Scholar bureaucrat is a Chinese word, pinyin: sh ì d à fu. In ancient times, it refers to a person who is an official and has a position, and also refers to a person who is not an official but has a reputationScholar[1]。
[literati and officialdom in academic China; scholar bureaucrat[1]
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Preface to the Book of Rites of the Zhou Dynasty: "Sitting and talking about the Tao is called the prince; doing and acting is called the scholar bureaucrat; judging the curved surface to measure the five materials to distinguishCivilian implements"[3]
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1、A general term for officials and scholars in ancient China
The Book of Jin·Xiahou ZhanBiography: "Servants also undertake the business of the door, and have been taught in court, so that they can take the crown as the end and fill the ranks of literati and officials."
brightChen Jiru"The Great Sima Festival Huan Yuan Gongjia Temple Record": "The sergeants and officials in Li who came and went to the temple were all under the command of Shi, and the Duke of Rite (Yuan Keli) retired with a fragrance."
clearWang ShizhenVolume 11 of Xiangzu's Notes: "The scholar bureaucrats of Song Dynasty are the most polite, but there are two inexplicable things: the official officials are buried and never return to their hometown; one is that they are not ashamed of remarriage."
2、General assistant;Soldiers and soldiers.
"Wu Zi · Li Shi": "So the marquis of Wu set up a temple to entertain the scholar officials for the three elements... After three years of travel, the Qin people set up a division near the Xihe River, and Wei Shi heard about it. There were thousands of people who fought against the officials without waiting for their orders."
brightKe WeiqiVolume VIII of Examination Essentials:“《Zhou Rites》The commander of the division is a mediocre doctor, the commander of the brigade is a junior doctor, the commander of the soldiers is a sergeant, the two soldiers are sergeants, and both of them are generals, so they are called scholar bureaucrats. "
3、Gentry;A member of the gentry."Southern History · Jiangban Biography": "(Ji Sengzhen) said that the emperor said, 'My humble officials came from the military officials of the county. When I invited him to meet the saints, I was honored here. I got the daughter of Xun Zhaoguang for the sake of my son's faintness. I had no need at all, butYour MajestyBeg to be a scholar doctor. '"
Yan Zhitui of the Northern Qi Dynasty, "Yan Family Instructions · Mianxue": "It is often seen that scholar officials are ashamed to be involved in agriculture and commerce, and are ashamed to work as craftsmen. If you shoot, you cannot wear letters, and if you write, you can write your name."
Fan Wenlan's Introduction to Buddhism in the Tang Dynasty: "Scholars and officials in the Southern Dynasties used to talk about metaphysics (metaphysics is also an anesthetic)."
4. A soldier in the army.
5. In the old days, there were doctors and scholars in military posts, so the scholar officials generally referred to officers and soldiers.
6. "Records of the Historian, Vol. 109. The Biography of General Li and the Imperial Secretary of the Historian": "At the day of death, the world knows and does not know, all of them are sad. Their loyalty is solid and honest with the scholar officials?"[3]
historical background
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formation
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ScholarstratumIt appeared very early, generally referring to folk talents with certain talents.They often came from poor families, relying on their own ability to attach to the nobility and provide them with various services.During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, there were frequent wars.The famous and rich nobles of various countries, such as Chunshen Jun and Mengchang Jun, are all in the fashion of "cultivating scholars", which can reach thousands at most, and they also compare and show off each other.The allusion of "voluntary recommendation" shows that there was no special standard for "scholars" at that time. Even those who claimed to be talented could persuade the nobility to become "gentry".
People who are strict with themselves, loyal to the monarch and patriotic can be called "scholars".Sometimes, the concepts of "scholar" and "gentleman" are basically overlapping. If they are subdivided, the moral cultivation of "scholar" is slightly lower than that of "gentleman". It can also be said that "scholar" is a person who aspires to become a "gentleman".For example, Jing Ke, who failed to assassinate Ying Zheng, the King of Qin, made a bold statement before setting out: "The wind is rustling, the water is cold, and the heroes will never return". This heroic spirit and noble quality, which were entrusted by the king and paid for their lives, were regarded as a spiritual model.There are also "hermits" who live in seclusion in the mountains, care about the government but do not interfere, "sit on the mountain and watch the tiger fight". The hermits are respected but mysterious in the eyes of ordinary people.
The selection system of officials in the Han Dynasty was mainly that the royal nobility recommended some noble people to enter the government.For example, it is very common to be selected as an official for being famous for "filial piety".
During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, the famous“The Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove”。They have both high literary and artistic attainments and high moral integrity, but on the one hand, they are also wild and dissolute.Many of them would rather die drunk than work in the corrupt imperial court.This kind of spiritual temperament is a useful supplement to "scholars", that is, if the politics is dark, it is also in line with the ethics of "scholars" to stay away from politics because they do not want to collude with others and become obsessed with literature and art.
development
A typical example is "literati painting". Because of the personal hobby of Emperor Huizong of the Song Dynasty, scholars and officials were strongly encouraged to devote themselves to painting.This further improves the cultural taste and artistry of painting.
After the Song Dynasty, most of the great poets, painters and calligraphers in the past dynasties were officials who once held important positions in the government, such asSu Shi, Mi Fu, Cai Jing, etc.Like the Tang DynastyLi BaiIn that way, without much political experience, the "free intellectuals" who were famous for their poems and essays almost disappeared.This situation lasted until the end of the Qing Dynasty.
decline
The demise of imperial examinations
Since the end of the Qing Dynasty, the society has undergone earth shaking changes.With the change of social concepts, "scholar officials" has gradually become a historical term.
At the end of the Qing Dynasty (the end of the 19th century, the beginning of the 20th century), politics was facing a complete collapse in the face of internal and external troubles.The imperial examination also became more and more backward in the trend of the spread of western learning to the east, becoming the bottleneck of restricting talents.However, opening up has allowed Chinese intellectuals to see new knowledge and new ways of acquiring knowledge.
On September 2, 1905, Cixi gave a written notice that "starting from the Bingwu Festival, all township examinations will be stopped, and the provincial examinations will also be stopped".This not only marks the millennium swan song of the imperial examination system, but also has had a significant change in China's education and culture."Scholar bureaucrat" has become a historical term since then.The monopoly of "scholar officials" on knowledge, culture and art no longer exists.
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From the perspective of connotation, scholar officials mainly include the following two aspects:
firstly
Refers to the official。
《Zhou Rites·Work Examination Record》As the saying goes, "Sitting and talking is the prince. Doing is the scholar bureaucrat." In modern words, scholar bureaucrats are functional officials.
Mozi Three Debates criticized that "scholar officials were tired of listening to treatment".Here refers to all officials in general.
《Strategies of the Warring States Period·According to the second policy of Qin Dynasty, "All the scholar officials are congratulating." The scholar officials here refer to the officials and the king of the Chu Dynasty.
"Xunzi Wang Ba" said: "Farming is divided into fields, and merchants are divided into goods. One hundred jobs are divided into persuasion, and the scholar officials are divided into different posts." Here, the scholar officials refer to all those who are in office.
"The Doctrine of the Lord" also says: "The order is determined by virtue, and the officials are given according to ability, so that people can carry out their own affairs and do their own things. It is obvious that the superior sages make them the three public officials, the inferior sages make them the princes, and the inferior sages make them the scholar officials." The scholar officials refer to the officials below the princes.Civil officials are also called scholar bureaucrats, and military officers are also called scholar bureaucrats. According to the book "Xunzi Yi Bing", "death drum, death bridle, death of officials, death of scholar bureaucrats."
"Wu Zi · Li Shi": "So (Wei) Wu Hou set up a temple and court for the three elements to entertain the scholar officials."
《Xunzi, Scholar》He said: "If the sage king is above all others and acts with equal justice, the literati and officials will not commit adultery, the officials will not neglect, and the common people will not commit crimes." Here, the literati and officials are placed above the officials.
In The Doctrine of the Lord, scholar officials were listed before "official teachers".An official teacher is the leader of a hundred officials.
《power》The article says: "If great achievements have been made, then the monarch will enjoy their achievements, the officials will enjoy their achievements, the scholar officials will benefit the nobility, the officials will benefit the rank, and the common people will benefit the salary."
《Main argument》It said: "The nobility is respected, the tribute is generous, the situation is superior, the emperor is the duke, and the minister is the scholar bureaucrat." All the above materials show that the scholar bureaucrats are relatively high in the bureaucratic hierarchy.Because the scholar officials were relatively senior officials, they enjoyed different land towns.
"Xunzi · Honor and Disgrace" said: "The reason why the scholar bureaucrats took the land is that they can cultivate their ambition and govern the country in the presence of officials
《Ritual theory》According to the records in, the number of land occupied by the literati was different, "there was five times of land" and "there was three times of land".Some scholar officials seem to have private soldiers.
According to Han Feizi, a crafty envoy, "today's literati and officials are not ashamed of mud and disgrace." It means that they are officials without virtue.Here, the scholar officials andofficialThere are two meanings. Scholar bureaucrats refer to cultural people.It can be seen that the scholar bureaucrats can refer to the reigningbureaucraticIt can refer to the literati who is not in office or both.From then on, scholar bureaucrats formed a special group in Chinese history.They are the combination of intellectuals and bureaucrats, and they are the glue of the two.
spirit
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There were many "scholar officials" in history, such as Fan Zhongyan, Sima Guang, Wen Tianxiang in the Song Dynasty and Gu Yanwu in the early Qing Dynasty.They embodied the spirit of the scholar bureaucrats in the following six aspects:
Knowledgeable.Knowledge and knowledge are power and soft power.Mao Zedong said: "An army without culture is a stupid army, and a stupid army cannot defeat the enemy." Lenin also said: "Only by enriching our minds with all the knowledge created by mankind can we become communists." In ancient China, people also understood that knowledge is an important tool to serve society.The ancients defined "scholar" as not only having knowledge, but also having a strong learning ability. "People who know everything are scholars" should be able to draw inferences from one instance and have a high standard.Ancient China was a society of scholars, farmers, workers, and merchants. Scholars did not farm, work, or do business. They were based on knowledge. Therefore, the Book of Han says, "Learning is called learning." Scholars are based on learning.The Book of Rites says that scholars "study hard day and night to wait for questions", and learning hard day and night refers to the attitude of studying hard;To treat is to wait for Mingjun's advisers, not to exchange knowledge for officials.A real taxi is indifferent to fame and wealth.
Be virtuous.Scholars and officials not only have knowledge, but also aspire to pursue "Tao"."Those who aspire to Tao are called scholars.".The Book of Rites said that the scholars "should be loyal and trustworthy to be promoted, and practice to be taken".Scholars embrace not only knowledge, but also such virtues as loyalty and trustworthiness, and always practice them in life. They try to do their best and wait for the recommendation and appointment of the society and the country.
Have integrity.Cao is the conduct;To defend is to defend firmly.Integrity refers to having correct ideas and moral goals, holding them firmly for life.Scholars and officials have correct life pursuit and value judgment, and they can maintain their true nature no matter what difficulties they face.Yan Hui, a disciple of Confucius, lived in extreme poverty. "One bowl of food and one gourd of drink, people can't bear to worry in the mean lane", but he could "not change his happiness".Scholars can do what Mencius said, "The rich and noble cannot be obscene, the poor and lowly cannot be moved, the mighty cannot be subdued", and will never renege for material benefits.
In history, there were many people who were honest and self-centered. For example, Wang Qiu was the great grandson of Wang Dao, the prime minister of the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the grandson of Situ Zuochangshi, Danyang Yin Wang Shao, the son of Situ Wang Mi, and the cousin of Taichang Wang Hui. He was born in a famous family and had a distinguished family background. But Wang Qiu did not have the bad habits of official families. He lived a daily life, "simple and expensive, never made friends", "empty and quiet banquet, no strangers".At that time, the minister of honor shot Yin Jingren and the leader Liu Zhan "and attached great importance to power, moving both inside and outside". Wang Qiu was connected with them by marriage, but he seldom contacted them, and never used personal relationships to make profits.Wang Qiu was in charge of selecting officials, but he was very eager to receive visitors. All letters of intercession for officials were ignored. He was diligent in his duties, honest and fair, and achieved "orderly selection of officials", so "the government and the people called him".
Not for personal gain."A gentleman is always around without comparison, and a villain is always around without comparison." A gentleman is widely united with the public and does not commit adultery.Xunzi · Powerful Country praises the ancient scholar bureaucrats: "Out of their door, enter the public door; out of the public door, belong to their home, and have no private affairs." The scholar bureaucrats in the public speech public, in the imperial speech dynasty, went out of their home to enter the public door, went out of the public door to go home, never went around to visit the door, pull relations.Villains form cliques and engage in personal attachment.
Aspiration.The scholar officials committed themselves to the country, or swore to "never return the Loulan", or boasted to "drive a long car and step through the Helan Mountain", and determined to devote their lives to all the people in the world. As Zeng Zi said, "A scholar should not be unyielding and have a long way to go. Is it too important for benevolence to think of its own responsibility? Is it too far to die after death?"
Be responsible.Scholars and officials are ambitious, more responsible, and dare to sacrifice. People with lofty ideals and benevolence "do harm to humanity by not seeking survival". They sacrifice their lives for righteousness, and should never be traitors.Gu Yanwu said, "Everyone is responsible for the rise and fall of the world", and Lin Zexu said, "If you have no desire, you will be just", "If you want to benefit the life and death of the country, you should not avoid it because of bad luck", and so on, they are all heroic words with the sound of gold and stone throwing on the ground[2]。
contribution
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First of all, it has established the personality benchmark of the Chinese nation.Scholars and officials cultivate their morality, indifferent to fame and wealth, honest and self disciplined, dedicated to the public, and noble in conduct, which has set a noble personality benchmark for the Chinese public and led social progress.
"Academic tradition" has become the stabilizer of the country.The Chinese culture is an independent civilization system. Through unremitting efforts and continuous improvement of scholars through the ages, it has gradually formed the "academic tradition" recognized by the whole country.Since then, whether it was the Mongol Yuan Dynasty or the Manchu Qing Dynasty that took over the Central Plains, it was easy to go ahead with the political system, while the academic system remained in the bottom, and China remained China, becoming a stabilizer to maintain the Chinese family.
World feelings.The most prominent highlight of the scholar bureaucrat spirit is to put the interests of the country and the nation above all else. Whenever a national disaster looms, they will continue to bleed and sacrifice, encouraging all people to rise and save the nation.One of the most important reasons is that the Chinese nation has never been destroyed after all the disasters.In history, ancient Egypt, ancient Babylon and ancient India all created splendid cultures. However, due to the invasion of foreign enemies and other reasons, their inherent culture was broken, and their culture was restarted on the basis of foreign culture.Only Chinese culture has never been broken, which is a miracle in the history of human civilization.
The inheritance of culture has a strong inertia. Scholars still have their special status in the heart of Chinese people: bachelor's degree obtained by undergraduate, master's degree obtained by higher level, doctor's degree at the highest level, and academician at the highest academic title.But many young people who have obtained these degrees seldom think carefully: in addition to studying my major, I also want to pursue the "Tao", and I also have the idea of self-cultivation, family harmony, national governance, and world peace.Fan Zhongyan, Sima Guang, Wen Tianxiang, Gu Yanwu and other traditional scholar officials are the backbone of the Chinese nation. How to inherit their great mind and pattern and be worthy of the model of the times is probably a big topic in life that everyone should ask themselves and seriously answer[2]。
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Scholar officials are the unique product of ancient Chinese society.In the autocratic society of China, their only occupation is to be an official, so more precisely, scholar bureaucrats are literati who serve as government officials, including current officials, retired officials, and scholars who may serve as officials in the future.
