Antarctica, the continent surrounding the South Pole, one of the seven continents of the earth.be locatedearthAt the southern end, surrounded by the Southern Ice Ocean,[11]Edge hasBelins Gaojinhai、Rosshai、Amundsen SeaandWeddell SeaEtc.Antarctica consists of the mainlandEpicontinental ice, islands, with a total area of 14.245 million square kilometers, including 12.393 million mainland areasSquare kilometers，Epicontinental iceThe island covers an area of 1582000 square kilometers and 76000 square kilometers.The whole area is a large plateau with an average altitude of 2350 metersAverage altitudeThe highest continent.
The continent is almost completely covered by glaciers, accounting for more than 80% of the global modern ice cover area.Continental glacierFrom the center to the sea,formationtremendousRoss ice barrier, floating on the sea aroundiceberg。
Only 2% of the whole continent is free of perennial ice and snow, and animals and plants can survive.The climate is extremely cold, and the extreme minimum temperature once reached - 89.2 ℃ (1983).The wind speed is generally 17~18 meters per second, and the maximum is more than 90 meters per second, which is the world's coldest andstormThe land with the most wind.The average annual precipitation of the whole continent is 55mm, there is almost no precipitation near the poles, and the air is very dry, so it is called "white desert".
Antarctica is composed ofmainland、Epicontinental ice、islandsIt has a total area of 14.245 million square kilometers, including 12.393 million square kilometers of mainland area, 1.582 million square kilometers of marginal ice area, and 76000 square kilometers of island area.Most parts of Antarctica are mountains and plateaus over 2km, the highest pointMount VincentAt 5140 meters above sea level, the average thickness of the ice layer is 2 kilometers, and the maximum thickness is 4750 meters. It is the main location of fresh water in the world.It is estimated that if the earth's temperature continues to rise and all these ice layers melt, thenMean sea levelIt will rise 66 meters, and most of the world's coastal areas will be submerged by sea water.
98% of the Antarctic continent is covered by ice and snow all year round.The ice cover covers an area of about 2 million square kilometers, with an average thickness of 2000~2500 meters and a maximum thickness of 4800 meters. Its fresh water reserves account for about 90% of the world's total fresh water and about 2% of the world's total water.If the Antarctic ice sheet melts completely, the average sea level of the earth will rise by 60 metersSpecial Economic ZonesWill be submerged in a vast ocean.
Antarctic Iceberg World
Antarctica is the nearest to South America, separated by theDrake Strait。It is about 3500 km away from Australia;It is about 4000 kilometers away from Africa;It is about 12000 kilometers away from Beijing, China.
Antarctica is formed byGondwanaIt is the fourth highest continent in the world, with an average altitude of tens to hundreds of meters.The Trans Antarctic Mountains divide the Antarctic continent into east and west parts.The two parts differ greatly in geography and geology.East Antarctica is a very old continent. According to scientists, it has a history of hundreds of millions of years.Its center is located atSouth PoleThe distance from any coast to the South Pole is very long.The average altitude of East Antarctica is 2500 meters, and the maximum altitude is 4800 meters.In Southeast Antarctica, there is the largestActive volcano, i.e. located atRoss IslandOnErebus Volcano, 3795m above sea level, with four fire spouts.
The area of South West Antarctica is only half of that of South East Antarcticaarchipelago, some of which are below sea level.But all the islands are covered by the continental ice sheet.The older parts (including southern Mary Bird Land, Ellsworth Land, Ross Ice Shelf and Queen Maud Land) have a mountain system composed of granite and sedimentary rocks.The mountain system extends southward to the central part of the Antarctic Peninsula protruding northward.The northern part of Antarctica, the higher part, is caused by the volcanic movement in the Tertiary geological period.The highest point of Antarctica——Vincent Mountain(5140m) is located in Southwest Antarctica.
There are many fresh water andsalt waterThe most famous lake isTang Juan Chi, the lake water containssalinityExtremely high, salt content per liter of lake water can reach more than 270 grams, even at - 70 ℃,lake waterNeither does it freeze.Antarctica also has a kind of lake with ice on the surface and high temperature and salt at the bottom, such as the famous Wanda Lake andBonnie Lake。This kind of lake has 23 meter thick ice on its surface and clear water under the ice,planktonVery little, the salt content of lake water increases with the increase of depth.The salt content of lake bottom water is often 10 times higher than that of seawater.The temperature of lake water also increases with the increase of depth. In the environment of annual average temperature of - 20 ℃, the temperature of lake bottom can be as high as 25 ℃.
Topographical features
Antarctic Glacier
Topography: The Antarctic continent is divided into two parts by the trans Antarctic mountains.East Antarctica, with a large area, is an ancientShieldandPeneplain, the Trans Antarctic Mountains extend along the edge of the shield;Southwest Antarctica has a small areaFold zoneIt is composed of mountains, plateaus and basins.There is a subsidence zone between the eastern and western parts, stretching from the Ross Sea to the Weddell Sea.
The average altitude of the Antarctic continent is nearly several thousand metersThe continent with the highest average altitude。Mary Byrd, the highest pointVincent PeakThe altitude is 5140 meters.The mainland is almost completely covered by ice and snow. The average thickness of the ice layer is 1880 meters, and the maximum thickness is more than 4000 meters.
There are many tall ice barriers and icebergs in the sea around the mainland.Only 2% of the land in the whole continent is not covered with perennial ice and snow, which is called the“oasis”It is the main habitat for animals and plants.There are peaks on the "oasis"Steep cliff, lakes and volcanoes.There are two active volcanoes on the Antarctic continent, namely, Deception Island Volcano on Deception Island and Rose Island Volcano on Deception IslandErebus VolcanoErapos Volcano.Deception Island Volcano erupted in February 1969, which made the scientific research station there instantly turn to ashes. Until now, people still have lingering fears about it.
partition
Antarctica is divided into Southeast Antarctica and Southwest Antarctica.
southeast
It extends from 30 ° west longitude to 170 ° east longitude, covering an area of 10.18 million square kilometers.include:
The climate of Antarctica is characterized by extreme cold, strong winds and little precipitation.
Antarctic iceberg
The wind of Antarctica is also unique.The cold air drops sharply from the continental plateau along the slope of the continental ice sheet, forming a high-speed wind near the surface.The downwind with constant wind direction will erode the ice surface into undulating grooves. The average wind speed across the continent is 17.8 m/s, the coastal surface wind speed often reaches 45 m/s, and the maximum wind speed can reach more than 75 m/s. It is the strongest and windiest area in the world.The precipitation in most areas is less than 250 mm, and only the continental margin area can reach about 500 mm.The average annual precipitation of the whole continent is 55mm(smaller than the Sahara Desert)The annual precipitation in the mainland is only about 30mm, there is almost no precipitation near the poles, and the air is very dry, so it is called "white desert".
The wind in Antarctica varies from place to place.Generally speaking, the wind near the coast is the strongest, with an average wind speed of 17~18 m/s.The strongest wind is from the coast of Entebbi to the coast of Adelaide in East Antarctica, with the wind speed up to 40-50 m/s.According to the 20-year statistical data of Australian Mosen Station, there are 300 days with strong wind above force 8 every year. In 1972, the maximum wind speed observed by Mosen Station was 82 m/s.A hurricane with a wind speed of 100 meters per second was observed at the Deauville Station in France. Its wind force is three times that of a Category 12 typhoon, which is the largest wind speed recorded in the world so far.
Antarctica is the driest continent on the earth, and almost all precipitation is snow and hail.The polar cyclone rotates clockwise from the north of the continent and enters the continent in a long arc. Except for the low altitude areas in the West Antarctic, it is difficult for these currents to enter the interior of the continent.However, at the end of the Antarctic Peninsula (including King George Island) where the cyclone passes, the annual precipitation is particularly abundant, up to 900 mm.
The climate of Antarctica is characterized byExtremely cold, strong wind and little precipitation。The annual average temperature of the whole continent is - 25 ℃, the average temperature of the inland plateau is about - 50 ℃, the temperature in cold season is rarely higher than - 40 ℃, and the extreme minimum temperature once reached - 89.2 ℃, which is the lowest temperature record in the world. It was recorded in the Soviet Union on July 21, 1983Dongfang StationDetermined.
Season and Day and Night
Antarctic polar day
Antarctica is divided into cold and warm seasons every year. April to October is the cold season, and November to March is the warm season.In the cold season near the polePolar nightAt this time, there are often dazzling lights near the Antarctic Circleaurora；On the contrary, in warm seasonpolar dayThe sun always slants.South magnetic pole and inaccessible poleSouth magnetic poleI.eGeomagnetismIn 1985, the position of the south magnetic pole was about 139 ° 24 'east longitude,South Latitude65°36′。The "extremely difficult to reach" is a highland centered around 82 ° south latitude and 55 °~60 ° east longitude. Due to its high terrainContinental glacierA large part of the outflow ice line is difficult to approach or reach.[3]
Natural wonders
Look at the Southern Lights in Space
Wonders of Antarctica:“Milky sky”Yespolar regionIs also a weather phenomenon in AntarcticaNatural wondersone of.It is formed by the interaction of polar low temperature and cold air.When the sun shines on the ice layer, it will immediately reflect to the low altitude cloud layer, and countless small snow particles in the low altitude cloud layer can transfer the lightscatteringAnd then reflect it onto the ice on the ground.Such back and forth reflection sometimes produces a milky white light, forming a milky white sky with white misty fog.At this time, everything in one's vision seems to be merged into the thick milky milk, which is completely indistinguishable, and people will have an illusion, unable to distinguish the near scene from the far scene.When this phenomenon is serious, it can make people dizzy, even lose consciousness and die.
Milky white sky is a polar explorer, scientist andPolar flightOne of the main threats of the Internet.Scientific research accidents caused by milky white sky are very common in the history of Antarctic exploration and expedition.In 1958, a helicopter pilot at Ellsworth Base lost control and crashed because of this terrible bad weather.In 1971, oneLC-130 HerculesOf the driver, at a distance ofTreadlier200 kilometers away, I metMilky sky, suddenly lost contact with the base, and has been missing.
Although milky white sky poses a danger to human activities in the Antarctic, it can be avoided as long as targeted training is carried out in advance and safety precautions are taken.Once encountering it, it will bypass;People and vehicles in the wild should stay where they are, keep warm, wait patiently for the milky sky to disappear, or wait for rescuers to come to rescue them.[4]
Antarctica is rich in coal resources. Coal is formed by ancient plants through coal forming geological process. Due to the cold climate environment of Antarctica, it is impossible to grow a large number of plantsGeological periodAntarctica is not in its present position.
The two poles of the earth are subject to different solar gravity
The earth leans in orbit and rotates around the sun. At the summer solstice, the distance from the northern hemisphere to the sun is short, and the distance from the southern hemisphere to the sun is far, as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1
According to the law of universal gravitation F=GmM/R2, the gravitational force of a star is proportional to the product of its mass and inversely proportional to the square of its distance.At the summer solstice, the solar gravity in the northern hemisphere is greater than that in the southern hemisphere;During the winter solstice, the solar gravity in the southern hemisphere is greater than that in the northern hemisphere.At the vernal equinox and the autumnal equinox, the northern and southern hemispheres of the earth receive equal solar gravity.
The Earth's wobble and the origin of Antarctica
The following three movements cause the earth to shake:
The rotation of the earth around the earth moon particle, the nutation of the earth, and the precession of the earth axis.
When the earth shakes, the outer ball will roll in the direction of high solar gravity, and the inner ball will roll in the opposite direction of solar gravity while the tilt angle of the earth axis remains unchanged, as shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2
The rolling of the outer sphere of the earth moves the position of the original pole towards the direction of great solar gravity, and the original equator of the earth moves with it, which is the cause of the long-term movement of the pole.
The Antarctica of the earth now reaches the current position of the South Pole with the rotation of the outer sphere of the earth, and the coal in Antarctica reaches the current position with the rotation of the outer sphere of the earth.
The position of the earth's primary magnetic pole rotates with the rotation of the earth's outer sphere, which is the cause of the magnetic pole movement.
Resource species
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mineral
mineralAntarctica contains more than 220 kinds of minerals.Mainlycoal, oil, natural gasplatinum、uranium, iron, manganese, coppernickel, cobalt, chromium, leadtin, zinc, gold, copper, aluminum, antimony, graphite, silver, diamond, etc.
Antarctica Dry Valley
Mainly distributed in Southeast Antarctica, Antarctic Peninsula and coastal areasIsland area。asvictoriaThere is a large area of coal fields,southThere are gold, silver andGraphite, the whole westcontinental shelfIs rich in oil and natural gas,Prince CharlesA huge iron ore belt was found in the mountain,George V CoastContainstin, lead, antimonyMolybdenumZinc, copper, etc,Antarctic PeninsulaThere are manganese and copper in the central part, and coastalAsplan Islandyesnickel, cobalt, chromium and other minerals, Sandwich Island andErebus VolcanoStoredSulfur。According to the fact that there are large coalfields in Antarctica, it can be inferred that it was once located in a warm latitude zone, so that dense forests formed coalfields through geological processes, and then came to the present position after a long distance drift.
Biology
Underwater penguins in Antarctica
Due to the extremely harsh natural environment, Antarctica has very few biological species, and is the continent with the least biological resources in the world. Especially in inland areas, there is almost no natural life.However, the marine biological resources are extremely richseaweed, coralStarfish, sponge,KrillAnd other organisms, among which krill is a large number of organisms (such as fishSeabirds、Seals、penguin、whaleAnd so on).
Most Antarctic creatures are distributed in the Antarctic Peninsula, coastal zones and islands.There are birds and sea animals near the coast and islands.Penguins are the most common birds.In the warm season, penguins often gather in coastal areas, forming a representative scene in the Antarctic region.sea animalMainly sealsSea lionsanddolphinEtc.The coast of the Antarctic continent is an important whaling area in the world.Due to excessive hunting, the number of whales has been greatly reduced, and seals and other sea animals have almost disappeared.There are many nutrient richKrill。It is also abundant in the sea around AntarcticaKrillIt is estimated that the annual catch can reach 1.05 billion tons, which can meet the human demand for aquatic products.[3]
There are only 850 kinds of plants in Antarctica, and most of them areLower plant, only 3 flowering plants belong tohigher plant, and are distributed in the northern tip of the Antarctic Peninsula.Among the lower plants, there are more than 350 lichens, 370 mosses and 130 algae.The variety and quantity of plants can not be compared with that of other continents, nor with that of the Arctic region.Although the climate in the Arctic is also very cold, and most areas belong to the permafrost zone, the climate is also significantly milder than that in Antarctica.The species and quantity of plants are far more than those in Antarctica. There are more than 100 kinds of flowering plants alone, more than 2000 kinds of lichens and more than 500 kinds of mosses.
Euphausia superba
A plant found on some rocks and steep slopes of the Antarctic continent is considered to be the lowest plant. It grows northward facing the sun.Biologists have found about 400 different species ofbryophyte。In the warmest south of AntarcticaShetland Two pink flowering plants have also been found outside the islands and in the north of the Antarctic Peninsula.In the pond thawed in summer, 200 species of freshwater algae were also found.Algae also grow on the snow.[3]
Flowering plant
Flowering plants are rare plants in Antarctica, which are only distributed in the northern tip of the Antarctic Peninsula and the marine islands around the Antarctic continent.The southern boundary of flowering plants on the earth is about 64 ° south latitude, and the northern end of the Antarctic Peninsula and some islands have just crossed the "flowering plant line".
The three flowering plants are all herbs, and one isMat grass, the other two arePhyllostachys, its shape is similar toGramineae, narrow and long leaves, parallel veins, nodes, internodes and branches, spikelets.They have a certain adaptability to the Antarctic environment, have a long life cycle and flowering period, and are perennial. They increase biomass and accumulate energy through a large amount of water.Someone tried to transplant them from the Antarctic Peninsula to BritainHarry Station, but failed.[5]
penguin
Antarctic penguin
penguinIt is one of the main animals in Antarctica and is considered as the symbol of Antarctica.There are about 20 kinds of penguins in the world, all distributed in the southern hemisphereAntarctic continentAs the center, north to the southern end of the African continent, South America andAustralia, mainly inhabiting the coast and islands of the mainland.
The penguins in Antarctica haveemperor penguin、Adelie penguins、Gentoo penguins、chinstrap penguins、King penguin、Papua penguins、Stone penguinandFlashy penguin7 kinds.Although there are not many species, there are many, with a total number of about 120 million penguins, accounting for 87% of the total number of penguins in the world and 90% of the total number of seabirds in the Antarctic region.Among them, Adelie penguins have the largest number.Up to 5 million.The second is the hat band penguin, about 3 million.The least are emperor penguins, about 500000.Antarctica is worthy of the kingdom of penguins.
Seals
Seals
Life on the earth is likely to be born in the sea, and then gradually expanded to land, and differentiated into plants and animals.But this process is reversible. Some animals, even after they have evolved into warm blooded animals and even mammals, return to the sea again to escape the pursuit of natural enemies, or to find more abundant food, forming new species, hugeSealsFamily is one of them.
The Antarctic is rich in seals.According to incomplete statistics, there are 34 kinds of seals in the world, about 35 million. Although there are only 6 kinds of seals in Antarctica, the number of seals is 32 million, accounting for 90% of the total number of seals in the world.The output ranks first in the world.
Antarctica is an important reservoir of fresh water in the world.The amount of ice and snow in Antarctica accounts for more than 90% of the world's total ice. The average thickness of the ice sheet exceeds 2000 meters, and the maximum thickness can reach 4800 meters.If the Antarctic ice sheet melts completely.The world sea level will rise by 60-80 meters, and most of the world's coastal areas will be submerged.
The data obtained from geophysical surveys conducted in Antarctica for more than 30 years and the results of the splicing of related plates based on the theory of plate tectonics confirm that Antarctica is rich in coal, iron, oil and natural gas reserves.Coal resources mainly exist in the Hengduan Mountains in Antarctica, and are mainly formed inpermianThe storage depth was relatively small during the storage period.Iron ore is mainly distributed in the area from Indubi to East AntarcticaWillThe area between Coase, but the largest iron ore reserves arePrince Charles mountains In addition, Antarctica also has gold, silver, platinum, chromium, tin, lead and other metal deposits.
Antarctica used to beAncient GondwanaThe core part of.About 185 million years ago, the ancient Gondwana continent was divided into Africa South America plate, India plateAustraliaPlate and separated from it one after another.About 135 million years ago, AfricaSouth America PlateOne divides into two, formingAfrica plateAnd South America plate.About 55 million years ago, the Australian plate finally started from ancient timesGondwanaIt broke down and drifted north, leaving only Antarctica.The geology of East Antarctica is quite different from that of West Antarctica.East Antarctica is an ancient shield, about 3 billion years ago.The southwest pole is composed of several plates, which is much younger than the southeast pole in geological age.
Penholder iceberg
Bedmore Glacier, located on the Antarctic Plateau, is the largest glacier in Antarctica.The Ross Ice Shelf, with a drainage area equivalent to that of France, is the southernmost in the Russian SeaDividing line。The Weddell Sea, located on the other side of the mainland, is another deep inlandPhilThe Shina Ice Shelf is a deep bay with a terminal.Filchner Ice ShelfIt extends southward and joins the Ross Ice Shelf, which is located in front of the polar plateau and at a higher altitude.
Ice barrier
The climate of Antarctica is usually colder than that of the Arctic at the same latitude, making it the coldest region in the world.At the seaside, it is not as cold as the higher inland areas.During the International Geophysical Year, the average temperature of the coldest month measured by scientists in coastal areas was - 18 ℃, while the average temperature of the same month at the South Pole was - 62 ℃.On July 31, 1983, Soviet scholars recorded a low temperature of - 89.2 ℃ at Dongfang Station, which is the lowest natural temperature recorded in the world.
Related History
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The ancient map of Europe continued to depict this imaginary continent untiljames cook The captain led the shipResolutionandAdventureIt crossed the Antarctic Circle for the first time on January 17, 1773.Cook sailed 121 kilometers (75 miles) from the Antarctic coast, then returned because the ice was too thick.Although Cook went deep into the Antarctic Circle again in December 1773 and January 1774, he never discovered Antarctica.According to most organizations (includingNational Science Foundation、NASA、University of California, San DiegoAnd other data sources) recorded that the first time humans confirmed to see Antarctica could be narrowly identified as occurring in 1820, respectivelyFabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen （Russian Imperial NavyCaptain)Edward Bransfield（Royal NavyCaptain) andNathaniel Palmer(USAStoningtonSeal Hunter）Three people see.Von Billingsgaujin discovered Antarctica on January 27, 1820, ten days ahead of Bransfield and ten months ahead of Palmer.On that day, Von Billings andMikhail Petrovich RazalevThe expedition led by him arrived 32 kilometers (20 miles) away from the Antarctic continent by two ships and found the ice field.The first person confirmed to have set foot on the Antarctic continent was the US seal hunterJohn Davis On February 7, 1821Southwest AntarcticaLanded, but some historians disagree.
Two thousand years ago, human beings did not understand the earth they live on as much as they do today.At that time, only known continents were located in the Northern Hemisphere, butancient GreekAccording to the fact that the sun always appears in the southern sky, people believe that the southern hemisphere should also have a continent.Aristotle, an astronomer and philosopher at that time (384~323 BC), once had a famous hypothesis: to maintain a relative balance of the earth, there must be a piece of land on both sides of the north and the south, and it may be that the south is heavy and the north is light, otherwise, the world of this spherical body will turn upside down.Later, the astronomer and geographer Hipaku (?~127 BC) proposed based on the principle of symmetry that if there was no land in the southern hemisphere, the earth would not be able to maintain balance.He called this imaginary land "the southern continent".
By the first century AD, Roman geographer Pompany.Myra not only agrees with the idea of the existence of the Southern Continent, but also points out that the Antarctic region of the Southern Continent, like the Arctic region, is uninhabited because of the cold.Greek astronomers and geographers in Egypt in the 2nd centuryPtolemy (circa AD 90-168) once drew a very imaginative picture. He added a continent across the bottom of the earth in the south of the well-known continent and named it“Unknown Southern Continent”。He believed that the southern continent was very large, almost filling the southern hemisphere.This map is basically consistent with that of modern understanding.Therefore, Ptolemy is called "the founder of modern cartography".In the 14th and 16th centuriesEuropean RenaissancePtolemaicGeoscienceThe book was "rediscovered", translated into various languages, and reprinted. This "imaginary continent" was found on many maps, but its location was more southerly than Ptolemy's, and its name was changed to "land in the south".
Since the 18th century,Go!ExploreThey all went south in search of the legendary southern continent.From 1772 to 1775, Captain Cook of England spent three years and eight months sailing 97000 kilometers and a week around the South Pole. He entered the polar circle several times, but he did not find land in the end.
Tsarist Russia in 1819Belins GoginAfter two years and 21 days, he led the two ships Dongfang and Mir to discover two islands at 69 ° 52 'south latitude, 82 ° 19' west longitude, 68 ° 43 'south latitude and 73 ° 10' west longitude respectively.
February 1823BritisherWeddell went south to 74 ° 15 ', creating the highest latitude in the south at that time.
In December 1839, led by the United States Navy, 1838 – 1842American Expedition Team(also known as "Ex. Ex." or "Wilkes Expedition")SydneyAnchor lifting and sailingAntarctic Ocean, found a pieceBalleny Islands Antarctica to the west, named after“Wilksdale”It has been handed down to the present.
From September 1837 to November 1840, Deauville of France tried to surpass Wiedel to create a high latitude record, but he named the island he discovered on January 19, 1840 after his wifeAdelaidiAnd named its coastal waters asDeauville SeaLater generations also named a penguin after its wife, namelyadelie penguin 。Then, in 1841, Ross of England sailed into Ross Bay, which was later named after him, but he was prevented by the ice barrier from reaching the southern magnetic pole he predicted - 75 ° 30 'south latitude and 154 ° east longitude.
In 1841, explorerJames Clark Ross pass throughRosshai, foundRoss Island(Both are named after him).He sailed through a huge ice wall, which was later namedRoss Ice ShelfIs the largest in the worldIce shelf。Erebus VolcanoandTroll MountainRespectively named fromYouming(HMS Erebus) andPanic（HMS Terror）。Micarto CooperLanded on January 26, 1856East Antarctica。
In 1907Ernest ShackletonOfHunter ExpeditionPeriod, byDavid YegwartsThe leading team completed the first time of climbing Mount EripusGeomagnetic south poleTasks for.The arduous return journey of the Antarctic team is fromDouglas Mawson After the completion of the mission, he became the leader of other expedition teams until his retirement in 1931.In addition, Shackleton and three other members of his expedition achieved many unprecedented deeds during the period from December 1908 to February 1909: including the first human crossing the Ross Ice Shelf and the first crossingTransantarctic Mountains (viaBeardmore Glacier ）And the first time on the Antarctic Plateau.
1908ShackletonReaching 88 ° 23 'south latitude, it is only about 180 km away from the South Pole, but it was turned back due to food depletion.
1909Morson, Davis andMackayIt first reached the south magnetic pole at 72 ° 24 ′ S and 155 ° 18 ′ E.
NorwegianAmundsenAnd BritishScottLed by the expedition team has reached the South Pole.
Norwegian polar explorer, December 14, 1911Roald AmundsenOfan expedition teamIn the ship ForwardWhale BayDeparture and voyageHeiberg GlacierIt is the first time that humans have reached the South Pole.Amundsen's rival Scott expedition also reached the South Pole a month later.
From 1772 when Cook sailed south to the end of the 19th century, many explorers went sailing to look for the southern mainland. This period is calledSailing Age。From the beginning of the 20th centurythe First World WarPreviously, although the time was short, human beings conquered the South Pole and the South Pole successively, and many epic exploration heroes emerged.History calls this periodHeroic era。From World War I to the mid-1950s, human exploration in the Antarctic gradually replaced dog sledge with mechanical equipment.British in 1928WilkinFlying over the Antarctic Peninsula. In 1929, American Bird flew over the South Pole. In the same year, another American, Aysworth, flew from the top of the Antarctic Peninsula toRoss Ice Shelf。In terms of Antarctic exploration, aircraft provided a reliable means for humans to understand the Antarctic continent in a macro and correct way. In history, this period was calledMechanized era。From 1957 to 1958International Geophysical YearSince then, many scientists have flocked to the South Pole, where they have set up perennial research stations to conduct multidisciplinary scientific research. People call this period the era of scientific research.
A brief history of discovery
1738-1739, FrenchBouvetAn island near the South Pole (today'sBouvet Island）。
From 1928 to 1929, Americans made several Antarctic flight expeditions and established“Small America base”。
Human exploration
Hunter Expedition Antarctic Team
Around 1820, some seal hunters came to Antarctica, and they may be the first people to reach the South Pole.In 1895, several Belgian explorers spent a winter on the ice field.In 1901, Robert Scott led a British expedition to the South Pole, but it was unsuccessful.Norwegian explorer in November 1911Rod AmundsenBecome the first person to reach the South Pole.Shortly thereafter, Scott also led the expedition to the South Pole.Unfortunately, Scott and his companions were all killed on their way home.December 1911, NorwayAmundsenThe expedition reached the South Pole for the first time.In December 1959, 12 countries signed《Antarctic Treaty》It came into force in 1961.
There are no permanent residents in Antarctica, only some scientific investigators and whaling teams from other continents.As of 2013, more than 10 countries have established more than 40 perennial scientific research stations on the Antarctic continent and coastal islands, with less than 750 scientific researchers participating in wintering every year and only 2000~3000 expedition members in summer.In addition, in the warm season, you can go to the Antarctic Peninsula andRoss Island(McMurdo Station) There are hundreds to thousands of tourists.
Scientific investigation
The original natural environment provides scientists with the broadest natural laboratory for scientific research on meteorology, glaciers, geology, oceans, biology and other disciplines.So far, 26 countries have established more than 150 scientific research stations in Antarctica.[6]In December 1985, the Chinese expedition established theGreat Wall StationAnd made scientific investigation on Antarctica and its adjacent Southern Ocean in hydrology, meteorology and biology.In 1988, China established a second scientific investigation station along the coast of the Indian Ocean in the Antarctic continentZhongshan Station。On February 7, 2024, Qinling Station, China's fifth Antarctic investigation station, will open[14]。
Satellite map of Antarctica
NASA released a report on March 7, saying that NASA andUSGSUsing more than 1000 images taken by Landsat-7, researchers have mapped the most detailed high-resolution map of Antarctica to date.This satellite map is 10 times more accurate in detail than previous maps.
Robert Binzkadler, the head of map drawing and a scientist at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center, said that this satellite map shows incredible details of the surface of Antarctica's vast ice fields. Many of the contents on this map have never been drawn before.
NASA, the Geological Survey and the British Antarctic Survey have jointly set up a website to open the satellite map of Antarctica to the public.The website contains original satellite images for mapping, "close-up" shots of different regions of Antarctica, all of which can be downloaded for free, and researchers will continue to publish new Antarctic image data on the website until this summer.
According to Binzkadler, the next step of the researchers will also focus on the "magnifying" observation of the dry valleys between the Antarctic ice sheets.[7]
Investigation of China and Antarctica
China Antarctic Kunlun Scientific Research Station
On November 20, 1984, China sent an Antarctic expedition consisting of 591 people“Xiangyanghong No. 10”The research ship went to Antarctica for the first time to build a station and investigate.February 1985, China's AntarcticGreat Wall StationstayFildes Peninsula, King George IslandThe south end was completed, with geographical coordinates of 62 ° 12 ′ 59 ″ S and 58 ° 57 ′ 52 ″ W, 17501.9 kilometers away from Beijing.From November 20, 1988 to April 10, 1989, the Chinese East Antarctica Expedition Team was in the Antarctic continentRasman HillsChina's Antarctic has been establishedZhongshan StationThe geographical coordinates of Zhongshan Station are 69 ° 22 ′ 24 ″ S and 76 ° 22 ′ 24 ″ E, 12553.2 kilometers away from Beijing and 2903 kilometers away from the South Pole.On January 27, 2009, ChinaAntarctic Ice Dome AConstructiveKunlun StationIt was successfully completed, and the geographical coordinates of Kunlun Station are 80 ° 25 ′ 01 ″ south latitude and 77 ° 06 ′ 58 ″ east longitude.The elevation is 4087m.It is 7.3 km away from the Antarctic ice dome.
territorial difference
From 1908 to 1941, a total of seven countries made territorial claims to Antarctica.In 1908, the United Kingdom first announced thatFalkland Islands（Malvinas Islands）And the Antarctic Peninsula;In 1923, Britain put forward a territorial claim to the Ross sector from 160 ° east longitude to 150 ° west longitude and south of 60 ° south latitude, and entrusted it to the Governor of New Zealand. This is also the sector continent that New Zealand requires.In fact, Britain's real intention at that time was to include the entire Antarctic continent in its territory.From 1929 to 1931, the British, Australian and New Zealand joint expedition led by Australian Morrison visited the above areas.Then, in 1933, Britain, on behalf of Australia, put forward a territorial claim on land and waters south of 60 ° south latitude, 45 °~136 ° east longitude and 142 °~160 ° east longitude, equivalent to 6.5 million square kilometers of 40% of the Antarctic continent.
France was first discovered by their explorersAdelaideThe coastal area made a territorial claim to a narrow and long area south of 136 °~142 ° east longitude and 67 ° south latitude in 1924, and reiterated and extended this area to the pole and 60 ° south latitude in 1938.
In 1938, Germany sent a survey ship toDronning Maud Land A lightning survey was carried out around the area. In six and a half days, an aerial survey and photographs were taken of the 600000 square kilometers area of Queen Maud's land, and a curved cross metal marker was dropped every 25 kilometers.In April 1939, Norway also claimed the territory between 45 ° east longitude and 20 ° west longitude, but neither extended southward to the pole nor specified the latitude of its northern border.
the Second World WarDuring this period, German shipsKerguelen IslandFor the base, they often haunt and hijack merchant ships andWhaling ship, thus highlightingSouth AmericaBetween and the Antarctic PeninsulaDrake StraitMilitary significance.For this reason, in 1940, Chile declared its sovereignty over the region between 53 ° and 90 ° west longitude and south of 60 ° south latitude.In 1941, Argentina declared its sovereignty over the region south of 25 °~74 ° west longitude and 60 ° south latitude;They are based on the geological kinship between the South American continent and the Antarctic Peninsula, the theory of effective occupation, and the inheritance of Spain's original claim to the Antarctic territory.Most of the territories claimed by Britain, Chile and Argentina to Antarctica overlap, resulting in disputes among the three countries.Britain appealed in 1947 and 1955International Court of JusticeHowever, Chile and Argentina believed that the Antarctic Peninsula was their territory and refused to be tried by the International Court of Justice.Since the late 1930s, the United States has been preparing for a territorial claim to the Antarctic.1939Franklin Delano RooseveltThe President clearly instructed the personnel of the American Antarctic expedition to set more American markers in the Antarctic.During his third expedition, Bird built a station on both sides of Mary Bird's land, which was not required.The United States conducted a large-scale expedition, code named Leap Forward, between 1945 and 1947. In 1948, the United States invited seven countries, Britain, France, Norway, Australia, Chile, New Zealand, and Argentina, to discuss the Antarctic issue, and proposed that it be jointly managed by eight countries or entrusted by the United Nations.However, six of the participating countries insisted on their territorial claims to Antarctica, and the meeting yielded no results.
The activities of the above-mentioned eight countries attracted the attention of the Soviet Union.On June 8, 1950, the Soviet Union sent a note to the above-mentioned eight governments, stating that it would not recognize any territorial claims made by any country to Antarctica in any way, nor would it recognize any decision on Antarctica without the participation of the Soviet Union.The firm position of the former Soviet Union and early Russian explorers (such asBelins Gogin）Their position in the history of Antarctic exploration forced the United States, Britain and other eight countries to reconsider the way to resolve the territorial disputes in Antarctica.
By the 1940s, Britain, France, Norway, Australia, Chile, Argentina and New Zealand had made territorial claims on 83% of the Antarctic continent.Among them, Australia, France, New Zealand and Norway recognize each other's territorial claims, while Argentina, Chile and the United Kingdom claim overlapping territories. Each side insists on its own sovereignty claim and does not recognize the other's sovereignty claim;The United States and the Soviet Union do not recognize any country's territorial claims to the Antarctic, while reserving their right to make their own territorial claims to the Antarctic.Because of the disputes over territorial claims, the Antarctic continent has become the focus of many contradictions.The existence and development of these contradictions objectively require a multilateral treaty to ease various contradictions and disputes.On December 1, 1959, Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, NorwaySouth AfricaRepresentatives of 13 countries including Britain, the United States and the Soviet Union signed the Antarctic Treaty in Washington.[8]
Antarctic Treaty system
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Antarctic Treaty
《Antarctic Treaty》On December 1, 1959, Argentina, AustraliaBelgium, ChileFrench Republic, Japan, New ZealandNorway、South AfricaFederalUnion of Soviet Socialist Republics、United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIt was signed with 12 countries of the United States of America and officially implemented on June 23, 1961.Its main contents are as follows: Antarctica is only used for peaceful purposes, to ensure the freedom of scientific investigation in Antarctica, to promote international cooperation in scientific investigation, and to prohibit all activities of a military nature in Antarcticanuclear explosionAnd processingRadiation, freezing the claim of territorial ownership, and promoting international cooperation in science.Within two years, all countries have recognized this treaty, which is valid for 30 years.
According to the International Antarctic Treaty adopted in June 1961, the sovereignty claims of all countries on Antarctic territory were frozen, and the Antarctic was only used for peaceful purposes. It can be said that the Antarctic does not belong to any country, but belongs to all mankind.
China joined on June 8, 1983Antarctic Treaty OrganizationOn the same day, the Treaty entered into force for China.It was admitted as a consultative country on October 7, 1985.
By 1999, the Antarctic Treaty Organization had 43 member countries, including 26 consultative countries and 17 non consultative countries.
In July 2001, the 24th Consultative Conference was held in RussiaSt.PetersburgHeld.The meeting decided to set the headquarters of the Permanent Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty in the capital of ArgentinaBuenos Aires。
Successor treaty
Subsequent《Antarctic Treaty》Later, in 1964, 1972 and 1980, the negotiating countries signed the Agreed Measures for the Protection of Antarctic Animals and Plants, the Convention on the Protection of Antarctic Seals and the Convention on the Protection of Antarctic Biological Resources;The Convention on the Management of Antarctic Mineral Resources Activities was adopted in June 1988;In October 1991MadridThe Antarctic Environmental Protection Protocol was adopted.The Antarctic Treaty, the above conventions and all previous consultative countries have adopted more than 140 recommended measures, which are collectively referred to as the Antarctic Treaty System.Article 25 of the Protocol on Environmental Protection of the Antarctic Treaty, adopted in Madrid in 1991, stipulates that mineral resource activities in the Antarctic shall be prohibited within 50 years from the date of entry into force of the Protocol, thus ensuring peace and tranquility in the Antarctic continent in the next 50 years and laying the foundation for comprehensive protection of the Antarctic and scientific understanding of the Antarctic.
In October 1991bonn The 16th session heldconsultative parties of the Antarctic TreatyThe meeting adopted 13 memorandums of recommendation and issued the Declaration on the 30th Anniversary of the Antarctic Treaty, reaffirming the purposes and principles of the Antarctic Treaty: "For the benefit of all mankind, Antarctica should always be dedicated to peaceful purposes and should not become the place and goal of international disputes." The Declaration recommended that the years 1991 to 2000 be 10 years of international Antarctic cooperation.
Antarctic Treaty OrganizationUnited Nations agencies。At the United Nations General Assembly in 1983MalaysiaSome countries proposed to include the Antarctic issue on the agenda of the General Assembly, claiming that Antarctica is the common heritage of all mankind and should be managed by the United Nations. However, they were unanimously boycotted by the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Countries. Therefore, although the Antarctic issue has been on the agenda of the General Assembly since 1983, no progress has been made.
Scientific Committee on Antarctic ResearchIt is called SCAR for short. It belongs to the International Union of Science and Technology. It is an international academic organization specialized in organizing and coordinating Antarctic scientific research.SCAR holds a meeting every two years to promote exchanges and cooperation between member states of the Antarctic Treaty Consultative States and other international academic organizations.During the conference, group seminars on biology, geology, glaciers, meteorology, high-altitude atmospheric physics, geodesy and mapping, human physiology and medicine, and expert group meetings on the ecology and biological resources of the Southern Ocean and seals were also held.SCAR has held 21 meetings since its establishment in 1958.In 1991, SCAR held a large-scale Antarctic Science Conference in Bremen, Germany, and reviewed and summarized the progress made in major disciplines of Antarctic research in the past 30 years.The most important research topic of SCAR is "the role of Antarctica in the global geosphere biosphere program".SCAR now has 21 formal members and 7 informal members.China was admitted as a full member at the 19th session held in June 1986, and has participated in the sessions since the 19th session.China has also set up the China Antarctic Research Scientific Committee corresponding to the international SCAR to coordinate the national Antarctic scientific research work.Sun Honglie, academician of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, is the chairman of the committee.Dong Zhaogan, Director of China Polar Research Institute, was elected as Vice Chairman at the 21st SCAR Conference.
Since 1980, China has sent scientists to foreign Antarctic research stations to carry out Antarctic scientific research with foreign scientistsSouth Shetland IslandsThe Great Wall Station, the first Antarctic investigation station in China, was built on King George Island (62 ° 13 ′ S, 58 ° 58 ′ W);Later, at the end of 1988, he selectedDalasZhongshan Station, the second Antarctic investigation station in China, was established at 69 ° 22 'south latitude and 76 ° 22' east longitude in Mann region.Since 1984, China has sent inspection teams many times.Since the fifth time, the investigation team has been divided into two routes, one to the Great Wall Station and the other to Zhongshan Station.The main research projects carried out by China at the two stations include geophysics, biology, geology, glaciers, environment, meteorology, high-altitude atmospheric physics, human physiology and medicine, etc.On July 27, 1989, the 1990 International Trans Antarctic Expedition, consisting of one member from each of China, France, the United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and Japan, set out from the Antarctic Peninsula and passed alongSouth Pole、Dongfang StationAt last, the longest route to the Peace Station starts with dogs pulling sleds andskiThe journey across the Antarctic continent lasted 219 days and reached 5986 kilometers. On December 11, 1989, when passing the Antarctic Point, the Antarctic Declaration was issued. On March 3, 1990, the international trans Antarctic expedition successfully reached the destination.Antarctica is the only continent to occupy a single continent.[9]
Major events
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overview
May 2014oregon state university Of the researchers used radioactivitykryptonIsotope technology has successfully identified the age of the oldest ice in Antarctica, which is 120000 years old. By tracing back to historical records, we can reconstruct the Earth's climate further and further understand the mechanism that led to the transformation of the Earth into an ice age.The researchers said that it is important to reconstruct the Earth's climate back to 1.5 million years, because the change of frequency during the Ice Age occurred in the transition of the so-called Middle Pleistocene.In the past 800000 years, the Earth is believed to enter the Ice Age every 100000 years or so, but there is evidence that this transformation occurred every 40000 years before that time.
Scientists warn that the collapse of the ice sheet on the west side of Antarctica is "unstoppable"
On May 12, 2014, American researchers warned that the ice sheet on the west side of the Antarctic had begun to collapse, and this process was "unstoppable".Under its influence, the global sea level may rise significantly, and many low-lying coastal cities may disappear in 200 to 1000 years.
NASA andUniversity of California, Irvine The researchers reported in the American Geophysical Communication magazine that by analyzing the satellite radar data measured from 1992 to 2011, they found that six glaciers located in the Amundsen Sea on the west side of Antarctica were melting rapidly, even faster than most scientists expected.Once all these glaciers melt, the global sea level will rise by 1.2 meters.
Eric Mourinho, a professor at the University of California, Irvine, said: "Most of the glaciers in the west Antarctic ice sheet are retreating in an irreversible state. This ice sheet has crossed the critical point and is on the (collapsed) road of no return."[10]
In June 2022, according to a paper published in the journal Frozen Circle, researchers from the University of Canterbury, New ZealandMicro plastic was first found in the new snowfall in Antarctica。[12]
Reduction of ice area
On February 16, 2023 local time, the National Snow and Ice Data Research Center of the United States reported that the area of Antarctic sea ice shrank to 1.91 million square kilometers on February 13, the lowest level since records began in 1979.At the same time, AFP quoted the statement issued by the agency as reporting that, given that Antarctica is currently in summer, there will be sea ice melting in the next few weeks, and the Antarctic sea ice coverage may further reduce.The minimum area of Antarctic sea ice was recorded on February 25, 2022, when it was 1.92 million square kilometers.
As the sea ice is frozen by seawater, the reduction of Antarctic sea ice area will not cause sea level rise.However, as the sea ice area shrinks, more ice shelves at the edge of the Antarctic ice sheet are directly exposed to waves and warm environments, and the melting or falling off of these ice shelves will cause sea level rise.
Satellite data show that the Antarctic sea ice area has changed greatly in the past 40 years or so, but in recent years it has shown a trend of decreasing.At the same time, there is a huge difference between the Antarctic sea ice area in winter and summer, and the Antarctic ice floe area in winter is at least 18 million square kilometers.Researchers believe that the change of Antarctic sea ice area is caused by complex reasons and cannot be simply attributed to global warming.[13]
world record
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Antarctica
The highest latitude continent in the world: Antarctica has the highest latitude of 90 ° south latitude, which is the highest latitude continent in the world.Guinness
