws. For example, the Orthodox Church Millet was bound by the Civil Code, which dates back to Byzantine Empire It has been implemented for 900 years. As the largest non Muslim ethnic group in the empire, the Orthodox Church Millet can enjoy political and commercial privileges, but must pay higher taxes than Muslims.

Ottoman Empire and Constantinople The Orthodox Church The relationship between the churches is generally peaceful, and even occasionally there are some oppressive policies against the Greek church. The church's organizational system remains unchanged, and it can act alone under close supervision, except for the Greek Revolutionary War And the rise of constitutional monarchy in the Ottoman Empire in the early 19th century. Other Orthodox churches, such as the Bulgarian Orthodox Church, were dissolved and placed under the jurisdiction of the Greek Church until 1870, when the Bulgarian bishop was established in Abdulaziz and restored Bulgaria Autonomy of the Church.^[76]

Portrait of Ottoman Culture

education

The powerful education system of Imperial School can exclude the incompetent descendants of Sudan and cultivate political talents for successors. Imperial School operates in a dual track way. Islamic schools train intellectuals and state officials in the Muslim tradition, so that children from poor families have the opportunity to improve their social status and income. In addition, there are also Christian boarding schools, namely Ndelun, which recruit 3000 Christian boys between the ages of 7 and 14 every year. This process is called Demisheme (Dev š irme), excluding orphans, only children, married people, industrial and commercial children, Jews, Russians and priests' children.^[77]

science and technology

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The architecture of the Ottoman Empire was influenced by Persian, Byzantine and Islamic Arabian architecture. Ottoman architecture is the continuation of Sassanian architecture in the pre Islamic era. For example, the round dome on the square building is a common type in Sassanian architecture, which has become the core of Ottoman architecture. During the rise of the empire, Ottoman architecture was still in the exploration stage, while during the expansion of the empire, it was the classical period of Ottoman architecture.

During the tulip period, Ottoman architecture was influenced by the highly decorated style of Western Europe, such as Baroque 、 Rococo , and Imperial style 。 The concept of Ottoman architecture mainly revolves around mosque Mosques are an integral part of social and urban planning. In addition to mosques, other examples of Ottoman architecture include porridge farms, seminaries, hospitals, Turkish bathrooms and tombs.

Examples of Ottoman classical architecture, except Istanbul and Edirne It can also be found in mosques, bridges, springs and schools in Egypt, Eritrea, Tunisia, Algeria, the Balkans and Hungary. The development of Ottoman decorative art was influenced by the public, because the empire had many nationalities. The court craftsmen had multiple artistic influences on the empire, such as Byzantine art Mixed Chinese art.^[78]

Ottoman architecture

nation

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arab

The Ottoman rule rapidly extended to Arab countries and regions, and Syria and Egypt were the first conquered. When the Ottoman Empire reached its heyday, most of the Arab world was under its rule. The Ottomans exercised indirect rule over Arabs. In addition to maintaining peace, collecting taxes and judicial management, other aspects were managed by the elders of their respective sects. Famous scholars from all over the country still played a guiding role in guiding the masses. The Ottoman Empire maintained the way of life of the Arabs in the past, and was the successor of the Arab Empire in the system, so it was still a traditional Islamic country. The Hanafi religious law was the official legislative and judicial criterion of the Ottoman Empire.^[79]

Kurds

Kurdistan, where Kurds live for a long time, is located at the border between the Ottoman Empire and the Persian Empire, and has an important strategic position. With the rise of the Ottoman Empire, the main conflict with the Persian Empire occurred in the Kurdistan region. In the 16th century, the two empires realized the importance of the geopolitical situation in Kurdistan and began to fight for Kurdistan. Western powers subsequently joined in the fight for Kurdistan, which made Kurdistan the main place for big powers to fight. After the Battle of Chaldran in 1514, the Ottoman Empire concluded the "Ottoman Kurdish Contract" with the Kurds, and the Ottoman Empire officially began to control Kurdistan and Kurds.

The Ottoman Empire superimposed its own administrative system on the Kurdish tribal structure, authorized the leader of the Kurdish tribal alliance, the Emir, to have greater autonomy, and required the Kurds to be at least loyal - with lower taxes, but to assume the task of defending the border in times of crisis was actually an indirect rule over the Kurds. Since the 19th century, the management and control policy of the Ottoman Empire in the Kurdistan region has changed, and began to strengthen centralization and weaken the power of Kurdish emirs and Kurdish tribal leaders.^[80]

Greek

The Greeks have always been the largest minority group in the Ottoman Empire. Even after Greece declared its independence, the Greeks were the most populous minority in the provinces of the Ottoman Empire. They live in a wide range of areas from Greece to Asia Minor and even Bulgaria. The Greeks, who had advantages in population, religion, language and navigation, became an important member of the Ottoman Empire's merchant team. The Greeks once extended their business network to major cities in Western Europe: London, Paris, Marseille, Leipzig and Vienna. At the same time, since the 17th century, with the development of capitalist industry and commerce, the economy of Western Europe has entered a period of rapid development, and Greek businessmen who are Christians with European businessmen have been given new opportunities for development. The Greeks, who had the advantage of navigation technology, then controlled the port trade of the Ottoman Empire.^[81]

International Relations

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And China

In the early Ming Dynasty, due to the Timurid Empire At both ends of the Silk Road, the exchanges between the Ming Dynasty and the Ottoman Empire were blocked. It was not until the demise of the Timur Empire in the 16th century that the Ottoman Empire officially sent envoys to pay tribute to the Ming Dynasty. The Ottoman Empire at that time was called by the Ming Dynasty Lu fan According to the Ming History, in the third year of Jiajing (1524), the fifth year of Jiajing (1526), the twenty second year of Jiajing (1543), the twenty seventh year of Jiajing (1548), and the thirty third year of Jiajing (1554), Lu fans sent envoys five times, with a maximum number of more than 90 people. These missions were all conducted during the reign of Suleiman I (1520-1566), a generation of great masters, after the Ottoman Empire annexed Egypt and attacked Tabriz and Baghdad. The thousands of precious porcelains collected in Istanbul's palace may be the result of all previous friendly exchanges and witness the friendship between China and Turkey.^[82]

And Persia

Diplomatic events with Persia
particular year	details
1532-1555	A war broke out between Suleyman I of the Ottoman Empire and Tahmasp I of the Safavid dynasty of Persia. The territorial disputes between the two countries triggered the war, especially those originally belonging to the Ottoman Empire Beatrice Bey The governor decided to seek Persian protection. In addition, the Safavids Tahmasp I The governor of Baghdad and the supporter of Suleiman I under his command were assassinated.^[83] Diplomatically, the Safavid Dynasty has Habsburg Monarchy Discuss the establishment of the Habsburg Persian Alliance to clamp down on the Ottoman Empire. In 1553, Suleiman I went to the Safavid Dynasty for the third time and suffered the first defeat, but he was still able to recover Erzurum 。 The Amasian Peace Treaty of 1555 established the territory acquired by the Ottoman Empire. Suleiman I must return it to Tabriz, but he can control it Baghdad 、 Mesopotamia Downstream area Euphrates River and Tigris River Estuaries and parts of the Persian Gulf coast.^[84]
1578-1590	Safavid Mohammed Kodabanda and Abbas I And the Ottoman Empire Murat III The war broke out again. To conquer Azerbaijan and Caucasus The Ottoman Empire launched a war.^[85] The Ottomans occupied in 1578 Tbilisi , fell again in 1585 Carls and Tabriz ， Georgia It became a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Empire can actually rule Azerbaijan and the Caucasus Caspian Sea 。^[86] The Istanbul Treaty signed by Persia on March 21, 1590 recognized the territory acquired by the Ottoman Empire and promised to stop the invasion of Shiite The believers launch a propaganda war and stop persecuting people in Persia Sunni Believers.^[87] The Ottoman Safavid War temporarily diverted the attention of the Ottoman Empire from Europe. The Ottoman Empire has allied with France and supported Dutch There's an accident This is protestantism An event jointly supported by Islam.
1603-1618	The third war broke out between the Safavids ruled by Abbas I and the Ottoman Empire ruled by Ahmed I. The war broke out in 1603 and ended in a complete victory for the Safavids in 1618. Bossha Abbas I entrusted the British Robert Shirley and the minister Alaverdi Khan to carry out the reform of military modernization. The Safavids fought against the Ottoman Empire in 1603 and won in 1604, forcing the Ottoman Empire to return the land it had occupied, including Baghdad.^[88] In 1605, the Safavid Dynasty won again and expanded its power beyond the Euphrates River, forcing it to cede Sylvan and Kurdistan in 1611. The war stopped temporarily in 1614. When the war resumed later, Abbas I completely defeated the Ottoman Tatar coalition near the city of Sudanyah in 1618. The two sides signed a treaty that was quite favorable to Persia, ending the war.^[89]

And Russia

At the beginning of the 17th century, Russia had a series of wars with Turkey in order to expand into the Black Sea Strait and the Balkans. The initial war was mainly limited between Russia and Turkey, and the war zones were concentrated in the Balkans, Crimea, Caucasus and other places. After the 19th century, some European countries intervened. Russia Turkey war has happened many times, ten of which are important. During the Russo Turkish War, Russia expanded its territory. The southern border extended to the Black Sea, the western border pushed to the Prut River, and the eastern border crossed the Caucasus Mountains. The war between Russia and Turkey lasted for 241 years intermittently. On average, there was a large-scale war in less than 19 years, which was the longest war series in European history.^[90]

Sketch Map of Tsar Russia's Invasion of Ottoman Empire Territory and Dependencies

Sociology

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structure

The social structure of the Ottoman Empire integrated the diverse population with Millet. Millet is a religious organization, which can establish its own community under the rule of the Ottoman Empire, and can retain religious laws, traditions and languages under the protection of Sudan. The Millet system is the key to the long-term stability of the empire. As early as the reign of Muhammad II, the Farnars had enjoyed various rights, which was welcomed by the empire Israel To settle down, the empire had relatively high tolerance for ethnic differences and was able to eliminate racial segregation. However, the Millet system did not have the ability to assimilate, making it a weakness after the rise of nationalism. The disintegration of the Ottoman Empire proved the failure of policies during the period of Ottomanization and the first and second constitutionalism.^[91]

diet

Ottoman cuisine refers to the capital Istanbul This country, where various cultures converge, has created a cuisine that all people enjoy. The chefs in the imperial dining room of the imperial palace created a variety of dishes through experiments with different ingredients, which were introduced to the people and passed the Lai Maidan Month It spread. Nowadays, Ottoman cuisine can be found in Balkan Peninsula 、 Anatolia and Middle East This is the "heritage of the Ottoman lifestyle". This dish is based on regional changes and exchanges, but it is sometimes assimilated under the refinement of the capital residents.^[92]

A large number of traditions and cultures were absorbed by Ottomans and displayed in new forms. They were integrated into ethnic and religious groups in different regions of the Ottoman Empire, resulting in a new and unique Ottoman cultural characteristics.

population

Population Statistics of the Ottoman Empire (1899)
	region	Turkish	Area (km ^ 2)	Population (person)	Density (person/km ^ 2)
capital	Istanbul	İstanbul	3，300	90，034	twenty-seven
province （Vilayets）	Hijaz	Hicaz	391，720	3，500，000	nine
	Yemen	Yemen	260，132	5，000，000	nineteen
	Basra	Basra	87，120	380，630	four
	Baghdad	Bağdat	139，960	720，555	five
	Mosul	Musul	136，736	448，288	three
	Aleppo	Halep	117，248	921，345	eight
	Syria	Suriye	99，808	701，134	seven
	Beirut	Beyrut	24，752	623，505	twenty-five
	Tripoli	Trablusgarp	330，200	800，000	two
	-	Hüdavendigar	91，412	1，458，079	sixteen
	Konia	Konya	158，944	1，022，844	six
	Ankara	Ankara	98，416	1，018，727	ten
	Adin	Aydin	89，696	1，534，229	seventeen
	Adana	Adana	71，600	398，764	six
	Castamonu	Kastamonu	73，312	968，884	thirteen
	Sivas	Sivas	98，880	980，982	ten
	Diyarbakir	Diyarbekir	64，504	564，671	nine
	Beatrice	Bitlis	27，688	488，642	eighteen
	Erzurum	Erzurum	80，368	687，322	nine
	Trabzonspor	Trabzon	37，894	1，164，827	thirty-one
	Aegean Islands	Cezayir-iBahr-iSefid	6，372	387，318	sixty-one
	Crete	Girit	12，800	270，000	sixteen
	Edirne	Edirne	64，356	986，446	fifteen
	Thessalonica	Selanik	47，712	1，040，218	twenty-two
	Kosovo	Kosova	44，192	954，634	seventeen
	Ioannina	Yanya	31，176	517，274	seventeen
special administrative region （Sancaks）	Jerusalem	Kudüs/Kudüs-üŞerif	15，136	264，317	seventeen
	Benghazi	Bingazi	227，300	500，000	two
	Zur	Zor	122，096	151，260	one
	Izmit	Izmit	14，784	228，529	fifteen
	-	Kale-iSultaniye/Biga	11，520	144，157	thirteen
	-	Ç； atalca	1，900	sixty-one thousand two hundred and thirty-six	thirty-two
	Mount Libanen	Cebel-iLübnan	4，696	one hundred thousand	twenty-one
total			three million two hundred and seventy-two thousand three hundred and fifty-four	thirty-two million two hundred and seventy-six thousand eight hundred and fifty-four	ten

Note: The vassal states of Egypt, Tunisia, Bosnia, Bulgaria, East Rumilia, and Samos are not included.

Sudan

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Successive Sultans of the Ottoman Empire

List of Ottoman sultans
S/N	Chinese name	Foreign name	In office time	remarks
one	Osman I	OsmanI	1280-1324
two	Orhan	Orkhan	1324-1359
three	Murad I	MuratI	1360-1389
four	Bayazit I	BayezidI	1389-1402
	Large vacancy period	Interregnum	1402-1413
five	Muhammad I	MehmetI	1413-1421
six	Murad II	MuratII	1421-1444
seven	Mehmed II	MehmetII	1444-1446
six	Murad II	MuratII	1446-1451	reset
seven	Mehmed II	MehmetII	1451-1481	reset
eight	Bayset II	BayezidII	1481-1512
nine	Selim I	SelimI	1512-1520	1517 Caliph
ten	Suleiman I	SüleymanI	1520-1566
eleven	Selim II	SelimII	1566-1574
twelve	Murat III	MuratIII	1574-1595
thirteen	Mehmed III	MehmetIII	1595-1603
fourteen	Ahmed I	AhmetdI	1603-1617
fifteen	Mustafa I	MustafaI	1617-1618
sixteen	Osman II	OsmanII	1618-1622
fifteen	Mustafa I	MustafaI	1622-1623	reset
seventeen	Murad IV	MuratIV	1623-1640
eighteen	Ibrahim I	IbrahimI	1640-1648
nineteen	Mohammed IV	MehmetIV	1648-1687
twenty	Suleiman II	SüleymanII	1687-1691
twenty-one	Ahmed II	AhmetdII	1691-1695
twenty-two	Mustafa II	MustafaII	1695-1703
twenty-three	Ahmed III	AhmetdIII	1703-1730
twenty-four	Mahmud I	MahmudI	1730-1754
twenty-five	Osman III	OsmanIII	1754-1757
twenty-six	Mustafa III	MustafaIII	1757-1774
twenty-seven	Abdul Hamid I	Abdal-HamidI	1774-1789
twenty-eight	Selim III	SelimIII	1789-1807
twenty-nine	Mustafa IV	MustafaIV	1807-1808
thirty	Mahmoud II	MahmudII	1808-1839
thirty-one	Abdul Majid I	Abdal-Mejid	1839-1861
thirty-two	Abd al-Aziz	Abdal-Aziz	1861-1876
thirty-three	Murad V	MuratV	one thousand eight hundred and seventy-six
thirty-four	Abdul Hamid II	Abdal-HamidII	1876-1909
thirty-five	Mohammed V	MehmetV	1909-1918
thirty-six	Mohammed VI	MehmetVI	1918-1922

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