embassy

[dà shǐ guǎn]

Diplomatic agency

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The embassy is a permanent post of a country in the capital of a country with diplomatic relations Diplomatic agency 。 The embassy represents the interests of the whole country and is fully responsible for the relations between the two countries. The head of the embassy is usually an ambassador, or an envoy or other level appointed by the sending country Diplomats , appointed by the Head of State and acting as the representative of the Head of State. The primary responsibility of the embassy is to represent the sending country and promote the Political relations The second is to promote economic, cultural, educational, scientific and technological, military and other relations. The embassy also has consular functions. It is an important duty of the consulate to promote the relations between the two countries and the exchanges between the people, but its main duty is consular work, for example, to safeguard the Legal rights and interests , issued or extended to its citizens passport , issuing visas to foreign citizens, etc.

Chinese name: embassy
Foreign name: The Embassy

Primary responsibilities: On behalf of the sending countries, promote Political relations
Curator: ambassador 、 minister etc.

catalog

three Chinese embassies abroad
four Foreign embassies in China

brief introduction

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The scope of responsibility of the embassy covers all regions of the country in which it is stationed, and the consulate is only responsible for the region under its jurisdiction. The embassy is usually under the direct leadership of the government and the diplomatic department, while the consulate is usually under the direct leadership of the diplomatic department and the embassy of the host country Dual leadership 。 Many countries have only embassies and no consulates in most countries. Whether or not to set up a consulate or what level of consulate to set up depends mainly on the number of overseas Chinese and consular business and the importance of the region, and Principle of reciprocity conduct. For example, China has an embassy and 5 Consulate General , responsible for the consular business in their respective jurisdictions. In some small countries, foreign countries only set up consulates and send consular officers.

Today, China has established diplomatic relations with 181 countries one hundred and seventy-two Embassies ninety-eight Consulates General.

Diplomatic origin

embassy

If someone asks, "What do embassies and consulates do respectively?"

Someone is bound to blurt out: "Diplomacy!"

Indian scholar B. Sen in his book《 Diplomats A Guide to International Law and Practice describes the origin of diplomacy as follows:

It is often said that the diplomatic system is as old as history itself. If we take into account the non permanent missions exchanged between the oldest ancient countries, this statement is undoubtedly correct.

Greek:

According to historical records, in the early days, Greece city state Has been stationed in each other Special mission 。 Greece historian Sukididis once talked about diplomatic relations It is said that even then, city countries have accepted ambassadors in their respective territories and treated each other with courtesy. By the 5th century BC, the exchange of special missions between urban countries had been very frequent, and a system similar to modern formal diplomatic exchanges had emerged.

Romans:

The ancient Romans also maintained treaty relations with some neighboring countries Diplomatic envoy Actively participated in establishing this relationship. The ancient Romans respected foreign envoys and generally avoided interfering in the personal and property affairs of foreign ambassadors specially sent to Rome.

Israel:

Among Jews, the King of Hebrew selectively maintained diplomatic relations with certain friendly countries. They refuse to establish any relations with most countries, believing that these countries are either uncivilized or their enemies. However, the Jews pay attention to observing treaty relations and respect the ambassadors of friendly countries that maintain relations with them.

Asia country

At the same time, Asian countries also maintained diplomatic relations with their neighbors and often sent and received diplomatic envoys. Ancient India There are a lot of foreign affairs Rules for. as Cordelia Of《 Benefit theory 》Kamendaka's Political Comments and The Book of the Past Fish contain such rules. This means ancient India The diplomatic exchanges between foreign countries are very frequent. According to historical records Alexander Empire Some new countries emerged after the disintegration Pavo cristatus The empire maintained relations. Some of the Greek ambassadors sent to the court of Huashi State, such as Magasines, are highly respected people. King of India Special envoys were also sent to the Greek court. stay Asoka During the rule period, India exchanged with other countries to make festivals more frequent. It is said that Asoka once sent ambassadors to distant countries, such as Syria 、 Egypt , Macedonia, Epirus and Cyrene. Ruling northwest India in the 7th century Harsha We maintain diplomatic relations with China. Sumatra and Java The king and Ceylon King Megavarna (352-9 AD) also sent envoys to India from time to time to promote the worship activities of Buddhists.

west Asia Islamic countries

In West Asia, from the beginning of the Islamic Zumuhammad, envoys were sent abroad for religious and political purposes. According to Muslim historical records, Mohammed Byzantium , Egypt, Persia and Ethiopia An envoy was sent. At first, the envoys sent were not engaged in development international relation Their role is limited to some special missions, such as negotiating and signing peace treaties or exchanging prisoners at the end of the jihad, or fulfilling some formalities before declaring war. But later, during the period of Abbasid Khalifa, the Islamic countries and other countries began to implement the policy of developing friendly and peaceful relations. At this time, diplomacy naturally became increasingly important, especially in international trade. Muslim countries Monarchy Send envoys to engage in various political, commercial, cultural, social and other affairs. Fatimid and King Mamnuku Central Asia 、 East Asia And European countries send diplomatic missions to each other and negotiate and conclude friendly trade treaties through their envoys.

French scholar Pierre Ezemand also talked about the origin of diplomacy. He said: "There has been diplomacy since international relations. It can be said that the day when a nation is willing to contact with neighboring nations is the birth of diplomacy."

He mentioned: "The practice of establishing relations through emissaries, cavalry officers, messengers or other emissaries ancient Greek Many autonomous city-state spread like wildfire. From 500 BC to 400 BC, some form of organization was formed, such as' foreigners Posthouse ’Such an official hotel is responsible for welcoming and receiving foreign envoys. "

In China, diplomacy is also a very old cause. 1942 Zhou Ziya Editor Zhengzhong Bookstore In the book Diplomatic Supervision and Diplomatic Institutions published, there is a passage: "The seeds of diplomacy can be seen in our country's historical records《 Mandarin 》In the middle of the book: 'It is to encourage them to repay their virtue by enriching their diplomacy.' Mozi said: 'Those who are near are not close, and they have no business coming far. If relatives do not attach themselves, they are not responsible for diplomacy. ' Yan Zi In the Spring and Autumn Annals, it is said that 'one should not go out of the cup of prey, but go thousands of miles away'. If he《 Redords of the Grand History of China 》In the "diplomacy since cutting off the land of its owner", "pay more attention to money than envoys, and Qin and Chu will become state diplomatic relations".

The book also said: "As far as China in Asia is concerned, Tang Yu has created a great harmony. In the Spring and Autumn Period, Dun States made a courtesy of making the transition. In the Warring States Period, the strategy of making vertical and horizontal was emphasized, combining the north with the south, and linking the east with the west, Su Qin Joining the six countries to fight against Qin, Zhang Yi It is said that the six countries regard serving the Qin Dynasty as the horizontal force and the three countries as the tripartite trend. In this case, or the princes serving the emperor, it is equal to paying homage to the Pope in European countries before 1871; or With Establishment of the State Balance of power , similar to the European countries' talk about diplomacy in 1648, during which Diplomatic agency Those who can be traced in the past can be divided into 16 kingdoms of Wuhu, Southern and Northern Dynasties, Eastern and Western Wei Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Song Dynasty, Liao Dynasty and Jin Dynasty. Although in the meantime Chad In case of loss, survival or death, the country has been under control for a long time. The size of its territory varies from situation to situation, and all of them should have diplomatic relations. "

Indeed, the Chinese can cite many ancient examples to illustrate that the diplomatic cause has been fully developed in ancient China.

《 Master Zuo's Spring and Autumn Annals 》There is an article“ Exhibition reward ”In 634 BC, Qi was going to crusade against Lu, the king of Lu Duke Xi of Lu He sent a special envoy named Zhan Xi He went to the State of Qi to pay tribute to Qi's army. In fact, he went to negotiate to persuade the State of Qi not to fight. The special envoy was eloquent and said something The main principle The king of Qi was persuaded, so the war didn't start.

Another“ Lu Xiangjueqin ”It's about something that happened in 578 BC. Start with a sermon“ Marquis of Jin Lu Xiang Jue Qin ”。 That is to say, Jin state during Spring and Autumn period The marquis of the Qin state , to express to the State of Qin that he would terminate the alliance.

There is also a famous case《 Strategies of the Warring States Period 》, which says“ The envoy of King Qi asked Empress Zhao Wei ”, clearly stating that the monarch of Qi sent envoys to greet Zhao Of queen , because this queen is Zhao Huiwen Wang Her queen was later called Xiaowei Queen, so here she is called Wei Queen. This is a famous story in ancient China. Let's quote more:

"The king of Qi sent an envoy to ask Zhao Wei, but the book was not published. The queen of Wei asked the envoy, saying," Are you all right at age? Are you all right with the people? Are you all right with the king? "

Empress Dowager Xiaowei received the "book" sent by the envoy - of course not National credentials Instead, the king of Qi wrote a letter to greet him. Without opening it, he first asked three words, "How is the year? How are the people? How is the king?"

When asked these three words, the envoys of Qi were not happy. The messenger was displeased and said, "I have been ordered by the king to greet you. Why don't you greet the king first, but ask Nian Cheng and the people first? Why do you ask the lowly first, then the noble?"

The Empress Dowager Xiaowei said "no", and then gave a lesson to the envoy. She explained People oriented thought 。

This is a very literary and ideological article, even now, it is still enough to make people think deeply and contemplate.

《 the warring states Of course, there are more famous ones like Su Qin 、 Zhang Yi The deeds of. As mentioned earlier, the "joint vertical and horizontal" proposed by the two men in the Warring States Period has been taken as an example of diplomatic strategy from time to time. Su Qin first used his theory to persuade the king of Zhao, and then Zhao Wang He sent him as an envoy to all the countries《 Strategies of the Warring States Period 》It says yes. "Fu Shi is the king of the princes." Is this probably the earliest "shuttle" diplomacy in human history?

There is another one in Chinese history Very popular for many years Be treated as patriotiism education And air joint Educational themes It is an example of Su Wu Shepherd. Su Wu was actually an envoy sent by order to a foreign country. When he went to another country for 19 years, ancient books said that he "served as an envoy in the first year, and returned home with a bright head"; The song widely sung by people said: "Su Wuliu Hu Jie Don't insult, snow and ice, and endure hardships for 19 years.

Later, China sent envoys to distant countries, such as Zhang Qian as an envoy to the Western Regions He Sanbao Eunuch Zheng He's voyages in the South Seas as far as Africa This is a historical fact that even primary school students know.

Hu Shiqing and the origin of diplomacy has a long history. We have just mentioned the origin of the word "diplomacy" in Chinese Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States Period This term has already been used in some works of the times, such as Guoyu and Mozi mentioned above.

The word "diplomacy" in English comes from Greek The original meaning of DIPLOMA was folding documents. At that time, the court adopted folding methods for some important documents of certificate nature to show solemnity and sent them to envoys abroad Letter of Reference or Licenses This kind of folding is also adopted. By the 17th century, some documents diplomatic dispatches And treaties have begun to use the word DIPLOMA. In the 18th century, some European countries used the word DIPLOMATIQUE in their books, specifically referring to diplomatic instruments and treaties. By 1796, British scholar Burke officially used the word DIPLOMACY to refer specifically to diplomacy. This is the origin of the word "diplomacy" in English. However, the above-mentioned diplomatic activities in ancient times and envoys sent in countries around the world can also be regarded as diplomacy, but they are generally envoys who are sent to other countries for a special mission. After all, they are not the same as permanent diplomats sent by countries today. Pierre Michel Ezemand, a French scholar, said: "As for maintaining Permanent missions The idea of Italy The republics. Of course, the pioneers are Venice People. But the first permanent mission must have started from the establishment of the mission by Francisco Sforza, Duke of Milan, in Genoa in 1455. found a private village school The practice of. 1460 Savoy The Duke sent the Bishop's deputy Fercelli to Rome as his permanent representative. Because to Britain The journey of the islands was' very far and very dangerous'. Venice appointed two expatriates in 1496 London Our businessman is the deputy ambassador. So London, Paris and charles v （ King of Spain 、 Holy Roman Emperor ——Quoter's note) all the royal families accepted the ambassadors sent by Italy and France, and other countries followed suit accordingly. In 1519, Sir Thomas Boleyn and Dr. West became King of France The first two ambassadors appointed. The establishment of the foundation of modern diplomatic system should be attributed to Francois I He sent more and more representatives abroad Germany Countries Hungary 、 poland 、 Sweden as well as turkey Sudan The court established contact. "

Another diplomatic historian described it this way: "Since it became a common practice for countries to maintain permanent envoys in foreign capitals, the way of handling international relations has undergone a thorough change. Permanent envoys began in the 15th century. Later, with the strong and unified nation-state In place of the feudal monarch, the practice became a must. In the 17th century‘ Westphalia After the signing of the Treaty, peaceful exchanges have developed, and the number of problems that need to be solved has increased, so the practice of permanent envoys has been popularized in Europe. Cardinals Richelieu In his Political Legacy, he talked about the 'permanent negotiating mission' in theory very well, which is the beginning of modern diplomacy. "

In a broad sense, China's diplomacy in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period and India's diplomacy in ancient times, as well as the diplomacy between various European courts in the 15th and 16th centuries, are not very different. They cannot be regarded as diplomacy in the modern sense as we speak, because there is still a big difference between diplomacy at that time and modern diplomacy. In a narrow sense, true diplomacy, worldwide diplomacy, and diplomacy in the modern sense should be said to be based on the Second World War After that, more and more colonies gained independence and established new countries Sovereign state It really came into being when we stepped onto the world stage.

China's diplomacy in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period was based on Vassal states At that time, there was a king who unified China in name. Similar to some dynasties in India, some countries in West Asia, and city-state countries in ancient Greece, the vassals cannot be counted as sovereign countries in modern sense. Therefore, their exchanges are qualitatively different from modern diplomacy.

From the Westphalia Peace Treaty era to the beginning of this century, Europe and America Diplomacy among countries is also mainly a means of compromise between monarchs to avoid war and divide interests. At that time, some European countries were still in the process of forming, their boundaries were still changing, and their governments were still rising and falling. They were sometimes allied, sometimes hostile, sometimes conquering, and sometimes independent, which could almost be regarded as a 2000 year later version of the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period in China. So the diplomacy at that time focused on spying on the palace and talking about the king's work. Until the end of the last century, some diplomats called diplomacy merely "the science or art of negotiation", "the best way to avoid international relations being independently controlled by force". This was actually a summary of European diplomacy from the 16th century to the 19th century. It was an inevitable conclusion caused by foreign exchanges at that time, which in turn proved the level of diplomacy at that time. Even up to now, we have not seen anything similar to China in ancient Europe in the treatises or historical records on European diplomacy《 Master Zuo's Spring and Autumn Annals 》、《 Strategies of the Warring States Period 》、《 Redords of the Grand History of China 》Such a large number of rich, vivid and profound records of diplomatic activities in such works as the book.

Modern diplomacy

Since the beginning of this century, most European countries have been stereotyped (their borders are basically fixed, and existing countries have also emerged) monarchy Has been abandoned, the United States gradually involved in European affairs, diplomacy began to change. But the so-called diplomatic activities were still concentrated in Europe, where some Imperialism Countries interact for the purpose of competing for each other's lands and colonies. That is a kind of diplomacy. The exchanges between Europe and countries outside Europe are another case.

Adam Watson, a British writer, said in his book that "it is only in this century that the national system has truly taken on global significance, including different cultures and beliefs. What impact does this expansion have on diplomatic norms and practices? The development of European diplomacy, which gave birth to our global system, lies in the dialogue among its members, who once had almost the same culture and history... "However, he had to admit:" Although we are fond of talking about global international society , but on western world Other countries are not universally recognized by the same European cultural heritage Common Code of Conduct 。” The last sentence of the scholar's quotation above is too obscure. Why "countries outside the western world do not generally recognize the common code of conduct generated by the same European cultural heritage"? The reason is very simple, because Asia Africa Many countries and Latin America Some countries of suzerain The relationship between them is not normal and equal. How can they "universally recognize the common code of conduct generated by the same European cultural heritage"? Therefore, the exchanges between them and their suzerainty, as well as between them, cannot naturally be called diplomacy; Although some countries in Latin America have achieved independence, they are still under the strict control of the United States and other western powers politically and economically Europe and America In fact, diplomacy among powerful countries is also unequal.

until the Second World War Since then, especially in the 1950s and 1960s, more and more countries have achieved independence and won their own sovereignty, and a large number of new members of the international community have stepped onto the world stage. At least in legal theory, they have achieved equal status with the former powers, thus forming a new international composed of sovereign members with equal status big family 。 It is only in this situation that world diplomacy has gained its significance.

Therefore, we say that true diplomacy, worldwide diplomacy, and diplomacy in the modern sense, are still things of recent decades.

China's diplomacy can be traced back to the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period more than 2000 years ago in terms of its mode of activities and the substance of its activities. However, as mentioned earlier, the feudal states at that time were formally still in a unified country, and later also returned to it. Therefore, strictly speaking, it is not the same thing as what we said about diplomacy between sovereign states. In the long years since then ethnic minority They fought against each other and gradually merged with each other. They also established vassal relations with some surrounding countries. Although there were sometimes tribute envoys and envoys sent to foreign countries geographical position China has not really established exchanges with major countries in other parts of the world, so naturally there is no modern sense of diplomatic relations.

The first visit to China by more or less modern Western envoys was in 1793 when Britain's Magale paid a visit to the Emperor Qianlong of the Qing Dynasty. In fact, Ma came to China as Colonialism The avant-garde officer came to this ancient Chinese Empire Explore the truth and falsehood, so as to make a contribution to the future colonial aggression Bedding 。 At that time, the Chinese government also regarded Magarney as a tribute sent by the British who were willing to attach themselves to China. Therefore, whether for China or Britain, this is certainly not a successful diplomatic activity.

The first Chinese envoy to a foreign country was from Hunan Guo Songtao 。 He is from the Qing Dynasty Second grade Senior officials went to Britain as imperial envoys in December 1876 and stayed there after arriving London And became the first envoy of the Chinese government to a foreign country. On his way to Britain, Guo Songtao saw that many Chinese people were doing business for a living in many places along the way, so he reported to the central government in 1877 and suggested that Chinese consuls should be set up in places with more Chinese to protect and manage the Chinese doing business there. Qing government Approved Guo's proposal Singapore Appointed China's first ever consul - local overseas Chinese businessman Hu Xuanze 。

After the western countries opened the door to China, they forced to send envoys to China. The cowardly Qing government did not carry out equal diplomacy with other countries Openness However, under the pressure of the great powers, they had to reluctantly agree to accept diplomatic envoys from various countries and send Beijing Dongjiaomin Lane It has been set up as a place for embassies of various countries. The first foreign envoy to China was a British envoy Bruce , he is Xianfeng He arrived in Beijing in 1860. Since then, France, Russia, Germany, Belgium, Italy, Austria and other countries have also successively sent envoys to China.

From the Qing Dynasty to Republic of China Although China has sent envoys to other countries as a sovereign country, it has always been in a humiliating position because of its weak national strength and nothing to rely on. China's envoys cannot show their strength to safeguard the country's rights and interests on international occasions, and they are often bullied by powerful countries.

In 1919 Paris Peace Conference On the one hand, China is counted as the third country, and the number of representatives is limited to two. At that time, the Chinese government foreign minister Lu Zhengxiang "When the whole Chinese delegation arrived, the reception and entertainment were weak, the leaders of the great powers had difficulty in meeting, visiting and communicating with each other, the people from all walks of life talked about and inspected China lightly, and all kinds of situations were declining." The meeting also refused to discuss the abolition of everything proposed by the Chinese delegation Unequal treaties The request to return the privileges of Germany and Austria in Shandong Province of China to China, on the contrary, imposed the Shandong issue on China; At the meeting, the legitimate request of the Chinese representative to obtain a copy of the plan for the Shandong question and the minutes of the meeting forming the plan was rejected.

In the following 30 years, China has also been oppressed and bullied. The imperialist countries were tyrannical in China and humiliated China in diplomacy. Until the end of World War II, the United States, the Soviet Union and Britain were still carrying China behind their backs Yalta Made a secret agreement to hurt China Territorial sovereignty And national dignity Soviet Union Send troops to fight against Japan.

1949 The People's Republic of China was founded Only later did China get rid of its humiliation and weakness Countries in the world It has carried out equal diplomacy and created the New era 。

Chinese Embassy in Europe

Of course, modern diplomacy developed hundreds of years ago, so it inevitably retains traces of history. From an example, we can see the origin between today's ambassadors and former ambassadors, that is, credentials. The so-called credentials are actually written by the head of state of one country (ambassador's country) to the head of state of another country (ambassador's country) Letter of introduction , introduce the identity of the ambassador. In fact, the power of appointing ambassadors in the world today is not directly in the hands of heads of state, but is often carefully selected by diplomatic departments; Before going to the host country, the ambassador has already obtained the consent of the other country, and his identity has already been determined. It is just a form to submit a solemn letter of introduction - national credentials. However, this practice is still maintained because it is inherited from the practice of sending envoys from the monarch of one country to the monarch of another country. Until now, Diplomatic etiquette The ambassador is still regarded as the representative of the head of state. In terms of protocol arrangement, sometimes the ambassador's status is higher than that of his own minister. Martin Mayer once told an interesting anecdote:“ Cordell Hull Ren (US) secretary of state He refused to go abroad for activities because his position at banquets and other ceremonies was necessarily lower than that of the ambassador he appointed, for which he felt that he lost dignity. "

Submit credentials The ceremony is regarded as the official recognition of the identity and status of an ambassador. An ambassador can only be recognized by the host government and the local diplomatic community after submitting his credentials, and can carry out activities in the name and identity of an ambassador. However, this has been broken through in some countries. For example, in China, the Chinese government agrees that new ambassadors can carry out activities as ambassadors after submitting copies of credentials and before formally submitting credentials. In some other countries, this has also become a permitted practice.

What is diplomacy

Above, we have briefly reviewed the origin and history of diplomacy. Now, what is diplomacy?

To put it simply, diplomacy is foreign exchanges, that is, exchanges between a country and foreign countries.

There are more than 190 countries, large or small, in the world. Because of geographical, ethnic, political, economic, military, cultural and religious reasons, these countries will inevitably have many relationships with each other. Dealing with such relations between countries is called diplomacy; Others say that the art of handling relations between countries is called diplomacy.

Diplomats have expressed this as follows:

They said that diplomacy is a way of "dealing with international relations through negotiations"; Another is that it is "an art or science for sovereign states to handle relevant affairs in accordance with international law through special representatives among themselves"; He also said that it "is a knowledge or art for international exchange".

"Diplomacy has always been regarded as both an art and a science, and countries try to achieve its goal by this means foreign policy Without provoking an armed conflict to force the other party to conclude a peace treaty. " In this sense, "diplomacy can be said to stop when the war broke out, and The war is over A transaction that starts when. "

In his Guide to Diplomatic Practice, British scholar Sa Daoyi pointed out that "diplomacy is the use of wisdom to deal with independent state The official relationship with the government... or more simply, it is to handle the affairs between countries in a peaceful way. "

Jean Seille of France said in the Practical Protocol Manual: "The purpose of diplomacy is to use peaceful means and mediation to close the ties between a country and friendly governments, develop friendly relations with neutral countries, and deter hostile governments."

Indian scholar Roy said, "Therefore, we can say that diplomacy closely linked to international relations is promoted through negotiation and peaceful means National interests And development external relations (If possible) the art of. If the desired goal is not achieved by peaceful means, diplomacy will allow the threat or real use of force as a means to achieve this goal. "

The Soviet Union's Diplomatic Code defines diplomatic relations as: "Diplomacy is to complete the country foreign policy Diplomatic mission Competent Authority , often Head of Government Or a kind of transactional, peaceful and different from military operational work carried out by the head of state and his representatives and agents abroad. "

Oxford English Dictionary "Diplomacy is a method of handling international relations through negotiations."

More recent definitions include: "In order to implement its foreign policy, the State shall, by the Head of State, the Head of Government, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs Diplomatic agency Such foreign activities as visits, negotiations, negotiations, issuing diplomatic documents, concluding treaties, participating in international conferences and organizations, etc. Diplomacy is an important means for a country to realize its foreign policy. " （《 unabridged dictionary 》, 1979 edition, Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House 。）

Some of the above statements only mention one aspect of diplomacy, a very traditional aspect, that is, to eliminate war through negotiations. This was not uncommon in ancient diplomatic activities. The ancient Chinese books we mentioned earlier, such as Spring and Autumn Annals《 Strategies of the Warring States Period 》、《 Master Zuo's Spring and Autumn Annals 》The examples mentioned in other books are vivid examples of this kind of diplomacy. Here is another example of modern diplomacy, which also vividly reflects the traditional side of diplomacy.

Served as Israel Foreign Minister and Israeli Ambassador to the United States Abba Eban In the ninth chapter of his book The New Diplomacy - CY: INTERNATIONAL AI AFFAIRS IN THE MODERNAGE, Mr

On October 22, 1962, the former Secretary of State of the United States Dean Acheson From Washington to Paris. A car without any official logo took him there Elysee Palace A street corner across. He furtively observed the movement around him CIA Accompanied by the staff, they crossed the road. They entered a side door of the Elysee Palace and passed through many rooms and corridors. A few minutes later, Acheson arrived President of France De Gaulle's private office was greeted politely. De Gaulle said to him, "It is a great honor for your President to send you as his special envoy."

The Soviet Union Cuba Having deployed missiles with a range that could reach densely populated areas of the United States, President Kennedy of the United States decided not to tolerate such an excessive move by the Soviet Union. America Navy Was ordered to intercept Soviet ships bound for Cuba. The world is in two cores Superpower The edge of confrontation trembles. The United States has the right and responsibility to seek the support of France and other European allies in a common cause. But on the other hand, if Europe is unwilling or unwilling to give such support, it will greatly encourage the Soviet Union to take such bold actions. Therefore, the meeting in Paris must be kept secret until the results are obtained.

This is the role of diplomacy. In a sense, it is a very traditional practice. A special envoy with mission servants running between monarchs has been the normal practice of communication between governments since ancient times. In the 20th century, the speed of arranging the meeting was greatly accelerated. Acheson hurriedly ended White House The meeting with Kennedy went straight to the airport, and there was no time to pack up clothes, pocket money and passports. Another modern characteristic is that we must be careful to avoid the attention of the press.

The Cuban crisis is the most dangerous crisis that has occurred since mankind entered the nuclear era. Said that human beings had already arrived nuclear war The edge of seems to be exaggerated; After all, the United States and the Soviet Union had no intention of war and were not prepared for war at all. But the atmosphere at that time was really full of gunpowder, and it was the diplomatic activity described in the above quotation and other diplomatic activities related to it that finally made the shadow of war disappear, and mankind was relieved. It is the oldest function of diplomacy to solve problems that might have been solved by war between countries through diplomacy, and this example reflects this.

Diplomacy in the modern sense is much broader than before. Diplomacy, as its name implies, is foreign exchanges, and its highest goal is national interests. Therefore, we can define diplomacy as government to government exchanges between a country and other countries in the world in a non war manner in order to safeguard and develop its national interests.

To safeguard national interests is to safeguard the sovereignty and territorial integrity of the country, safeguard the independence and security of the country, and maintain the normal operation of the country economic activity , cultural activities and social activities Rights. Diplomacy as maintenance national sovereignty The role of security means is to solve the problems originally to be solved by war through negotiation, and to seek a peace for the survival and development of the country by establishing normal relations and conducting normal exchanges with other countries in the world international environment 。

To develop national interests is to plan, organize, promote and coordinate political, economic, scientific and cultural exchanges between China and other countries in the world. This is another important role of diplomacy. It is through diplomatic activities with countries around the world that a country can establish a normal communication and contact mechanism with other countries to deal with and solve the problems between the two countries Possible To maintain and develop friendly relations between the two governments and peoples; Through diplomatic activities with countries all over the world, a country can establish and develop necessary economic ties with other countries. Through economic exchange and mutually beneficial cooperation National economy Of common development So as to benefit each People of the country Life. Through diplomacy, countries can also carry out exchanges in culture, education, science and technology and many other aspects, carry out friendly exchanges among people, and deepen the Mutual understanding To strengthen the friendship between people of all countries and strengthen the cooperation among people of all countries in all aspects, which is conducive to the harmony and development of the entire international community and the progress of all mankind.

There is no doubt that the traditional function of diplomacy mentioned in Eban's book quoted above has not completely disappeared, and the function of diplomacy in other aspects is even more important today.

In today's world, almost every country has made great efforts and money to carry out its own diplomatic cause. Turn on the TV, and you can see that every day there are leaders of many countries coming and going, visiting each other; Countries all over the world have also sent a large number of diplomats to other countries, and almost every country's capital has a large number of diplomats moving around.

Some people may ask, "Is it worthwhile for a country to spend so much money on diplomacy?"

From the pomp of leaders' visits, and the style and luxury of talks and banquets; From the high-end office buildings and official residences of diplomats, as well as the daily activities of wine and banquet conquest, ordinary people cannot help but wonder about the huge diplomatic expenses.

However, it is through diplomatic activities that wars between countries can be avoided and arms expenditures can be controlled; Through various cooperation between countries, the economies of both sides can promote each other and achieve common prosperity; People from all countries have carried out exchanges and promoted the development of science, technology, culture and art; This will greatly help to ensure that people of all countries can live in a peaceful and stable world, and greatly help to improve the living standard , which will greatly benefit the future of mankind.

The costs that countries pay for diplomatic undertakings are the necessary costs to seek a stable and peaceful international environment, and to carry out vigorous economic, scientific, cultural and educational exchanges with countries around the world, so as to benefit the development of their own undertakings in all aspects, the improvement of their own people's living standards, and the progress of their own societies. Having made such a comparison, the expenditure on diplomacy of various countries may not be considered too high, right?

With the progress of the times, the scope of diplomacy has become wider. Compared with a century or decades ago, due to the progress of science and technology and economic development, exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent, and people in different countries have more and more extensive contacts. National relations have expanded from political and military aspects to economy, culture, education, sports, science and technology and many other aspects, including economic diplomacy , cultural diplomacy, sports diplomacy people-to-people diplomacy Therefore, it can be said that more and more people are participating in foreign exchanges.

Therefore, the concept of diplomatic agency is also more extensive than in the past. Although the Ministry of Foreign Affairs is still the first department in a country's diplomatic agencies, there are still some departments responsible for foreign exchanges, such as the foreign trade department, the foreign cultural exchange department, and some other government departments have also set up a number of specialized agencies to carry out foreign exchanges, including the parliament, and Red Cross Society And other non-governmental organizations, such as sports organizations, also have the work and task of foreign exchanges.

However, there is no doubt that only the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Diplomatic representative The institutions are the departments specialized in diplomacy of a country. Unlike other departments and personnel, they are only involved in diplomacy at a certain time or in a certain aspect, but take diplomacy as their special responsibility and career. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs plays a particularly important role in a country's foreign affairs. Its responsibility is to assist the top decision-makers in formulating general policies and to organize and coordinate the country's comprehensive foreign exchanges, including political, military, economic, cultural, sports, education, science and technology exchanges, To ensure that the country's foreign exchanges and contacts can be carried out in an orderly manner around the unified principles and policies, with the overall needs of the country as the starting point.

The Ministry of Foreign Affairs is an important government department of a country, which represents the government of that country in negotiations and exchanges with other governments. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs is mainly responsible for the diplomacy between governments.

And embassies and consulates, as overseas missions under the leadership of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, are specialized agencies dispatched by the state to foreign countries to handle foreign affairs on behalf of the state, implement various directives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and other relevant government departments, and are committed to maintaining and promoting foreign exchanges in all aspects of the country.

Main functions

In embassies and consulates, a group of competent personnel carefully selected by the relevant domestic authorities are engaged in various important foreign negotiations assigned by the government.

So, what specific tasks do embassies (and consulates) undertake?

On April 18, 1961 Vienna Signed《 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations 》Article 3 has the following provisions:

Article 3

1、 Among other things, the functions of the Embassy are as follows:

(a) Representing the sending country in the receiving country;

(b) To protect the interests of the sending State and its nationals in the receiving State to the extent permitted by international law;

(d) Investigate the situation and development of the receiving country by all lawful means, and report to the sending government;

(e) Promote friendly relations between the sending country and the receiving country, and develop economic, cultural and scientific relations between the two countries.

2、 Nothing in this Convention shall be construed as prohibiting its implementation by the Embassy Consular post 。

The second paragraph indicates that the embassy may also perform consular functions. So what does consular duty mean?

It was also signed in Vienna on April 23, 1963《 Vienna Convention on Consular Relations 》This is clearly stipulated. Article 5 of the Convention reads as follows:

Article 5 Consular posts

Consular positions include:

（1） To protect the interests of the sending State and its nationals - individuals and legal persons - in the receiving State within the limits permitted by international law;

（2） To promote the development of commercial, economic, cultural and scientific relations between the sending country and the receiving country in accordance with the provisions of this Convention, and to otherwise promote friendly relations between the two countries;

（3） Investigate and accept domestic business, economy, culture and Scientific activities Report the status and development to the sending government, and provide information to interested persons;

（4） Issuance of passports to nationals of sending countries and Travel documents And issue visas or other appropriate documents to those who intend to travel to the sending country;

（5） Helping and assisting nationals of the sending country - individuals and legal persons;

（6） Serve as a notary, civil registrar and similar functions, and handle certain affairs of an administrative nature, provided that the laws and regulations of the receiving country do not prohibit it;

（7） Protect the interests of nationals of the sending country - individuals and legal persons - in the event of death succession within the territory of the receiving country in accordance with the laws and regulations of the receiving country;

（8） To protect the interests of minors who are nationals of the sending country and other persons without sufficient capacity, especially those who must be under guardianship or trusteeship, within the limits prescribed by the laws and regulations of the receiving country;

（9） To the extent that it does not conflict with the measures and procedures in force in the receiving country, in case the nationals of the sending country are not there or for other reasons cannot be used within an appropriate period of time Self defense In the case of their rights and interests, they shall act as their representatives or arrange appropriate representatives for them before the courts and other organs of the receiving country, so as to obtain and preserve the rights and interests of such nationals in accordance with the laws and regulations of the receiving country Interim measures ；

（10） According to the current situation International agreements In the absence of such an international agreement, or in any other way consistent with the laws and regulations of the receiving country, to transmit judicial pleadings and documents other than judicial documents, or to execute a petition for investigation, or to investigate evidence on behalf of the courts of the sending country a power of attorney ；

（11） To exercise the right of supervision and inspection provided for by the laws and regulations of the sending country with respect to ships of the nationality of the sending country, the aircraft registered in that country and its crew members;

（12） Provide assistance to the ships and aircraft referred to in paragraph (11) of this article and their navigation personnel, listen to statements about the navigation of the ship, and conduct inspection Shipping document They shall also affix their seals, investigate any accident occurred during the voyage without prejudice to the authority of the receiving country, and mediate any dispute between the captain and crew members within the scope of the laws and regulations of the sending country;

（13） Executing the obligations of the sending country Consulate To perform other duties that are not prohibited by the laws and regulations of the receiving country, or opposed by the receiving country, or specified in the existing international agreements between the sending country and the receiving country.

In some works, there is a clearer and clearer overview of consular duties, such as Ma Jun The Dictionary of Knowledge of International Law, edited in chief, points out that:

"The consular mission is mainly to protect the commercial and economic interests of the sending country and its nationals, and to handle various businesses related to this. For example, to promote business between the sending country and the receiving country economic relations Development of; Investigate the business Economic situation , report to the sending government; Issue passports and travel documents; To accept the declaration of the birth, death and marriage of the nationals of the sending country, to prove the will, to investigate the evidence, and to transmit the judicial pleadings; Protect and supervise the ships, aircraft and their attendants of the sending country, check the ship's documents, investigate navigation disputes, and mediate disputes among attendants. "

The Best Embassy

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The world's largest embassy : "Baghdad Fortress"

U.S. resident Iraq The new embassy is the largest, most expensive and least popular embassy in the world, with a construction area of United Nations Headquarters Six times the area. This super diplomatic fortress costs 600 million dollars, has 619 explosion-proof rooms, and has all kinds of living facilities. Unfortunately, it is nothing but indestructible.

The world's largest and most expensive embassy ：

More than three years ago, when the new American embassy in Baghdad, the American Super Diplomatic Fortress, just entered the planning stage, American officials in the Green Zone still firmly believed that the construction of the new Iraq would make great progress. In a surrealism press conference At the meeting, US spokesman Sergio Sereno described the miraculous development of the situation. He was reloading a guard unit The guard went into the city and observed it personally. In sharp contrast, the journalists gathered there were disheveled and unkempt. Many of them lived in Iraq without protection at all, and they clearly knew that the society was splitting rapidly. Some people have realized that the war has failed, although this view cannot appear in the media.

In the Green Zone of Baghdad, the talk about the progress made in the reconstruction of Iraq calmed down until it was finally extinguished. The figurehead of the Iraqi government stayed in a safe and comfortable place with the Americans, and other parts of Baghdad became the "red zone" of terror. Although journalists and other rare Westerners continue to live and work there, American officials are completely off limits to these places. At the same time, the defense of the Green Zone continued to strengthen, with more checkpoints and Blast wall Surrounded by the residents there, American officials hid in the heavily guarded residence in the Republican Palace, and the green area became their forbidden area.

This is the process that led to the construction of a new luxury fortress in the United States, where 1000 American officials and many accompanying families will flee. This building complex, which will be completed this autumn, is the largest and most expensive embassy in the world. There are 21 reinforced buildings in the area surrounded by walls, which are located in Tigris River 104 acres of land on the shore. The newly built embassy costs US $600 million, and will spend an additional US $1.2 billion each year for its operation Iraq War It is also a great amount. Responsible for the design Kansas City A construction company named BJ Devon Yagor once angered the State Council by posting its design plans and drawings online in May 2006. In response to criticism, the company argued that Google Maps could provide better visual images.

The details of the new embassy are still unknown, but the basic things are already clear. The surrounding wall shall be at least 9 feet high and shall be resistant enough Mortar 、 rocket and car bomb The attack was made of reinforced concrete. It is speculated that there are strong towers around the wall for monitoring, wire mesh Form a no entry zone. There are five defensible gates, most of which are closed all day long. One more Emergency Exit For the fall of the Green Zone or the collapse of the United States. In or near the building complex, there is a Helicopter apron To perform important tasks for ambassadors or other senior officials. The intrinsic meaning of building this apron is to prepare for the worst case and avoid the United States from Vietnam? The situation that panic stricken people fled from the roof when they failed, so never say that the State Council did not learn from history.

However, to a large extent, the new embassy was not built to escape from Iraq but to stay here - no matter what the reason, no matter what the situation, and no matter what the cost. Therefore, this complex is self-sufficient, with a self-sufficient power generation system, wells, drinking water treatment plants Sewage treatment plant 、 Fire Brigade 、 irrigation system , Internet transmission system , telephone center, mobile phone signal receiving and sending network, postal service, fuel warehouse Automobile repair plant , food and daily necessities stores and workshops. The embassy is located in the central area. It is a new American blockhouse style building with long and narrow recessed windows Biological and chemical weapons Filtered attack air conditioning system , as well as a huge space for thousands of staff to work. Ambassadors and deputy ambassadors are equipped with reinforced residences, which are large enough to hold elegant diplomacy reception Even a mortar shell falling in front of it and exploding did not hinder the reception. (14:33, November 16, 2007 Nandu Weekly ）